Physiology Exam 4 20,21, 22, 24

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process by which larger molecules are chemically broken down into smaller molecules by enzymes in the lumen of the gastrointestinal tract

Digestion-

Is used to describe most cells of the body because they contain two sets of 23 chromosomes (desginated as 2n) which represents the chromosomes number in a zyote (fertilized ovum)

Diploid

The gastric-phase stimulus for acid secretion is the [4] of the stomach and the presence of protein digestion products in the lumen of the stomach.

Distension

The primary mechanism for regulating body temperature is to vary the amount of blood [2] to the skin.

Flowing

Therefore, the primary mechanism by which our bodies can increase heat production in cold environment is to vary the amount of blood [2] to the skin.

Flowing

Thyroid stimulating hormone activates cAMP signal transduction mechanism within the [1] that will result in the release of thyroid hormone.

Follicle cell

Spermatogenesis is directly stimulated by both __________ and testosterone

Follicle stimulating Hormone (FSH)

Inhibin is secreted from the sertoli cells and acts to reduce the secretion of ________ from the anterior pituitary gland.

Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)

The two phases in the ovarian cycle are

Follicular and luteal

During the _________ estrogen induces the expression of LH receptors on granulosa cells

Follicular phase

Is the phase of the ovarian cycle in which one follicle (the dominant follicle) will continue to develop because its cells maintain estrogen secretion in the face of falling FSH levels

Follicular phase

The onset of differentiation of granulosa cells into the corpus luteum is a response of the dominant follicle to stimulation by luteinizing hormone (LH) during the late

Follicular phase

The phase of the ovarian cycle corresponding with the menstrual and proliferative phases of the uterine cycle

Follicular phase

The reduction in progesterone and estrogen that occurs at the beginning of the ________ is responsible for stimulating follicular development through stimulating the release of FSH

Follicular phase

Ulcers

Foot

Line the lumen of the stomach and secrete gastrin into the bloodstream

G cells

release is enhanced by stress, exercise, sleep, and increased plasma amino acids

GH

Insulin increases cellular uptake of glucose by causing _______ to be incorporated into the plasma membrane of some cells.

GLUT4

Number 3

Gall bladder

Contraction of the [4] forces the [3] into the [6], where it emulsifies fats and aids in their digestion.

Gall bladder bile duodenum

The secretion of _____________ is predominantly regulated by glucose, fats, or acid in the duodenum.

Glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide

is the predominant hormone to inhibit gastric secretion and motility in response to distension of the duodenum.

Glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide

The brain requires a steady supply of ______ which is why ________ concentration must be maintained between meals.

Glucose; blood glucose

However, the [2] that is stored in skeletal muscle cells can only be used by that skeletal muscle cell.

Glycogen

Skeletal muscle stores the majority of the body's [2].

Glycogen

Stimulates the release of FSH and LH ifrom the anterior pituitary

Gonadotropin releasing hormone- GnRH

are the general term for the primary reproductive organs, responsible for secretion of estrogens (estradiol) and progesterone in females

Gonads

The ___________ is the follicular structure that contains the secondary oocyte

Graafian follicle

which contains the secondary oocyte

Graffian follicle

Provide nutrients for the developing cycle

Granulosa cells

Secrete a substance that forms the zona pellucida

Granulosa cells

Secrete estrogens

Granulosa cells

Secrete paracrines that support follicle development

Granulosa cells

Secrete paracrines that support oogenesis

Granulosa cells

Secrete antral fluid

Granulosa cells- female (fluid of antrum)

The growth promoting functions of __________________ rely partially on the activity of insulin-like growth factors

Growth Hormone

release is enhanced by stress, exercise, sleep, and increased plasma acids

Growth Hormone

Somatostatin is also known as _____________________

Growth Hormone inhibiting hormone

Dwarfism is caused by decreased stimulation of _______ secretion, decrease responsiveness of tissues to growth hormone, insufficient production of insulin like growth factors and detective growth hormone receptors

Growth hormone

The increase in bone thickness stimulated by____________ involves increased osteoblast activity on the outer surface of the bone and increased osteoclast activity on the inner surface of bone

Growth hormone

The secretion of ______________ is stimulated by decrease in plasma glucose concentration

Growth hormone releasing hormone

Is used to describe gametes because they contain only a single set of 23 chromosomes (designated as n)

Haploid

Red blood cells contain the protein [1].

