Physiology Exam 4 20,21, 22, 24
process by which larger molecules are chemically broken down into smaller molecules by enzymes in the lumen of the gastrointestinal tract
Digestion-
Is used to describe most cells of the body because they contain two sets of 23 chromosomes (desginated as 2n) which represents the chromosomes number in a zyote (fertilized ovum)
Diploid
The gastric-phase stimulus for acid secretion is the [4] of the stomach and the presence of protein digestion products in the lumen of the stomach.
Distension
The primary mechanism for regulating body temperature is to vary the amount of blood [2] to the skin.
Flowing
Therefore, the primary mechanism by which our bodies can increase heat production in cold environment is to vary the amount of blood [2] to the skin.
Flowing
Thyroid stimulating hormone activates cAMP signal transduction mechanism within the [1] that will result in the release of thyroid hormone.
Follicle cell
Spermatogenesis is directly stimulated by both __________ and testosterone
Follicle stimulating Hormone (FSH)
Inhibin is secreted from the sertoli cells and acts to reduce the secretion of ________ from the anterior pituitary gland.
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
The two phases in the ovarian cycle are
Follicular and luteal
During the _________ estrogen induces the expression of LH receptors on granulosa cells
Follicular phase
Is the phase of the ovarian cycle in which one follicle (the dominant follicle) will continue to develop because its cells maintain estrogen secretion in the face of falling FSH levels
Follicular phase
The onset of differentiation of granulosa cells into the corpus luteum is a response of the dominant follicle to stimulation by luteinizing hormone (LH) during the late
Follicular phase
The phase of the ovarian cycle corresponding with the menstrual and proliferative phases of the uterine cycle
Follicular phase
The reduction in progesterone and estrogen that occurs at the beginning of the ________ is responsible for stimulating follicular development through stimulating the release of FSH
Follicular phase
Ulcers
Foot
Line the lumen of the stomach and secrete gastrin into the bloodstream
G cells
release is enhanced by stress, exercise, sleep, and increased plasma amino acids
GH
Insulin increases cellular uptake of glucose by causing _______ to be incorporated into the plasma membrane of some cells.
GLUT4
Number 3
Gall bladder
Contraction of the [4] forces the [3] into the [6], where it emulsifies fats and aids in their digestion.
Gall bladder bile duodenum
The secretion of _____________ is predominantly regulated by glucose, fats, or acid in the duodenum.
Glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide
is the predominant hormone to inhibit gastric secretion and motility in response to distension of the duodenum.
Glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide
The brain requires a steady supply of ______ which is why ________ concentration must be maintained between meals.
Glucose; blood glucose
However, the [2] that is stored in skeletal muscle cells can only be used by that skeletal muscle cell.
Glycogen
Skeletal muscle stores the majority of the body's [2].
Glycogen
Stimulates the release of FSH and LH ifrom the anterior pituitary
Gonadotropin releasing hormone- GnRH
are the general term for the primary reproductive organs, responsible for secretion of estrogens (estradiol) and progesterone in females
Gonads
The ___________ is the follicular structure that contains the secondary oocyte
Graafian follicle
which contains the secondary oocyte
Graffian follicle
Provide nutrients for the developing cycle
Granulosa cells
Secrete a substance that forms the zona pellucida
Granulosa cells
Secrete estrogens
Granulosa cells
Secrete paracrines that support follicle development
Granulosa cells
Secrete paracrines that support oogenesis
Granulosa cells
Secrete antral fluid
Granulosa cells- female (fluid of antrum)
The growth promoting functions of __________________ rely partially on the activity of insulin-like growth factors
Growth Hormone
release is enhanced by stress, exercise, sleep, and increased plasma acids
Growth Hormone
Somatostatin is also known as _____________________
Growth Hormone inhibiting hormone
Dwarfism is caused by decreased stimulation of _______ secretion, decrease responsiveness of tissues to growth hormone, insufficient production of insulin like growth factors and detective growth hormone receptors
Growth hormone
The increase in bone thickness stimulated by____________ involves increased osteoblast activity on the outer surface of the bone and increased osteoclast activity on the inner surface of bone
Growth hormone
The secretion of ______________ is stimulated by decrease in plasma glucose concentration
Growth hormone releasing hormone
Is used to describe gametes because they contain only a single set of 23 chromosomes (designated as n)
Haploid
Red blood cells contain the protein [1].
Hemoglobin
is a non-enzymatic glycosylation protein marker used for measuring the one-to-three-month average of blood glucose levels.
Hemoglobin
The liver is supplied with oxygenated blood from the [1].
Hepatic artery
Number 6
Hepatic ducts
Blood from the intestinal capillaries drains into the mesenteric vein before entering the [2].
Hepatic portal vein
Autosomes are described as __________ because they are formed in matching pairs
Homologous
The secretion of estrogen and progesterone by the corpus luteum during pregnancy is maintained by ___________________________________ until the corpus luteum degenerates and the placenta takes over secretion of these hormones.
Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG)
Crystals called _____ give bone a moneral component that is able too withstand compressive forces
Hydroxyapatite
an abnormally high level of glucose in the blood
Hyperglycemia
an excess of fatty acids and other lipids in the blood
Hyperlipidemia
Is caused when a heat production exceeds heat loss
Hyperthermia
symptoms include blurred vision, hunger, tingling sensation, anxiety, and confusion.
Hypoglycemia
On the other hand... a decrease in plasma glucose can result in:
Hypoglycemia symptoms include blurred vision, hunger, tingling sensation, anxiety, and confusion
Secretion of [6] causes a decrease in the sensation of hunger which is an important component of long-term regulation
Leptin
Responsible for synthesis and secretion of testosterone an other androgens in males
Leydig cells
Lipoprotein lipase in an enzyme located on capillary endothelial cells that breaks down triglycerides which are a form of
Lipids
The storage of ____________ mainly occurs in adipocytes
Lipids
Transported as lipoproteins in the bloodstream
Lipids
Number 5
Liver
The functional unit of the liver is the [5].
Lobule
The central component of the [1] typically involves the parasympathetic nervous system, which acts to promote an increase in gastrointestinal activity.
Long reflex pathway
Gastric reflux occurs when material flows backwards through the [4] esophageal sphincter. When food particles mix with gastric juice it is called [5].
Lower Chyme
The elevated plasma concentration of estrogen early in the _______ has little effect on the secretion of luteinizing hormone because progesterone strongly inhibits LH release
Luteal phase
The surge in plasma luteinizing hormone that occurs at the beginning of the _________ triggers both ovulation and development of the corpus luteum
Luteal phase
Stimulate androgen synthesis in both males and females
Luteinizing hormone (LH)
Triggers ovulation in females
Luteinizing hormone (LH)
found in the apical membrane of enterocytes hydrolyzes maltose to two glucose molecules.
Maltase
Amylases reduce starch or glycogen into either:
Maltose Short, branched polysaccharides called limit dextrins
[8] is a peristaltic-like wave in the large intestine that propels the contents toward the rectum.
Mass movement
In the absence of the implantation of a fertilized embryo, the ______ of the uterine cycle is initiated by the degeneration of the corpus luteum
Menstrual phase
The follicular phase begins with the start of _________, ends with _________, while the luteal phase coincides with the remainder of the ________
Menstruation Ovulation Menstrual cycle
The [9] is a layer of epithelial cells on the outer side of the serosa that secretes a watery lubricating fluid that makes it easier for organs to slide past one another.
Mesothelium
A ________ is a round ball of cells that develops by cell cleavage and forms a fluid filled sac around the developing embryo
Morula
The pattern of smooth muscle contraction in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract
Motility
in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, patterns of smooth muscle contraction that mix and slowly propel contents from one end of the tract to the other
Motility-
The [1] can be subdivided into the mucous membrane, lamina propria, and muscularis mucosae.
