Physio Exam 1 Study Questions

After a chemical reaction, will the molecule naturally be in a higher, more unstable, or lower, more stable, energy state?

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Can you draw 3 water molecules in solution with all relevant labels and bonds indicated?

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How many more times basic is a pH 10 solution than a pH 7 solution?

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What are some specific examples (real-life) for primary active transport? Secondary active transport?

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What are the three types of work performed in the human body? What is an example of each?

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What determines how much free energy a molecule has?

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What is competitive inhibition? Does it increase or decrease transport?

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What is free energy?

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What is the difference between osmicity and tonicity, and what are the three terms we use when discussing each one (6 total terms)?

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What level of energy must a molecule reach before it will react with another molecule?

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What types of bonds are formed when monomers are converted into polymers? What type of reaction is involved?

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What is a mole? What is molarity?

1 mole = 6.02 x 10 -23 atoms (Avogadro's number) molarity = number of moles solute per liter (abbreviated mol/L or M)

Can you determine the molarity, osmolarity, osmicity, direction of water movement and tonicity for a given set of solute concentrations? What is the 5 step strategy for solving these problems?

1. Convert into mOsm 2. Determine osmicity (<hypotonic, >hypertonic) 3. Move any permeable substances 4. Move water (solution to cell, cell to solution) 5. Determine tonicity (hypotonic, hypertonic)

How do you calculate the molecular weight of a molecule?

1. Determine how many atoms of each different element are in the formula 2. Look up the atomic weight of the element in the periodic table. 3. Multiply step 1 x step 2 for each element. 4. Add the results of step 3 together. Round.

How do you make 700 ml of a 2M glucose solution? What type of unit molarity do the solutions in the human body normally have?

1. ml -> L = 0.7 L 2. Cancel out L 3. multiply 0.7(2M)(180g)=252g

What are the five functions of a cell membrane? Link membrane components to their functions.

1. physical isolation (phospholipids) 2. regulation of exchange with the environment (proteins) 3. communication with the cell and its environment (carbohydrates-glycolipids/glycoproteins) 4. structural support (phospholipids) 5. separation of charge (phospholipids)

Which laws regulated energy transformation and what are the parts of each?

1st law of thermodynamics: energy is conserved, it can never be created or destroyed, only converted 2nd law of thermodynamics: entropy can never decrease in a system, energy is going to flow through a living system, where it will always be going towards max entropy (must continue to put more energy in body to maintain complexity, this avoids disorder)

What is the pH of human blood?

7

What are allosteric and covalent modification, and how are they different?

Allosteric modification: alter protein shape, activation Covalent modification: covalently attach phosphate, away from active site, affecting affinity and turning enzyme on and off

Which molecules contain CHO? CHON? CHONP?

CH2O - carbohydrates CHO - lipids CHON - proteins CHONP - nucleic acid

Which human organ systems are important for communication? Coordinating responses? Protection? Movement? Delivery of nutrients? Support and explain your answers.

COMMUNICATION: integumentary (sense organ), nervous system, endocrine system (secretes hormones for communication) COORDINATING RESPONSES: integumentary (regulates body temperature, sense organ), nervous system (allows a person to communicate with the environment, and integrate and controls the body), endocrine system (secretes hormones into the blood that serve to communicate with, integrate, and control mechanisms), urinary system (maintains electrolyte balance, water balance, and acid-base balance), reproductive system (produces sex hormones) PROTECTION: integumentary system, skeletal system, circulatory system (immunity), lymphatic system (defense mechanism of the body against disease) MOVEMENT: skeletal system, muscular system, nervous system DELIVERY OF NUTRIENTS: circulatory system, digestive system, reproductive? (placenta/umbilical cord)

What are the four essential elements in the human body? Know their names, chemical signals, and bond-forming abilities.