Hemoglobin

is a non-enzymatic glycosylation protein marker used for measuring the one-to-three-month average of blood glucose levels.

Hemoglobin

The liver is supplied with oxygenated blood from the [1].

Hepatic artery

Number 6

Hepatic ducts

Blood from the intestinal capillaries drains into the mesenteric vein before entering the [2].

Hepatic portal vein

Autosomes are described as __________ because they are formed in matching pairs

Homologous

The secretion of estrogen and progesterone by the corpus luteum during pregnancy is maintained by ___________________________________ until the corpus luteum degenerates and the placenta takes over secretion of these hormones.

Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG)

Crystals called _____ give bone a moneral component that is able too withstand compressive forces

Hydroxyapatite

an abnormally high level of glucose in the blood

Hyperglycemia

an excess of fatty acids and other lipids in the blood

Hyperlipidemia

Is caused when a heat production exceeds heat loss

Hyperthermia

symptoms include blurred vision, hunger, tingling sensation, anxiety, and confusion.

Hypoglycemia

On the other hand... a decrease in plasma glucose can result in:

Hypoglycemia symptoms include blurred vision, hunger, tingling sensation, anxiety, and confusion

Secretion of [6] causes a decrease in the sensation of hunger which is an important component of long-term regulation

Leptin

Responsible for synthesis and secretion of testosterone an other androgens in males

Leydig cells

Lipoprotein lipase in an enzyme located on capillary endothelial cells that breaks down triglycerides which are a form of

Lipids

The storage of ____________ mainly occurs in adipocytes

Lipids

Transported as lipoproteins in the bloodstream

Lipids

Number 5

Liver

The functional unit of the liver is the [5].

Lobule

The central component of the [1] typically involves the parasympathetic nervous system, which acts to promote an increase in gastrointestinal activity.

Long reflex pathway

Gastric reflux occurs when material flows backwards through the [4] esophageal sphincter. When food particles mix with gastric juice it is called [5].

Lower Chyme

The elevated plasma concentration of estrogen early in the _______ has little effect on the secretion of luteinizing hormone because progesterone strongly inhibits LH release

Luteal phase

The surge in plasma luteinizing hormone that occurs at the beginning of the _________ triggers both ovulation and development of the corpus luteum

Luteal phase

Stimulate androgen synthesis in both males and females

Luteinizing hormone (LH)

Triggers ovulation in females

Luteinizing hormone (LH)

found in the apical membrane of enterocytes hydrolyzes maltose to two glucose molecules.

Maltase

Amylases reduce starch or glycogen into either:

Maltose Short, branched polysaccharides called limit dextrins

[8] is a peristaltic-like wave in the large intestine that propels the contents toward the rectum.

Mass movement

In the absence of the implantation of a fertilized embryo, the ______ of the uterine cycle is initiated by the degeneration of the corpus luteum

Menstrual phase

The follicular phase begins with the start of _________, ends with _________, while the luteal phase coincides with the remainder of the ________

Menstruation Ovulation Menstrual cycle

The [9] is a layer of epithelial cells on the outer side of the serosa that secretes a watery lubricating fluid that makes it easier for organs to slide past one another.

Mesothelium

A ________ is a round ball of cells that develops by cell cleavage and forms a fluid filled sac around the developing embryo

Morula

The pattern of smooth muscle contraction in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract

Motility

in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, patterns of smooth muscle contraction that mix and slowly propel contents from one end of the tract to the other

Motility-

The [1] can be subdivided into the mucous membrane, lamina propria, and muscularis mucosae.

Mucosa

The absence of _______ in the fetus will further the development of the Mullerian ducts into the female reproductive tract

Mullerian inhibiting substance (and testosterone)

The [7] contains both inner circular and an outer longitudinal layer.

Muscularis externa

The [3] is a thin layer of smooth muscle cells whose contractions stirs the luminal contents and promotes contact with the mucosal membrane

Muscularis mucosae

Auerbach's plexus

Myenteric plexus

Is the smooth muscle making up most of the uterine wall thickness

Myometrium

Of the gastric pits secrete mucous into the lumen of the stomach

Neck cells

In order to lose weight, a person must be in a state of [7] energy balance.