Mucosa
The absence of _______ in the fetus will further the development of the Mullerian ducts into the female reproductive tract
Mullerian inhibiting substance (and testosterone)
The [7] contains both inner circular and an outer longitudinal layer.
Muscularis externa
The [3] is a thin layer of smooth muscle cells whose contractions stirs the luminal contents and promotes contact with the mucosal membrane
Muscularis mucosae
Auerbach's plexus
Myenteric plexus
Is the smooth muscle making up most of the uterine wall thickness
Myometrium
Of the gastric pits secrete mucous into the lumen of the stomach
Neck cells
In order to lose weight, a person must be in a state of [7] energy balance.
Negative -quantity of stored energy decreases
In order to maintain a [6] energy balance, the body must consume more energy that it expends
Positive -increases in body weight, net synthesis of macromolecules from absorbed nutrients occurs
Glucose is synthesized by gluconeogenesis and glycolysis and is spared for use by the CNS
Postabsorptive event
During the _________ breakdown of glycogen stores in the liver is required for the maintenance
Postabsorptive state
How the body obtains energy through catabolism of glycogen, proteins, and fats
Postabsorptive state
In response to decreased blood glucose, increased sympathetic activity, and increased blood amino acids
Postabsorptive state
In the ____ glucose is synthesized by gluconeogenesis and glucolysis and is spared for uses by the nervous sistem
Postabsorptive state
In the ______ glucose is "spared" for use by the central nervous system
Postabsorptive state
In the _______ glycerol is converted by the liver to glucose
Postabsorptive state
In the _______ plasma glucagon levels increase
Postabsorptive state
In the _______ the liver converts fatty acids to ketones
Postabsorptive state
In the ________ most cells utilize fatty acids (lipids) instead of glucose for energy, sparing the glucose for the central N.S.
Postabsorptive state
In the ____________ energy input is less than output and thus is released from the breakdown of macromolecules
Postabsorptive state
Increased glucagon secretion by alpha cells
Postabsorptive state
The secretion of _____________ is predominantly regulated by acid content of the duodenum.
Secretin
is the main hormone that stimulates bile secretion in the liver.
Secretin
stimulates pancreatic bicarbonate secretion (and enzyme secretion, to a lesser extent).
Secretin
The movement of a substance from the internal environment to the external environment by transport cross the epithelium
Secretion
process by which fluid containing enzymes and other substances are transported into the lumen of the gastrointestinal tract -Movement of a substance from the internal environment to the external environment by transport across the epithelium
Secretion
Secrete succus entericus a bicarbonate rich fluid into the lumen of the small intestine
Secretory cells in the Crypts of Lieberkuhn
Is the phase of the uterine cycle in which there is an enhanced secretion of fluids rich in glycogen
Secretory phase
Is the phase of the uterine cycle in which there is an increased viscosity of secretions from cervical glands
Secretory phase
The phase of the uterine cycle following the proliferative phase in which there is even more enlargement of the endometrial glands
Secretory phase
The phase pf the uterine cycle in which the endometrium is enriched with more arterial branches
Secretory phase
The mixing motility pattern of the small intestine ****Muscularis externa
Segmentation
[5] is responsible for the mixing of chyme in the small intestines.
Segmentation
[5] is the contraction of the circular muscle at one intestinal segment coupled with its relaxation at adjoining segments
Segmentation
contraction of the circular muscle at one intestinal segment coupled with its relaxation at adjoining segments
Segmentation
increased plasma fatty acids
3.
increased ketone synthesis
4.
increased plasma ketones
5.
decreased plasma pH
6.
decreased urine pH
7.
The blood tests came back negative for liver and pancreatic enzymes, but the X-ray confirmed gallstones filling her gallbladder and blocking the lower biliary duct near the hepatopancreatic ampulla (ampulla of Vater). The doctor mentioned that this might also affect pancreatic function, scheduled a cholecystectomy for the next day, and decided to admit her to the hospital overnight. Why might a gallstone affect the pancreas?
A gallstone that blocks the hepatopancreatic ampulla (ampulla of Vater) will block the release of digestive enzymes from the pancreas.
The hormone _______ is permissive for the regulation of growth due to its stimulation of insulin like growth factor seccretion
Insulin
The metabolic adjustments that occur in the body during the switch from postabsorptive to absorptive state are largely triggered by increases in ________
Insulin
is a chemical messenger that induces the sensation of feeling full (satiety)
Insulin
Enzymes that facilitate entry of sperm into the ova are contained within the ____________ of the spermatozoa
Acrosome
The most [6] form at the target cell is T3. The form that provides long-loop negative feedback is T4.
Active
5] results from the [6] of cortisol and is characterized by hypoglycemia and poor tolerance of stress
Addison's disease Hyposecretion-
Have been glycoslated through a non enzymatic process
Advanced glycosylation end products
During the postabsorptive state, [9] decreases, whereas blood levels of [10] increase.
Insulin Glucagon
Postabsorptive state
Insulin decreases Blood levels of glucagon increase
Diabetes mellitus is a disease of sugar balance. In type 1 diabetes, the body's immune system gradually destroys the cells that produce insulin. In type 2 diabetes, the body's cells become less responsive to the hormone insulin. Insulin plays a vital role in carbohydrate metabolism. What is its role?
Insulin is needed for cells to pick up glucose from the blood; without insulin, more glucose will remain in the blood.
The [5] is measured when the person is lying down, awake and having fasted for 12hours.
Basal metabolic rate
Insulin is secreted by the [1] of the pancreas and stimulates [2].
Beta cells anabolism
The gastric mucosal barrier consists of a layer of mucous and [7] that protects the stomach wall from the acidic luminal contents.
Bicarbonate
On the other side of the hepatocyte is the [4]
Bile canaliculus
When red blood cells are old or injured, the spleen breaks them down and converts the heme from their hemoglobin into [2].
Bilirubin
_______is a degradation by-product of hemoglobin that is removed from the blood by the liver, conjugated, and then secreted into the bile.
Bilirubin
Functions to maintain a differential fluid composition of the seminiferous tubule lumen that facilitates development of sperm and protects sperm from the immune system
Blood testis barrier
Follicle growth
Both FSH and Estrogens
Secrete a viscous mucus just prior to ejaculation
Bulbourethral glamds
The liver secretes ___________ into the bloodstream
Insulin like growth factors
1] is the primary hormone mediating the stress response (or general adaptation syndrome).
Cortisol
[1] belongs to a class of hormones called glucocorticoids.
Cortisol
(1) secretion is regulated by [2] releasing hormone which is a hypothalamic tropic hormone.
Cortisol corticoptrophin
Is the process where portions of homologous chromsomes exchange segments with one another
Crossing over
Are granulosa cells that collect to the wall of the Graafian follicle
Culumus oophorus
[3] is results from the [4] of cortisol and is characterized by the deposition of fat in the abdomen and face, easily bruising, and protein depletion (wasting).