Carbon - C, forms covalent bonds (electrons shared between atoms) with other elements and itself Hydrogen - H, hydrogen bonds are weaker than true covalent and ionic bonds, dipole-dipole attraction (positive end of polar molecule attachs to a negative end of the other molecule) Oxygen - O, covalent and ionic bonds Nitrogen - N, forms strong bonds, because of its ability to form triple bonds

What are the basic molecular formulae, caloric values, monomers (fundamental units) names, functions and examples of each of the 4 biological macromolecules?

Carbs - 4 cal/g, CnH2nOn, monosaccharides Lipids - 9 cal/g, CHO, fatty acid Proteins - 4 cal/g, CHON, amino acids Nucleotides - 0 cal/g, CHONP, nucleic acids

What are the different human organ systems and their general functions? Do these tend to function independently or together (integrated)? Provide evidence (examples) of this.

Cardiovascular system - circulatory Digestive system - gastrointestinal Endocrine system - regulate hormones Immune system - immune response Integumentary system - barrier Lymphatic system - restoration of excess interstitial fluid and proteins to the blood Musculoskeletal system - protects vital organs Reproductive system Respiratory system Urinary system - renal The human organ system functions together (integrated). Ex. Protects us from infection - integumentary and immune systems

Name the three main parts of the cell. What are the names, functions and locations of these parts, and all cell organelles?

Cell membrane, organelles, cytosol See separate handout.

What is an ion? What is the valence orbital and why is it important? Be able to determine the valence number of electrons for any atom.

Charged atom Outermost orbital, they influence chemical behavior.

What is cholesterol's role in the human body and which organ systems is it critical for?

Cholesterol is an important component of cell membranes. It helps regulate membrane fluidity, transported via carrier proteins (HDL, LDL). Steroid hormones are derived from cholesterol and play many physiological roles.

What is an isotope?

Contain equal number of protons, but different number of neutrons in their nuclei, and so they differ in atomic mass, but not in chemical properties.

What are the two types of secondary active transport? How does the Na+/K+ ATPase work, and what types of disequilibrium does it set up? What is disequilibrium?

Cotransport (symport): same direction and Co-(counter)transport (antiport): different direction. Maintains high Na+ out, high K+ in Chemical and electrical disequilibrium, which lets us call it electrogenic. Disequilibrium: opposite of equilibrium, not constant, not equal.

What are the four types of bonds discussed in class? How are they similar and different?

Covalent - electrons shared and constantly moving between atoms -Polar (unequal sharing) and non-polar (equal sharing) Ionic - electrons transferred from one atom to another Hydrogen - unequal sharing of electrons, weak individually and strong in large number, constantly breaking and rebonding

(Draw and label all parts of an atom) Know the names of the 3 subatomic particles, how they are the same or different from each other, their charge, mass.

Electrons-: determine element, have a negligible mass, and a negative charge, found in specific orbits around the nucleus Neutrons: determine isotope (same number of elements, different number of neutrons), atomic mass of 1, no charge, found in the nucleus Protons+: determine element identity, atomic number (# of p+) have a relative mass of 1 and a charge of +1, found in the nucleus of an atom

What do you call the molecule an enzyme binds to? What factors will affect the function of the enzyme? How will they effect the enzymes' activity?

Enzymes lower the activation energy of reactions by physically bringing substrates together. They are catalysts and exhibit specificity for substrates. Most are proteins. Substrate specificity, affinity (3-D shape), and concentration affect the function of the enzyme.

What is an enzyme? How do they speed up reactions?

Helps to breakdown proteins. ....

What is homeostasis? Which parameters are homeostatically controlled in the human body? What are the three key parts of homeostatic control?

Homeostasis is maintenance of a stable internal environment. -set point (can be altered-fever), a state of dynamic constancy/equilibrium (parameters fluctuate within a narrow range), antagonistic control (bi-directional, negative feedback, intrinsic and extrinsic control mechanisms) Levels of glucose, body temperature, interstitial fluid. There main components: set point, dynamic equilibrium, antagonistic control.

What are the four basic themes in the field of physiology? Be able to give examples of each.

Homeostasis: maintenance of stable internal environment Biological energy use: generation, storage and utilization of energy required for biological processes (homeostasis) Structure-function: function is tightly linked to structure Communication: functional integration requires information flow Examples:.....