Negative -quantity of stored energy decreases

In order to maintain a [6] energy balance, the body must consume more energy that it expends

Positive -increases in body weight, net synthesis of macromolecules from absorbed nutrients occurs

Glucose is synthesized by gluconeogenesis and glycolysis and is spared for use by the CNS

Postabsorptive event

During the _________ breakdown of glycogen stores in the liver is required for the maintenance

Postabsorptive state

How the body obtains energy through catabolism of glycogen, proteins, and fats

Postabsorptive state

In response to decreased blood glucose, increased sympathetic activity, and increased blood amino acids

Postabsorptive state

In the ____ glucose is synthesized by gluconeogenesis and glucolysis and is spared for uses by the nervous sistem

Postabsorptive state

In the ______ glucose is "spared" for use by the central nervous system

Postabsorptive state

In the _______ glycerol is converted by the liver to glucose

Postabsorptive state

In the _______ plasma glucagon levels increase

Postabsorptive state

In the _______ the liver converts fatty acids to ketones

Postabsorptive state

In the ________ most cells utilize fatty acids (lipids) instead of glucose for energy, sparing the glucose for the central N.S.

Postabsorptive state

In the ____________ energy input is less than output and thus is released from the breakdown of macromolecules

Postabsorptive state

Increased glucagon secretion by alpha cells

Postabsorptive state

The secretion of _____________ is predominantly regulated by acid content of the duodenum.

Secretin

is the main hormone that stimulates bile secretion in the liver.

Secretin

stimulates pancreatic bicarbonate secretion (and enzyme secretion, to a lesser extent).

Secretin

The movement of a substance from the internal environment to the external environment by transport cross the epithelium

Secretion

process by which fluid containing enzymes and other substances are transported into the lumen of the gastrointestinal tract -Movement of a substance from the internal environment to the external environment by transport across the epithelium

Secretion

Secrete succus entericus a bicarbonate rich fluid into the lumen of the small intestine

Secretory cells in the Crypts of Lieberkuhn

Is the phase of the uterine cycle in which there is an enhanced secretion of fluids rich in glycogen

Secretory phase

Is the phase of the uterine cycle in which there is an increased viscosity of secretions from cervical glands

Secretory phase

The phase of the uterine cycle following the proliferative phase in which there is even more enlargement of the endometrial glands

Secretory phase

The phase pf the uterine cycle in which the endometrium is enriched with more arterial branches

Secretory phase

The mixing motility pattern of the small intestine ****Muscularis externa

Segmentation

[5] is responsible for the mixing of chyme in the small intestines.

Segmentation

[5] is the contraction of the circular muscle at one intestinal segment coupled with its relaxation at adjoining segments

Segmentation

contraction of the circular muscle at one intestinal segment coupled with its relaxation at adjoining segments

Segmentation

increased plasma fatty acids

3.

increased ketone synthesis

4.

increased plasma ketones

5.

decreased plasma pH

6.

decreased urine pH

7.

The blood tests came back negative for liver and pancreatic enzymes, but the X-ray confirmed gallstones filling her gallbladder and blocking the lower biliary duct near the hepatopancreatic ampulla (ampulla of Vater). The doctor mentioned that this might also affect pancreatic function, scheduled a cholecystectomy for the next day, and decided to admit her to the hospital overnight. Why might a gallstone affect the pancreas?

A gallstone that blocks the hepatopancreatic ampulla (ampulla of Vater) will block the release of digestive enzymes from the pancreas.

The hormone _______ is permissive for the regulation of growth due to its stimulation of insulin like growth factor seccretion

Insulin

The metabolic adjustments that occur in the body during the switch from postabsorptive to absorptive state are largely triggered by increases in ________

Insulin

is a chemical messenger that induces the sensation of feeling full (satiety)

Insulin

Enzymes that facilitate entry of sperm into the ova are contained within the ____________ of the spermatozoa

Acrosome

The most [6] form at the target cell is T3. The form that provides long-loop negative feedback is T4.

Active

5] results from the [6] of cortisol and is characterized by hypoglycemia and poor tolerance of stress

Addison's disease Hyposecretion-

Have been glycoslated through a non enzymatic process

Advanced glycosylation end products

During the postabsorptive state, [9] decreases, whereas blood levels of [10] increase.