Cushing's syndrome hypersection
Number 4
Cystic duct
Functions to secrete an alkaline fluid containing fructose, enzymes, and prostaglandins into the ejaculatory duct
Seminal vesicles
The mixture of sperm with fluid from the _______ and prostate gland is semen
Seminal vesicles
Sperm is produced in the ____________ of the testes
Seminiferous tubules
Provide nutrients for the developing sperm
Sertoli cells
Secrete Mullerian inhibiting substance
Sertoli cells
Secrete Mullerian inhibiting substance in fetal life
Sertoli cells
Secrete androgen-binding protein into the lumen of seminiferous tubules
Sertoli cells
Secrete paracrines that stimulated spermatogenesis
Sertoli cells
Spermtogonia are located at the basement membrane-________ interface
Sertoli cells
Are chromosomes that determine an individual's sex, two types X and Y chromsomes
Sex chromosomes
The woman was given IV pain meds, and blood was drawn to assess liver and pancreatic function, given her gallstone history. Pancreatic enzymes were elevated, and the doctor diagnosed acute hemorrhagic pancreatitis. After her surgery to remove her gallbladder and clear the obstructed bile duct, the woman recovered uneventfully, and her pancreatitis resolved. Now she wants to know what this surgery has done to her ability to produce bile and digest food. What is the answer?
She can still make bile, but she can't store it, so she can't send a large amount into the duodenum to deal with a lot of fat at one time.
Often a person with a fever will feel cold, have chills, and may actually start [4] because the thermoregulatory center increases the set point for core temperature
Shivering
The [6] serves primarily as a storage depot for whatever material remains in the lumen after absorption has occurred.
Sigmoid colon
is a heart attack without pain.
Silent myocardial ischemia
3] are openings in the liver where blood flows through and exchange takes place with the hepatocytes.
Sinusoids
are openings in the liver where blood flows through and exchange takes place with the hepatocytes.
Sinusois
The inner circular muscle layer of the muscularis externa is where [8] potentials occur.
Slow wave
[2] are the spontaneous graded potentials that occur in smooth muscle cells of the digestive tract.
Slow waves
The nurse asked whether she has noticed a change in her stools. The woman answered that they were hard to flush (they float) and kind of gray-looking. Why did the nurse ask about stools? Choose the best explanation for the nurse's question.
Someone with difficulty converting bilirubin into bile will have trouble digesting fats, and they will go out in the stool.
is the glucose polyol
Sorbitol
During spermatogenesis only the ___________ are haploid cells that require further differentiation in order to become functional spermatozoa
Spermatids
________ differentiate to become _________ in spermatogenesis which possess the characteristic head, midpiece, and tail and are released into the lumen of the semniferous tubule
Spermatids Spermatozoa
What is number 1.?
Sphincter of Oddi
Is composed of smooth muscle between the ampulla of Vater and the duodenum
Sphincter of Oddi (regulates common bile duct and pancreatic duct)
Nutrients that are absorbed in excess of the body's needs are ___________________
Stored as fat
The [4] is a thick layer of connective tissue that provides the gastrointestinal tract with much of its elasticity and distensibility.
Submucosa
The _______ is a thick layer of connective tissue that provides the gastrointestinal tract with much of its _______________.
Submucosa elasticity and distensibility
The [5] is an outer border network of nerve cells also known as Meissner's plexus.
Submucosal plexus
What makes up the enteric nervous system?
Submucosal plexus and myenteric plexus
Secretory cells in crypts of Lierberkuhn
Succus entericus
Found in the apical membrane of enterocytes hydrolyzes sucrose to glucose
Sucrase
sucrose is the substrate for the enxyme
Sucrase
The primary reason for body odor is the bacterial breakdown of fatty acids and proteins in [5] which generates a waste product.
Sweat
The woman was scheduled for laparoscopic cholecystectomy the next day. But that night she developed severe abdominal pain. The nurse noticed the following: She was pale, sweating, and had cool, clammy skin. Her heart rate was high and so was her blood pressure. She had no detectible bowel sounds. What part of the autonomic system appears to be activated in this client?
Sympathetic - you can tell because the sympathetic system causes most of her signs and symptoms.
During sex differentiation, the presence of _________________ stimulates the development of the Wolffian duct
Testosterone
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and _______ stimulate growth and development of sperm indicated by binding to Sertoli cells
Testosterone
Is the hormone responsible for secondary sex characterists
Testosterone
Triggers increased protein synthesis in muscle at puberty
Testosterone
Triggers increased protein synthesis in muscle at puberty Triggers growth hormone secretion from the anterior pituitary Is the hormone responsible for the secretion of a thick oil by sebaceous gland Responsible for the secondary sex characteristics in males
Testosterone
Triggers the secretion of growth hormone from the anterior pituitary
Testosterone
____________are highly vascularized bits of endocrine tissue found in the pancreas. The exocrine pancreas comprises the numerous acini and their associated ducts that secrete bicarbonate and several digestive enzymes, including pancreatic amylase, pancreatic lipases, proteases, and nucleases. Proteolytic enzymes secreted in pancreatic juice are stored in secretory cells of the pancreas as zymogens. Note that cellulose is a glucose polymer found in plant products that cannot be degraded within the digestive tract of humans
The Islets of Langerhans
Increasing the surface area of the fat globule exposed to enzymes
The action of bile salts
Joe is becoming more confused and uncoordinated. When he tries to get up to leave the examination room, he stumbles and falls down. He is semiconscious and breathing even more heavily. One of the aides says he needs some orange juice, right away. "That's just the wrong thing to do," the doctor answers. "Don't you see his heavy breathing and smell the ketones on his breath? Give him the insulin, stat!"
The doctor is right - Joe's plasma glucose is elevated, so he cannot have hypoglycemia.
Many of Joe's signs and symptoms can be related to the loss of glucose in his urine. Normally, urine does not contain glucose. When plasma glucose levels are elevated, however, some of the glucose from the plasma passes into the urine. Apply the principle of osmosis to explain why Joe was getting up all night to use the bathroom and why he has low blood pressure and signs of dehydration. Choose the most accurate explanation for Joe's problem.
The frequent urination is happening because when glucose moved into his urine, water also followed it. This removed water from his plasma, decreasing his blood volume and dehydrating him.
Androgens are initially synthesized by the ______ and then converted to a second macromolecule estrogen by the granulosa cells
Theca cells
In later stages of development, the granulosa cells proliferate and the outermost layer is transformed into another cell type known as
Theca cells
Initially synthesize and release androgens in females
Theca cells
Release androgens in females
Theca cells
Peripheral [1] detect skin temperature.
Thermoreceptors
[2] is the precursor compound located within colloid that is converted into thyroid hormone
Thyroglobulin
The receptors for [7] are found in the nucleus of target cells.
Thyroid hormones
The liver packages [1] into very low density lipoproteins (VLDLs).
Tiglycerides
Monozygotic twins develop from splitting of the morula white cells are still
Totipotent
Most energy stores for the body are in the form of [1] and are stored in adipose tissue
Triglycerides
Secreting androgens is not a function of the sertoli cells but for leydig cells in males instead
True
is the enzyme that activates procarboxypeptidase.
Trypsin
The [2] esophageal sphincter is a ring of skeletal muscle that regulates the movement of a [3] into the esophagus.
Upper Bolus
skeletal muscle between the pharynx and esophagus
Upper esophageal sphincter
In order to convert amino acids to gluconeogenic precursors, their ammonium ion must be removed in the liver, which is then converted to [9], thereby making it water soluble enough to be excreted by the kidneys.
Urea
Is the site where fertilization normally takes place
Uterine tubes
Both the _______ and cervical canal forms the birth canal
Vagina
Is the structure that conducts sperm from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct
Vans deferens
To increase the absorptive efficiency of the small intestine, the surface area of the mucosa is increased by the presence of folds in the wall called [9], and projections of the cell membrane called [10].