What is the difference between hydrophilic, hydrophobic and amphipathic molecules? How do they become this way?

Hydrophilic: Water loving Hydrophobic: Water fearing Amphipathic: Is both hydrophobic and hydrophilic. Whether they are polar, nonpolar, charted or uncharged.

What controls the rate of diffusion?

Influenced by temperature, energy input, and molecular size.

What are the main fluid compartments in the body? How is the body's total fluid volume distributed between them? What role does interstitial fluid play in homeostasis?

Intracellular 66% and extracellular 33% Interstitial fluid is a buffer from the external environment. Composition maintained by homeostatic control mechanisms.

What is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic control? What is autoregulation? Give examples of each.

Intrinsic: autoregulation; the organ is capable of maintaining homeostasis within itself, ex. the heart can control it's own heart rate Extrinsic: neural, humoral; (nervous and endocrine systems) exist outside of the organs they control, these systems can override intrinsic systems, ex. although a heart will control it's own rate, a slamming door will prompt the nervous system to increase the heart rate externally

What happens if an atom loses any of its particles? How does that affect its behavior?

Ionic bonds form. It either becomes a cation or anion. Cation = atom that loses electrons Anion = atom that gains electrons

What is a solvent?

Liquid that dissolves the solvent. (water)

What is a membrane channel?

Membrane channel provides an aqueous pore for diffusion of lipophobic particles; can be open (less common) or gated (single or double)

How soluble are NaCl, KCl, CaCl2, glucose and urea in lipid? In water? If they dissociated, how many particles are formed, and how does this affect osmolarity? Be able to calculate the osmolarity of a solution of each, given a number of grams and the formula weight. What is equivalence, and how do you calculate it?

NaCl - lipid-none, water-dissociates into Na+ and Cl-, 2 particles formed, not sure how it would affect osmolarity??? KCl - lipid-none, water-dissociates into K+ and Cl-, 2 particles, not sure how it would affect osmolarity??? CaCl2 - lipid-none, water-dissociates into Ca2+, Cl-, and Cl-, 3 particles formed, not sure how it would affect osmolarity??? glucose - lipid-none, water-soluble but does not dissociate, 1 particle, not sure how it would affect osmolarity??? urea - lipid-soluble, water-soluble but does not dissociate, 1 particle, not sure how it would affect osmolarity???

What is facilitated diffusion and how is it different from simple diffusion across a membrane? From channel transport? What do you call the molecules being transported? Can any molecule pass through the membrane this way? What does the term specificity mean in this context? What is affinity, and how does it relate to this process?

Net movement of like particles using a protein transporter from an area of high to low concentration. Different from simple diffusion, because ions??? It's different from channel transport, because

How specific are channels, and what determines whether they are open or closed? What triggers opening and closing of gates?

Open or gated

What do optimal temperature and optimal pH refer to when discussing enzymes. What happens if these two parameters are not optimal?

Optimal temperature means it has a steady reaction rate and steady collision frequency. If it rises above optimal, then active site is altered, as protein denatures. Optimal pH means that alters acid/basic charges, shields H-bonds, and disrupts van der Waal's forces

What is meant by hierarchical organization? Which levels apply to the field of physiology? What is an emergent property?

Organized in levels from atoms to biospheres. Physiology applies to molecules to organisms. Emotion, memory, intelligence

What is the difference between active and passive transport? What are two examples of each?

Passive - no energy required, high to low (ex. simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion) Active - requires energy (ATP), low to high (ex. primary and secondary)

How is a polar covalent bond different from a non-polar one and what is electronegativity?

Polar covalent bonds share electrons unequally. Non-polar covalent bonds share electrons equally, more time with one atom. Electronegativity is atom's attraction or electrons.

What are the different levels of protein structure? How does each affect function of the protein?

Primary- Secondary Tertiary Quaternary

What is the difference between primary and secondary active transport? How are they linked?