Insulin Glucagon

Postabsorptive state

Insulin decreases Blood levels of glucagon increase

Diabetes mellitus is a disease of sugar balance. In type 1 diabetes, the body's immune system gradually destroys the cells that produce insulin. In type 2 diabetes, the body's cells become less responsive to the hormone insulin. Insulin plays a vital role in carbohydrate metabolism. What is its role?

Insulin is needed for cells to pick up glucose from the blood; without insulin, more glucose will remain in the blood.

The [5] is measured when the person is lying down, awake and having fasted for 12hours.

Basal metabolic rate

Insulin is secreted by the [1] of the pancreas and stimulates [2].

Beta cells anabolism

The gastric mucosal barrier consists of a layer of mucous and [7] that protects the stomach wall from the acidic luminal contents.

Bicarbonate

On the other side of the hepatocyte is the [4]

Bile canaliculus

When red blood cells are old or injured, the spleen breaks them down and converts the heme from their hemoglobin into [2].

Bilirubin

_______is a degradation by-product of hemoglobin that is removed from the blood by the liver, conjugated, and then secreted into the bile.

Bilirubin

Functions to maintain a differential fluid composition of the seminiferous tubule lumen that facilitates development of sperm and protects sperm from the immune system

Blood testis barrier

Follicle growth

Both FSH and Estrogens

Secrete a viscous mucus just prior to ejaculation

Bulbourethral glamds

The liver secretes ___________ into the bloodstream

Insulin like growth factors

1] is the primary hormone mediating the stress response (or general adaptation syndrome).

Cortisol

[1] belongs to a class of hormones called glucocorticoids.

Cortisol

(1) secretion is regulated by [2] releasing hormone which is a hypothalamic tropic hormone.

Cortisol corticoptrophin

Is the process where portions of homologous chromsomes exchange segments with one another

Crossing over

Are granulosa cells that collect to the wall of the Graafian follicle

Culumus oophorus

[3] is results from the [4] of cortisol and is characterized by the deposition of fat in the abdomen and face, easily bruising, and protein depletion (wasting).

Cushing's syndrome hypersection

Number 4

Cystic duct

Functions to secrete an alkaline fluid containing fructose, enzymes, and prostaglandins into the ejaculatory duct

Seminal vesicles

The mixture of sperm with fluid from the _______ and prostate gland is semen

Seminal vesicles

Sperm is produced in the ____________ of the testes

Seminiferous tubules

Provide nutrients for the developing sperm

Sertoli cells

Secrete Mullerian inhibiting substance

Sertoli cells

Secrete Mullerian inhibiting substance in fetal life

Sertoli cells

Secrete androgen-binding protein into the lumen of seminiferous tubules

Sertoli cells

Secrete paracrines that stimulated spermatogenesis

Sertoli cells

Spermtogonia are located at the basement membrane-________ interface

Sertoli cells

Are chromosomes that determine an individual's sex, two types X and Y chromsomes

Sex chromosomes

The woman was given IV pain meds, and blood was drawn to assess liver and pancreatic function, given her gallstone history. Pancreatic enzymes were elevated, and the doctor diagnosed acute hemorrhagic pancreatitis. After her surgery to remove her gallbladder and clear the obstructed bile duct, the woman recovered uneventfully, and her pancreatitis resolved. Now she wants to know what this surgery has done to her ability to produce bile and digest food. What is the answer?

She can still make bile, but she can't store it, so she can't send a large amount into the duodenum to deal with a lot of fat at one time.

Often a person with a fever will feel cold, have chills, and may actually start [4] because the thermoregulatory center increases the set point for core temperature

Shivering

The [6] serves primarily as a storage depot for whatever material remains in the lumen after absorption has occurred.

Sigmoid colon

is a heart attack without pain.

Silent myocardial ischemia

3] are openings in the liver where blood flows through and exchange takes place with the hepatocytes.

Sinusoids

are openings in the liver where blood flows through and exchange takes place with the hepatocytes.

Sinusois

The inner circular muscle layer of the muscularis externa is where [8] potentials occur.

Slow wave

[2] are the spontaneous graded potentials that occur in smooth muscle cells of the digestive tract.

Slow waves

The nurse asked whether she has noticed a change in her stools. The woman answered that they were hard to flush (they float) and kind of gray-looking. Why did the nurse ask about stools? Choose the best explanation for the nurse's question.