Villi Microvilli
The absorptive state is primarily
anabolic state
Functions to maintain steady level of androgens in the lumen of seminiferous tubules
androgen-binding protein
Insulin and glucagon are known as what type of hormones together?
antagonistic hormones
The enteric nervous system receives its inputs from both _______neurons and ______neurons in the wall of the gastrointestinal tract.
autonomic neurons sensory neurons
The [5] represents the energy requirement for performing necessary tasks as pumping blood and transporting ions.
basal metabolic rate
The gastric mucosal barrier consists of a layer of mucous and ________that protects the stomach wall from the acidic luminal contents
bicarbonate
is a medication whose mechanism of action is in reducing glucose production in the liver and increasing the sensitivity of receptors to insulin
biguanides
The liver eliminates trace metals, cholesterol, certain drugs, and bilirubin as waste products in _____. Bile salts are recycled by the ___________.
bile enterohepatic circulation.
Microvascular damage, macrovascular damage, atherosclerosis
blood vessels
Type of DM may result in hyperglycemia
both type 1 DM and type 2 DM
Type of DM may result in polyuria
both type 1 DM and type 2 DM
Lethargy, coma
brain
Digestion of carbohydrates to monosaccharides is completed by a variety of _________bound to the apical membranes of absorptive cells lining the small intestine
brush border enzymes
Dietary control of diabetes mellitus type 1 and 2 includes limiting the intake of
carbohydrates
Once diffusion from the endometrium becomes inadequate for delivery of oxygen, the placenta develops from projections of the ___________________ into the endometrium, which facilitates exchange of nutrients and waste by the short distance between maternal and fetal blood.
chorionic villi____
After the second mitotic division, each cell contains a random mixture of maternal and paternal alleles on one sister
chromatid
From the stomach the ______moves from the duodenum then to the jejunum and finally to the ileum of the small intestine.
chyme
is found in breast milk in the first one or two days after birth, it is a watery fluid containing a vast array of proteins but few other nutrients.
colostrum
The secretion of paracrine by the granulosa cells that stimulates the completion of meiosis I is a response of the dominant follicle to stimulation by luteinizing hormone (LH) during the late
follicular phase
The secretory activity of the anterior pituitary begins to change during late ___________ such that estrogen reverses its negative feedback control of LH release, changing over to a positive feedback loop which increases the release of luteinizing hormone (LH)
follicular phase
is the phase of the ovarian cycle in which one follicle (the dominant follicle) will continue to develop because its cells maintain estrogen secretion in the face of falling FSH levels.
follicular phase
In the intestine, the smooth muscle cells contraction requires an action potential and its force is therefore graded by the [1] of action potentials.
frequency
Therefore, glucagon increases plasma glucose concentration by promoting _______ and ____________in the liver.
gluconeogenesis glycogenolysis
In the female reproductive cycle, a single ovum is normally produced every 28 days. The loss of reproductive capacity that occurs as a female ages is caused by changes in __________.
hormone secretory patterns
The secretion of estrogen and progesterone by the corpus luteum during pregnancy is maintained by human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG)
human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG)
During _________ the follicle with the oocyte is pressed tight against the ovary wall and bursts
ovulation
During menopause there is a reduction in estrogen release that results in loss of ____, decreased breast size, and an increased risk for both heart disease and osteoporosis.
ovulation
Each oocyte remains under mitotic arrest, the pause in oogenesis that occurs between birth until just before
ovulation
the follicle with the oocyte is pressed tight against the wall and bursts.
ovulation
The ejection of milk that occurs while the infant is suckling is mediated by _____________-induced myoepithelial cell contraction.
oxytocin
Erectile function requires an increase in _________ nervous activity
parasympathetic
Nitric oxide is the neurotransmitter released from the _________nerves to dilate the penile arterioles to increase blood flow to the erectile tissue.
parasympathetic
Carbonic anhydrase is located in and the lumen of the small intestine
parietal cells
Chief cells
pepsinogen
Neuropathy
peripheral nerves
The sperm is moved by the flow of luminal fluid and _______ from the seminiferous tubules to the epididymis
peristalsis
GHRH is stimulated by a decrease in ______
plasma glucose
Therefore, insulin decreases _________ concentration through the uptake of glucose into cells, converting free glucose in cells to glycogen, and suppressing gluconeogenesis.
plasma glucose
The term for excessive eating- polyphagia
polyphagia
The spermatogonium's chromosomes are replicated and the cell differentiates to become a _______________
primary spermatocyte
___________ has 46 duplicated chromosomes possessing two sister chromatids apiece in spermatogenesis
primary spermatocyte
____________ goes through meiosis I in spermatogenesis to yield two _______________ which possess 23 duplicated chromosomes
primary spermatocyte Secondary spermatocytes
promotes the maintenance of thickened endometrium.
profesterone
promotes the growth of glandular tissue in the breasts.
progesterone
promotes the maintenance of thickened myometrium.
progesterone
suppresses the contractile activity of uterine smooth muscle cells.
progesterone
The production of milk is stimulated by release of _______________________ from the hypothalamus.
prolactin-releasing hormone (PRH)
Fibroblasts lay down the new extracellular matrix as the wound heals during the
proliferation phase
Fibroblasts secrete collagen as a wound heals during the
proliferation phase
Keratinocytes are the epidermal cells that proliferate to cover the opening of a wound during the
proliferation phase
The endometrium and the myometrium of the uterus proliferate during the ________ of the uterine cycle
proliferative phase
promoted by estrogen in which the endometrium and the myometrium of the uterus proliferate.
proliferative phase
functions to secrete several enzymes and citrate into the urethra during ejaculation
prostate gland
The intestine-intestinal reflex
protects the small intestine by inhibiting contractions while the intestines are injured or severely distended.
causes mesangial cells to secrete excess extracellular matrix in kidneys under hyperglycemic conditions
protein kinase C
triggers the release of paracrines that cause vasodilation, which increases blood flow into the glomerulus
protein kinase C
Provide an energy storage that is used primarily in times of starvation and are not metabolized by nervous tissue
proteins
______________that occurs at the beginning of the follicular phase is responsible for stimulating follicular development through ___________
reduction in progesterone and estrogen -stimulating the release of FSH.
7.
release stored glucose
Collagen becomes organized and cross-linked during the
remodeling phase
Damage to the microvasculature contributes to several diabetic conditions, including ______, _______, _________, and delayed wound healing.
retinopathy, nephropathy, neuropathy
As the food is broken into smaller pieces in the mouth, it is combined with _____ that facilitates its movement down the esophagus
saliva
6.
secrete more glucagon
The changes in the uterus that occur during the ________ of the uterine cycle are mediated by increased progesterone from the corpus luteum
secretory phase
is a medicine for treatment of diabetes that sensitizes tissue to insulin
thiazolidinediones
Type of DM is caused by damage to beta cells of the pancreas
type 1 DM
Type of DM is caused by inadequate insulin secretion
type 1 DM
The subclass of type 1 DM that attacks antigens of proinsulin, glutamic acid decarboxylase, tyrosine phosphorylase-like protein, zinc transporter 8, and other proteins in the islets of Langerhans
type 1a DM
The subclass of type 1 DM that is an autoimmune disorder that attacks beta cells of the pancreas
type 1a DM
The subclass of type 1 DM that is also called idiopathic type 1 DM, it is the form that involves destruction of pancreatic beta cells
type 1b DM
Type of DM can occur secondary to obesity, while obesity can also occur secondary to it
type 2 DM
Type of DM in which the age of onset has traditionally been thought to be in people over 40 years of age, but occurrence in children is found to be increasing, indicating a reduction in the average age of onset
type 2 DM
Type of DM is caused by a decreased response in tissues to insulin
type 2 DM
Type of DM is most common form of diabetes mellitus
type 2 DM
In order to convert amino acids to gluconeogenic precursors, their ammonium ion must be removed in the liver, which is then converted to _____, thereby making it water soluble enough to be excreted by the kidneys.
urea
Input + production
utilization + output
Secretes a lubricating fluid into the vagina that facilitates the entry of the penis during copulation
vestibular (Bartholin's)
increased lipolysis
2.