Primary: direct use of ATP Secondary: indirect, use of gradient established by primary active transport Both are forms of active transport, meaning they travel form a low to high gradient and require ATP.

What is glycolysis, and what are the intermediate molecules formed, from beginning to end, during this process?

See separate sheet

Compare and contrast anatomy and physiology (come up with atleast two similarities and two differences).

Similarities: 1) function affects the form and form affects the function 2) dependent upon one another 3) both study the body in some form or another Differences: 1) anatomy is the study of the physical structure and physiology is the study of the functions of individual structures and systems within an organism, as well as the function of an organism as a whole 2) anatomy-size, shape, and location of a structure; physiology-involves chemical, physical, and electrical processes within an organism

What is a solution? What is the normal role of water in a solution? Why is water so good at this role?

Solute + solvent = solution Dissolve the solvent. Because it is amphipathic, contains both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions.

What is a solute?

Substance dissolved in liquid. Ex. Na and Cl

What is Fick's Law, and what situation is it limited to?

Summarizes the influences on direct membrane diffusion only

What is the relationship of a fatty acid to a phospholipid? To a triglyceride? To cholesterol?

They are all lipids. Phospholipids are made up of 2 fatty acid tails. Triglycerides are made up of 3 fatty acid tails. Cholesterol is made up of ???

Starting with glucose and ending with pyruvate, outline all of the intermediate steps in glycolysis.

Write out on paper. glucose glucose 6-phosphate fructose 6-phosphate fructose 1,6-phosphate dihydroxyacetone phosphate/glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate glyceraldehyde 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate 3-phosphoglycerate 2-phosphoglycerate phosphoenol pyruvate pyruvate

Define the terms acid, base and buffer. How do they affect overall pH and why is this important in the human body?

acid - increases hydrogen base - decreases hydrogen buffer - maintains hydrogen It is important that our pH stays at 7, which is neutral.

How do you find the atomic number and mass of any element?

atomic number = number of protons mass = protons + neutrons

What is energy, and what two types are there?

kinetic energy - potential energy

What moves through a membrane channel? What affects rate and direction of channel transport?

lipophobic particles flux, diameter of the pore, charges of amino acids of pore

What defines transport as active? How does concentration gradient fit into this topic?

low to high; requires energy Moves from a low to high concentration gradient.

What does osmolarity measure, and what are the units?

measures concentration; compares initial concentration of the cell and solution

What is osmosis? What determines which direction it will occur across a membrane? How does solute concentration affect it? Which types of solutes will affect it?

movement of water across membranes water follows it's own concentration gradient

What is simple diffusion? What direction do molecules move? What does reaching "equilibrium" mean?

net movement of like particles (not ions) from an area of high to low concentration Reaching equilibrium means, concentration has equalized, but particles continue to move.

Where would you find glycolipids and glycoproteins? What are they composed of?

on the outside of a phospholipid bilayer Glycolipids and glycoproteins are made of lipids and proteins with carbohydrates covalently attached.

What does pH measure? What is it? Is it a linear or a log scale?

pH is measured on a log 10 scale from 0-14, measuring acid and base. Concentration of hydrogen ions. Log scale

What is saturation? How does it occur and affect transport?

rate of transport has a maximum transport increases with increasing substrate concentration until it reaches transport maximum this depends on both rate of transport and extracellular substrate concentration

Which types of molecules can diffuse across a membrane?

small, lipophilic molecules particle size, solubility, membrane content

What is net flux? What four things determine membrane flux?

speed with which the material is traveling across the membrane determined by: concentration gradient, surface area, membrane resistance (particle size/solubility, lipid/protein content), membrane thickness

What is membrane permeability? What determines which molecules the membrane is permeable to?

the ability for a substance to freely pass through the bilayer particle size, particle solubility, membrane content

Describe the difference between a tissue membrane and a plasma cell membrane. What are cell membranes made of?

tissue membrane - tissue that lines a cavity or a sac plasma cell membrane - lipid protein barrier surrounding individual cells Cell membranes are made of lipids (phospholipids, cholesterol) and proteins (integral, peripheral).