Is caused by prolonged exposure to a cold environment
Hypothermia
is a chemical messenger that induces the sensation of feeling full (satiety).
Insulin
Responsible for the synthesis and secretion of testosterone and other androgens
Leydig cells
Enzyme found in saliva (mouth)
Lingual lipase
Lipids are disassembled by
Lipase
Broken down by lipases used by most cells and nervous tissue only in times of starvation
Lipids
smooth muscle between the esophagus and stomach
Lower esophageal sphincter
Technical word for chewing
Mastication
is a weak bulge in the wall of a small blood vessel.
Microaneurysm- Retinopathy
Term for excessive urination
Polyuria
Form the blood testis barrier
Sertoli cells
Secrete fluid into the lumen of seminiferous tubules to support sperm development and transport
Sertoli cells- males
Energy input=
energy utilization + energy output
is the enzyme that cleaves trypsinogen to trypsin.
enterokinase
The liver secretes bile, synthesizes albumin, synthesizes and modifies hormones, and removes aged [6].
erythrocytes
is the primary medicine for regulating diabetes mellitus type 1
exogenous insulin
Retinopathy
eye
The second meiotic division in oogenesis occurs when the ovum has been ________ yielding an ovum, which receives most of the cytoplasm, and a second polar body, which degenerates
fertilized
Polyphagia
gastrointestinal tract
The release of ______ during the absorptive state by certain amino acids in a high-protein meal facilitate maintenance of blood glucose in a low-carbohydrate meal.
glucagon
Impotency
gonads
As the follicle develops the epithelial cells increase to more than one layer and the cells are _______
granulosa cells
Cardiomyopathy
heart
is the first enzyme of glycolysis that has a great affinity for glucose
hexokinase
blood levels are decreased by diabetes mellitus
high-density lipoproteins (HDLs)
To maintain [1], the human body must be kept in balance
homeostasis
parietal cells
hydrogen ions acidify stomach through carbonic anhydrase catalyzed reaction -intrinsic factor - absorption of vitamin B12
The [7] consists of a series of intense anal contractions accompanied by pyloric relaxation that function to sweep the stomach clean of its contents
migrating motility complex
Within the ovaries each follicle contains a single
oocyte
5.
secrete less insulin
The gastroileal reflex
stimulates the motility of the ileum in response to the presence of chime in the stomach.
secretes a lubricating fluid into the vagina that facilitates the entry of the penis during copulation.
vestibular (Bartholin's) gland
The liver also secretes a bicarbonate rich fluid. The liver eliminates trace metals, cholesterol, certain drugs, and bilirubin as ________.
waste products in bile
Energy input=
work performed + heat released
develops when the follicles are in the preantral stage
zona pellucida
develops when the follicles are in the preantral stage.
zona pellucida
Is the hormone responsible for the secretion of a thick oil by the sebaceous gland
Testosteone
The process where fecal material is removed from the body
Defecation
The most [5] form of thyroid hormone secreted into the blood is T4.
Abundant
Function is to secrete fluids into the reproductive tract and transport gametes
Accessory reproductive organs
The liver further converts it into [3], which is stored in the [4].
Bile Gallbladder
Number 2
Duodenum
Diabetes causes retinopathy in where?
Eye
The presence of glucose in the urine
Glucosuria
Neck cells
Mucus
The [2] contains blood vessels, lymphatic vessels and Peyer's patches
Lamina Propria
Lobule
liver functional unit
increased glucagon secretion
1.
Wound healing is a synchronized procession of three phases following injury and blood clot formation: ________, _________, and _________. Diabetes delays wound healing by slowing the rate of all phases.
1. ) inflammation 2.) proliferation 3.) remodeling
Three distinct segments of a fully developed sperm
1. Head-Acrosome 2. Midpiece with mitochondira 3. Tail-flagellum
When a spermatogonium undergoes mitosis, only one undergoes further differentiation and meiosis to become a mature sperm; the other stays a spermatogonium which allows males to continue to produce sperm through their adults lives. Put the following in the correct order of sperm development.
1. Spermatogonia (2n_ 2. Primary Spermatocytes (2n X 2) 3. Secondary spermatocytes (n X 2) 4. Spermatids (n) 5. Spermatozoa (n)
process by which smaller molecules are transported into the bloodstream -Movement of a substance from the external environment to the internal environment by transport across the epithelium
Absoprtion
The movement of a substance from the external environment to the internal environment by transport across an epithelium
Absorption
During the ________ the primary source for most of the body cells is glucose recently absorbed into the blood stream
Absorptive state
In the _______ energy input exceeds output and thus is stored in macromolecules
Absorptive state
In the _______ glucose is stored as glycogen in liver and skeletal muscle
Absorptive state
In the _______ most body cells use glucose for energy
Absorptive state
In the _______ plasma insulin levels increase
Absorptive state
In the _______ the liver converts amino acids into fatty acids
Absorptive state
The liver synthesizes triglycerides and packages them into lipoproteins during the _____________
Absorptive state
What state does liver convert amino acids into fatty acids?
Absorptive state
__________ is produced from catabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins and it is a substrate for the Krebs cycle and for lipid synthesis.
Acetyl CoA
Are different variations of the same gene
Alleles
Glucagon is secreted from [5] of the pancreas and stimulates [6].
Alpha cells Catabolism
Inhibit brush border enzymes that hydrolyze disaccharides trisaccharides and oligosaccharides and decrease absorption of _______
Alpha- glucosidase inhibitors
Most [5] that enter the liver are converted to keto acids that become [4].
Amino acids Fatty acids
The _______ functions to cushion the developing embryo against physical trauma
Amniotic fluid
Number 11
Ampula of vater
The structure at which the flow of bile from the liver and juices from the exocrine pancreas converge
Ampulla of Vater
An increase in cAMP levels in thyroid follicular cells cause ________
An increase in secretion of thyroid hormones
Acetyl CoA catabolized in the Krebs cycle used as a substrate for triglyceride and cholesterol synthesis
Anabolism
Synthesis of large molecules from smaller molecules, generally requiring an input of energy
Anabolism
That the same small biomolecules that provide energy are also used to synthesize larger biomolecules
Anabolism
is the development of new blood vessels.
Angiogenesis
occurs to compensate for the decrease in blood flow due to blockage of blood vessels, however these new blood vessels are weak and leaky, causing blurred vision and possibly blindness.
Angiogenesis
acts on thirst centers in the anterior hypothalamus to trigger polydipsia.
Angiostenin II
acts on thirst centers in the anterior hypothalamus to trigger polydipsia.
Angiotension II
As a follicle develops into the Graafian follicle, the ___________ continues to increase in size until the fluid's pressure causes the follicle to burst at ovulation
Antrum
Are chromosomes other than sex chromosomes
Autosomes
Peristalsis is __________ Segmentation is ____ and ______
Coordinated back and forth
The hormonal trigger for menstruation involves a loss of progesterone secretion from the ______________
Corpus luteum
Sperm are unable to fertilize the egg upon entry into the vagina and must undergo __________ allowing them to more readily adhere to the ovum, which facilitates fertilization
Capacitation
Broken down by salivary amylase and ppancreatic amylase and used by all cells
Carbohydrates
Transported as glucose in the bloodstream
Carbohydrates
When __________ are consumed, they can be used to produce energy or converted to glycogen for storage
Carbohydrates
is a disease of the cardiac muscle that weakens the heart, it is characterized by a reduction in the contractility of the cardiac muscle which leads to a decreased stroke volume.
Cardiomyopathy
Breakdown of large molecules into smaller molecules; generally releases energy
Catabolism
The migration of sperm into the uterus on their way to contact the ovum, is facilitated by the secretion of a thin mucus into the _______
Cervical canal
Secrete pepsinogen into the lumen of the stomach
Chief cells
The secretion of _____________ is predominantly regulated by protein digestion products and fat presence in the duodenum.
Cholecystokinin
When you eat fat, the cells of your small intestine release the hormone [5].
Cholecystokinin
facilitates digestion of fats by stimulation of gallbladder contraction and relaxation of the sphincter of Oddi.
Cholecystokinin
stimulates gall bladder contraction.
Cholecystokinin
stimulates the relaxation of the sphincter of Oddi.
Cholecystokinin
From cartilage
Chondrocytes
Once the ______ begins to enter the duodenum, it must first be deacidified before any of the enzymes in the pancreatic juices can be activated.
Chyme
The peristaltic waves of the stomach will result in the mixing of [4] if the pyloric sphincter is closed.
Chyme
The primary function of the colon is to reduce the volume of the [4].
Chyme
Proteins are cleaved by
Chymotrypsin
The ripening of the cervix in the weeks prior to parturition involves the enzymatic breakdown of __________________ fibers in its connective tissue.
Collagen
Number 8
Common bile duct
Number 7
Common hepatic duct
Is the process whereby energy is transferred to and from the body through direct contact with a solid body- It occurs when a person sits on a metal chair on cold day, they feel the cold of the metal
Conduction
Is an example of movement of heat by the movement of a gas or liquid carrying the heat- Wind chill is the result of this transferring heat away from your body due to the movement of air
Convection
Is the process whereby gametes from each parent fuse to produce a new cell
Fertilization
Implantation of the blastocyst into the endometrium results from the trophoblast secretion of enzymes and paracrines that initiates the
Decidual response
Glucagon secretion is stimulated by [7] blood glucose, increased sympathetic activity, and increased blood amino acids.
Decreased
The liver also performs several hormone-related functions such as hormone _____, _____, ______and ________ of hormone-binding proteins.
Degradation Synthesis Modification Secretion
and glucoamylase found in the apical membrane of enterocytes break down limit dextrins and strait-chain glucose polymers to glucose monomers
Dextrinase
Break down limit dextrins and strait-chain glucose polymers to glucose monomers
Dextrinase and glucoamylase
probably causes blood vessel damage primarily through shear stress on the blood vessel due to elevated pressure.
Diabetes mellitus type 1
probably causes blood vessel damage through decreased nitric oxide release from endothelial cells.
Diabetes mellitus type 2 (Effect of Diabetes Mellitus on Microvasculature)
The release of T3 and T4 occurs through [3], and they can bind to [4] to be transported in the bloodstream.
Diffusion Albumin
Is the breakdown of nutrient molecules that are present in food to smaller molecules by enzymes in the lumen of the digestive tract
Digestion
is an unpleasant sensation produced by innocuous stimuli.
Dysethesia (pain)
During ejaculation, the epididymis, vas deferens,__________ and skeletal muscles at the base of the penis contract
Ejaculatory duct
Aids in the digestion of fats by increasing the surface area of the fat globules exposed to enzymes
Emulsification
Increases the surface area of the fat globule exposed to enzymes
Emulsification
The process whereby bile salts breakdown fat globules into smaller droplets
Emulsification
occurs as nephropathy progresses, it is when the kidneys fail and dialysis or kidney transplant is essential to sustain life.
End-stage renal disease
The submucosal plexus and the myenteric plexus make up the [6] or intrinsic nervous system.
Enteric nervous system
__________ of the mucous membrane of the mucosal layer are classified as _________cells if they secrete fluids and enzymes into the lumen and _________cells if they release hormones into the bloodstream.
Enterocytes exocrine endocrine
Bile salts are recycled by the [8].
Enterohepatic circulation
Sperm acquire motility after they undergo further maturation in the _______
Epididymis
stimulates lipolysis and gluconeogenesis, it also increases blood fatty acid levels and ketone production
Epinephrine
stimulates lipolysis and gluconeogenesis, it also increases blood fatty acid levels and ketone production.
Epinephrine
In the young, the __________ is composed of cartilage, which plays an important role in the elongation of bone during gorwth
Epiphyseal plate
Sex hormones trigger ______ closure
Epiphyseal plate
The volume of blood within the ______________ increases during sexual arousal, causing the penis to become erect
Erectile tissue
The activity of smooth muscle cells of the myometrium is regulated by __________, which increases the responsivness of the myometrium to the hormone oxytocin.
Estrogen
promotes the development of tissue that carries milk to the nipples.
Estrogen
______ maintains the body during pregnancy, prepares the body for delivery and for lactation. Whereas _______maintains the body during pregnancy, prepares the body for parturition and for postnatal nourishment. Estrogens are permissive to the actions of progesterone by inducing expression of progesterone receptors in the endometrium
Estrogen progesterone
Is an example of loss of heat by conversion of a liquid to vapor
Evaporation
Is composed of skeletal muscle between the anus and the external environment
External anal sphincter
Spermatogenesis is directly stimulated by
FSH and testosterone
A fair, fat, forty-three-year-old woman had been having episodes of griping abdominal pain after fatty meals. One day she ate French onion soup with lots of cheese and suffered severe enough pain that she called in sick. Her supervisor pointed out that she always gets sick after fatty foods. She went to the clinic and the nurse in triage took her vitals and history. The nurse noticed that the whites of her eyes were yellow and that she had tenderness on the right side of her abdomen. Blood pressure and heart rate were normal. Based on this initial assessment, what organs do you think might be involved in this woman's illness, and why? Choose the two most likely organs involved in her illness.
Gall bladder, because it stores bile and might be related to the bilirubin buildup in her blood. Liver, because of the yellow coloration in her eyes, which indicates that the liver is not processing bilirubin.
Is bone function to provide nutrients to cells embedded within the rigid bone matrix
Gap junctions
[5] is affected by the volume of chime in the stomach, composition of the chime, force of gastric contraction and amount of peptides in the duodenum.
Gastric emptying
Enzyme secreted into the gastric lumen
Gastric lipase
___________ is increased by the distension of the stomach.
Gastric motility
[3] control of gastrointestinal function refers to its site of origin in the stomach.
Gastric phase
G cells
Gastrin
The secretion of _____________ is predominantly regulated by proteins and protein digestion products in the stomach; distenstion of the stomach; and parasympathetic input to the stomach.
Gastrin
stimulates gastric secretion and motility.
Gastrin
The doctor wants to give Joe an insulin injection, but Joe is unwilling to take it. He tells you that his little sister was on insulin and died in the night after taking her shot. How could insulin hurt somebody with diabetes?
Giving too much insulin can lower plasma glucose levels until the brain and heart do not get enough glucose to function properly.
The metabolic adjustments that occur in the body during the switch from absorptive to postabsorptive state are largely triggered by increases in __________.
Glucagon
_________ secretion increases in diabetes mellitus because the alpha cells in the pancreas are signaling for more glucose.
Glucagon
Inhibits growth
Glucocorticoids
Excess [3] in the liver that is not required for energy and not stored as [2] is converted to [4].
Glucose Glycogen Fatty acids
When eating a protein rich meal that is low in carbohydrates, _______ levels will rise only slightly because rising levels of amino acids would stimulate both _______ and ________secretion.
Glucose Insulin glucagon
Is composed of smooth muscle between the small and large intestine
Ileocecal sphincter
Glucagon [3] glycogenolysis, increased gluconeogenesis, increased ketone synthesis, and increased protein degradation.
Increased
Insulin secretion is stimulated by [3] blood glucose, increased blood amino acids, increased parasympathetic nervous activity and increased glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide.
Increased
Macrophages- first cell on the scene to act in the inflammatory response
Inflammation
Neutrophils arrive to the wound area by chemotaxis and assist in fighting the infection through secreting cytokines during the
Inflammation phase
Provides negative feedback to FSH secretion, but not LH, in both males and females
Inhibin
Insulin [4] the breakdown of proteins, fats and glycogen as well as inhibits gluconeogenesis.
Inhibits
Energy [2] arrives in the form of absorbed [3].
Input Nutrients
is composed of smooth muscle between the anus and the internal environment
Internal anal sphincter
One of the more experienced nurses says it is easy to spot a patient with ketoacidosis because of his/her heavy breathing. Why would somebody with ketones and fatty acids in his/her blood breathe heavily?
Joe's heavy breathing is a response to the acid in his blood. By exhaling more, he will remove CO2 from his blood and bring the blood's pH up.
symptoms include dehydration, fruity odor to breath, polyuria, and electrolyte imbalance.
Ketoacidosis
is the production of ketones
Ketogeneisis
elevated ketone levels in the blood
Ketosis
[7] are macrophages in the liver
Kupffer cells
generally affect the peripheral nervous system.
Nephropathies
have an early indicator marked by proteinuria (presence of proteins in the urine).
Nephropathies
Is the neurotransmitter released from parasympathetic nerves to dilate the penile arteries to increase blood flow to the erectile tissue
Nitric oxide
Released from parasympathetic nerves to dilate arteries to increase blood flow to the erectile tissue
Nitric oxide
Primordial follicle contains
Oogonia
Is the cell type that resorbs bone during remodeling
Osetoclasts
Is the cell type that deposits bone during remodeling
Osteoblasts
Produce osteoid
Osteoblasts
Release enzymes that degrade the osteoid
Osteoclasts
Is the cell type surrounded by calcified bone and secretes matrix to support bone
Osteocyte
An organic compound called ______________ gives bone its ability to withstand bones forces
Osteoid
During menopause there is a reduction in strogen release that results in loss of _______ decreased breast size and an increased risk for both heart disease and osteoporosis
Ovulation
Each oocyte remains under meiotic arrest, the pause in oogenesis that occurs between birth until before ____________
Ovulation
stimulates the uterus directly to cause contractions and indirectly by stimulating the release of prostaglandins from myometrial cells which locally cause uterine contractions as well.
Oxytocin
Number 9
Pancreas
Number 10
Pancreatic duct
From the pancreas, digestion takes place in the small intestine
Pancreatic lipases
is an abnormal sensation of the skin such as tingling or numbness.
Paresthesia
Acid in stomach comes from
Parietal cells
Produce intrinsic factor
Parietal cells
Secrete hydrogen ions (acid) into the lumen of the stomach
Parietal cells
The digestion of proteins begins in the stomach with the activation of the zymogen
Pepsinogen
Is the outer layer of the uterus made up of peritoneal serous coat supported by a thin layer of connective tissue
Perimetrium
3] is initiated by the entry of the bolus into the esophagus stimulating stretch receptors and continues through the stomach and small intestine.
Peristalsis
Caused by the coordinated activity between the circular and longitudinal muscle layers of the muscularis externa in adjoining segments of the GI tract
Peristalsis
[3] is the contraction of the circular muscle layer and relaxation of the longitudinal muscle in the proximal segment coupled with the contraction of longitudinal muscle and relaxation of the circular muscle in the distal segment.
Peristalsis
contraction of the circular muscle layer and relaxation of the longitudinal muscle in the proximal segment coupled with the contraction of longitudinal muscle and relaxation of the circular muscle in the distal segment
Peristalsis
The [10] is the membrane that lines the abdominal cavity.
Peritoneum
Ciliary action and ________ move the oocyte through the uterine tubue
Perstalsis
The _______ forms from both the chroionic villi and endometrial tissue of the mother
Placenta
The term for excessive thirst
Polydipsia
Digested by amylases located in saliva and pancreatic juice
Polysaccharides
Inactivation of sperm binding proteins in the zona pellucida and hardening of the zona pellucida prevents
Polyspermy
A follicle in its earliest stage of development is called a ________ and contains an oogonia
Primordial follicle
A follicle in the earliest stage of development with a developing ovum or oocyte surrounded by a single layer of specialized epithelial cells called follicle cells
Primordial follicle
Inhibits uterine contractions
Progesterone
Proliferative phase is promoted by estrogen and the secretory phase was promoted by __________
Progesterone
The decrease in secretion of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) during pregnancy is regulated primarily by
Progesterone
Fibroblasts lay down new extracellular matrix as the wound heels?
Proliferation
In the uterine cycle the _________ is promoted by estrogen
Proliferative phase
stimulate uterine contraction and the softening of the cervix so it can dilate.
Prostaglandins
Gastric mucosal barrier
Protects the stomach lining
Secretion of cholecystokinin is predominantly regulated by which of the following
Protein digestion products and fat presence in duodenum
Broken down by trypsin's and peptidases and used by most cells except those in nervous tissue
Proteins
Transported as amino acids in the bloodstream
Proteins
The flow of chyme from the stomach to the small intestine is physically regulated by the [8] sphincter
Pyloric
smooth mucle between the stomach and duodenum
Pyloric sphincter
The process whereby energy is transferred to and from the body through electromagnetic waves
Radiation
[2] is the decrease in rugae folding within the stomach in advance of the arrival of a bolus of food.
Receptive relaxation
[6] are the folds in the stomach that can flatten to expand the stomach volume giving it greater surface area.
Rugae
As the food is broken into smaller pieces in the mouth, it is combined with [1] that facilitates its movement down the esophagus
Saliva
_______is composed of mucus, amylases, bicarbonate ions, and lysozymes.
Saliva
Functions to keep the temperature of the testes less than body temperature for optimal sperm development
Scrotum
______________ undergo meiosis II in spermatogenesis to become __________, which have 23 single chromosomes (n) but have not developed the mature sperm' characteristic features
Secondary spermatocytes Spermatids
2.
Secrete less glucagon
1.
Secrete more insulin
In the ______ the liver packages lipids into very low density lipoproteins to transport lipids to adipose tissue
absorptive state
In the _______ carbohydrates are converted to fat
absorptive state
In the __________ glucose transport into most body cells increases
absorptive state
Increased insulin secretion
absorptive state
by beta cells In response to increased blood glucose, increased blood amino acids, increased parasympathetic nervous system activity, and increased glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide
absorptive state
The decrease in blood glucose [8] glucose receptors in the brain, which leads directly to a(n) increase in sympathetic activity
activates
Many individual amino acids enter the epithelial cells that line the lumen of the digestive tract via sodium-linked secondary ____________ (cotransport with sodium).
active transport
The absorption of glucose involves secondary ______________ across the apical membrane and facilitated diffusion across the basolateral membrane.
active transport
The absorption of sodium through the small intestine is driven by ____________ and is typically linked to absorption of chloride.
active transport
are proteins that have been glycosylated through a non-enzymatic process known as glycosylation
advanced glycosylation end-products (AGEs)
is the primary protein that appears in the urine with nephropathy
albumin
decease blood glucose levels by inhibiting digestion of carbohydrates in the small intestine
alpha-glucosidase inhibitors
is a medication whose mechanism of action is to inhibit brush border enzymes that hydrolyze disaccharides, trisaccharides, and oligosaccharides to glucose or other monosachharides, thereby decreasing absorption of glucose
alpha-glucosidase inhibitors
is the enzyme responsible for cleavage of the amino acid at the amine portion of the peptide fragment.
aminopeptidase
Catalyzes reactions with polysaccharides
amylase
The hormonal trigger for menstruation involves a loss of progesterone secretion from the _______
corpus luteum
The ruptured follicle is then transformed into a gland called the ___________, which secretes estrogens, progesterone and inhibin
corpus luteum
Fetal release of _______________________ appears to be partially responsible for stimulating parturition.
corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
4.
decreased plasma glucose
is damage to the blood vessels of the eye
diabetic retinopathy
is the leading cause of adult-onset blindness in the United States
diabetic retinopathy
Both follicle stimulating hormone and _____________ stimulates follicle growth
estrogen
promotes the deposition of fatty tissues in the breast.
estrogen
promotes the growth of uterine smooth muscle cells.
estrogen
promotes the secretion of prolactin.
estrogen
Both follicle stimulating hormone and _______stimulates follicle growth.
estrogens
Enterocytes of the mucous membrane of the mucosal layer are classified as ________cells if they secrete fluids and enzymes into the lumen and ______cells if they release hormones into the bloodstream.
exocrine endocrine
must be injected into patients with diabetes mellitus type 1 as opposed to oral administration because the insulin is a peptide that would be degraded in the gastrointestinal tract and would therefore only be absorbed as individual amino acids
exogenous insulin
Enterocytes secrete transferrin into the lumen of the small intestine so that iron can be absorbed by
facilitated diffusion
For calcium to be absorbed by _____________, it must bind to calcium-binding protein (calbindin) a hormone-regulated brush border protein.
facilitated diffusion
The absorption of fructose across the apical membrane of the luminal epithelial cells occurs through
facilitated diffusion
Vitamin B12 is absorbed through ______________ in the ileum through complexing with intrinsic factor.
facilitated diffusion
Each ova is embedded in a ___________ with only a small proportion advancing beyond the primordial follicle
follicle
The decrease in estrogen secretion by granulosa cells and the secretion of enzymes by the granulosa cells that degrades the follicle wall is a response of the dominant follicle to stimulation by luteinzing hormone (LH) during the late
follicular phase
Pyrogen-induced upward movement of the set point is the ultimate cause of the [3] in body temperature associated with an infection.
increase
The [3] in the set point of body temperature that occurs during a fever is caused by the release of substances from white blood cells that affect the hypothalamic temperature set point
increase
Therefore, epinephrine can also _______ blood glucose levels.
increase
Decrease in blood glucose activates glucose receptors in the brain- leads to a
increase in sympathetic activity
3.
increased glucose uptake
8.
increased plasma glucose
Macrophages and neutrophils phagocytose debris in the area of the wound during the
inflammation phase
Macrophages are the first cell type on the scene during the
inflammation phase
Transforming growth factor beta and platelet-derived growth factor are released by platelets during hemostasis to promote
inflammation phase
The ____________________ is the part of the blastocyst that develops into the fetus.
inner cell mass
The swallowing reflex
is initiated by the propelling of food to the back of the mouth with the tongue.
The defecation reflex
is stimulated by distension of the rectum.
Nephropathy, proteinuria, polyuria
kidneys
found in the apical membrane of enterocytes hydrolyzes lactose to glucose and galactose.
lactase
A ______ is a lymphatic vessel located in the villus. The from the epithelial cells lining the small intestine make up the brush border.
lacteal microvilli
The__________contains blood vessels, lymphatic vessels and Peyer's patches
lamina propria
The secretion of paracrine by the granulosa cells that stimulates the completion of meiosis I is a response of the dominant follicle to stimulation by luteinizing hormone (LH) during the
late follicular phase.
degrades triglycerides into a monoglyceride and 2 free fatty acids which can be readily exchanged in the lumen with micelles.
lipase
The surge in plasma ___________ that occurs at the beginning of the luteal phase triggers both ovulation and development of the corpus luteum.
luteinizing hormone
The purpose of _________in males is the secretion of androgens form the leydig cells
luteinizing hormone (LH)
Digestion is aided by ___________________
mechanical breakdown
In the absence of the implantation of a fertilized embryo, the _________of the uterine cycle is initiated by the degeneration of the corpus luteum.
menstrual phase
The mesothelium and the peritoneum are continuous with the ___________, a system of clear, thin membranes that interconnects most of the abdominal organs and houses nerves and blood vessels running to them.
mesenteries
The __________ is a layer of epithelial cells on the outer side of the serosa that secretes a watery lubricating fluid that makes it easier for organs to slide past one another. The ________ is the membrane that lines the abdominal cavity.
mesothelium peritoneum
The gastrointestinal tract is divided into layers from the lumen to the external surface. These are ________, ________, _______ _________, and _______.
mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, and serosa.
The __________ contains both inner circular and an outer longitudinal layer. The inner circular muscle layer of the muscularis externa is where __________ potentials occur.
muscularis externa slow wave (spontaneous deploarizations)
The __________ is a thin layer of smooth muscle cells whose contractions stirs the luminal contents and promotes contact with the mucosal membrane.
muscularis mucosae
The _________ is another nerve cell network located within the muscularis externa, also known as the __________.
myenteric plexus Auebach's plexus
Type of DM is caused by damage to the alpha cells of the pancreas
neither type 1 nor type 2 DM
Heat released is from the breakdown of (3)
nutrients
Mature ova develop from a pool of _______ that are fixed at about 2-4 million at birth with a fraction of that number developing into mature ova
oogonia
Energy [4] is through the mechanical, chemical, and transport processes of cells to maintain body temperature and synthesize ATP.
output
the phase of the uterine cycle following the proliferative phase in which there is even more enlargement of the endometrial glands, in which the endometrium is enriched with more arterial branches, there is an increased viscosity of secretions from cervical glands, and there is enhanced secretion of fluids rich in glycogen. The changes in the uterus that occur during the secretory phase of the uterine cycle are mediated by increased progesterone from the corpus luteum.
secretory phase
Fat-soluble vitamins do not require interaction with a protein in the intestinal tract to be absorbed by
simple diffusion
In the jejunum, bicarbonate is absorbed by ______________, while in the ileum and colon, bicarbonate is secreted.
simple diffusion
Lipids are absorbed by ____________ and then packaged as chylomicrons into lacteals. Monoglycerides and free fatty acids that are not immediately transported into luminal enterocytes aggregate into micelles in the lumen of the small intestine.
simple diffusion
The products of fat degradation are absorbed in the small intestines by
simple diffusion
The submucosa contains the __________ which is part of the enteric nervous system.
submucosal plexus
is a diabetes medication that stimulates insulin release from beta cells of the pancreas
sulfonylureas
is a drug class used originally to treat typhoid fever during World War II and is now used to treat diabetes mellitus type 2
sulfonylureas
When the bolus becomes soft and moist enough to swallow, the tongue propels it to the back of the mouth and into the pharynx, where it stimulates mechanoreceptors that initiate the ____________, a series of muscle contractions coordinated by the swallowing center in the medulla.
swallowing reflex
Ejaculation involves increases in __________
sympathetic
Sex determination of a fetus is controlled by the production of ________ which is coded for by the srY gene found on the sex chromsome
testis determining factor
The primary function of thyroid hormone is to raise _____________
the basal metabolic rate (BMR).
When the first sperm binds to the oocyte the head of the sperm is transported into the cytoplasm of the oocyte which stimulates the completion of its arrested meiosis II and ______________ is produced. The two parental (haploid) pronuclei then replicate their DNA while migrating towards each other to create their first __________
the second polar body mitotic division.