Someone with difficulty converting bilirubin into bile will have trouble digesting fats, and they will go out in the stool.

is the glucose polyol

Sorbitol

During spermatogenesis only the ___________ are haploid cells that require further differentiation in order to become functional spermatozoa

Spermatids

________ differentiate to become _________ in spermatogenesis which possess the characteristic head, midpiece, and tail and are released into the lumen of the semniferous tubule

Spermatids Spermatozoa

What is number 1.?

Sphincter of Oddi

Is composed of smooth muscle between the ampulla of Vater and the duodenum

Sphincter of Oddi (regulates common bile duct and pancreatic duct)

Nutrients that are absorbed in excess of the body's needs are ___________________

Stored as fat

The [4] is a thick layer of connective tissue that provides the gastrointestinal tract with much of its elasticity and distensibility.

Submucosa

The _______ is a thick layer of connective tissue that provides the gastrointestinal tract with much of its _______________.

Submucosa elasticity and distensibility

The [5] is an outer border network of nerve cells also known as Meissner's plexus.

Submucosal plexus

What makes up the enteric nervous system?

Submucosal plexus and myenteric plexus

Secretory cells in crypts of Lierberkuhn

Succus entericus

Found in the apical membrane of enterocytes hydrolyzes sucrose to glucose

Sucrase

sucrose is the substrate for the enxyme

Sucrase

The primary reason for body odor is the bacterial breakdown of fatty acids and proteins in [5] which generates a waste product.

Sweat

The woman was scheduled for laparoscopic cholecystectomy the next day. But that night she developed severe abdominal pain. The nurse noticed the following: She was pale, sweating, and had cool, clammy skin. Her heart rate was high and so was her blood pressure. She had no detectible bowel sounds. What part of the autonomic system appears to be activated in this client?

Sympathetic - you can tell because the sympathetic system causes most of her signs and symptoms.

During sex differentiation, the presence of _________________ stimulates the development of the Wolffian duct

Testosterone

Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and _______ stimulate growth and development of sperm indicated by binding to Sertoli cells

Testosterone

Is the hormone responsible for secondary sex characterists

Testosterone

Triggers increased protein synthesis in muscle at puberty

Testosterone

Triggers increased protein synthesis in muscle at puberty Triggers growth hormone secretion from the anterior pituitary Is the hormone responsible for the secretion of a thick oil by sebaceous gland Responsible for the secondary sex characteristics in males

Testosterone

Triggers the secretion of growth hormone from the anterior pituitary

Testosterone

____________are highly vascularized bits of endocrine tissue found in the pancreas. The exocrine pancreas comprises the numerous acini and their associated ducts that secrete bicarbonate and several digestive enzymes, including pancreatic amylase, pancreatic lipases, proteases, and nucleases. Proteolytic enzymes secreted in pancreatic juice are stored in secretory cells of the pancreas as zymogens. Note that cellulose is a glucose polymer found in plant products that cannot be degraded within the digestive tract of humans

The Islets of Langerhans

Increasing the surface area of the fat globule exposed to enzymes

The action of bile salts

Joe is becoming more confused and uncoordinated. When he tries to get up to leave the examination room, he stumbles and falls down. He is semiconscious and breathing even more heavily. One of the aides says he needs some orange juice, right away. "That's just the wrong thing to do," the doctor answers. "Don't you see his heavy breathing and smell the ketones on his breath? Give him the insulin, stat!"

The doctor is right - Joe's plasma glucose is elevated, so he cannot have hypoglycemia.

Many of Joe's signs and symptoms can be related to the loss of glucose in his urine. Normally, urine does not contain glucose. When plasma glucose levels are elevated, however, some of the glucose from the plasma passes into the urine. Apply the principle of osmosis to explain why Joe was getting up all night to use the bathroom and why he has low blood pressure and signs of dehydration. Choose the most accurate explanation for Joe's problem.

The frequent urination is happening because when glucose moved into his urine, water also followed it. This removed water from his plasma, decreasing his blood volume and dehydrating him.

Androgens are initially synthesized by the ______ and then converted to a second macromolecule estrogen by the granulosa cells

Theca cells

In later stages of development, the granulosa cells proliferate and the outermost layer is transformed into another cell type known as

Theca cells

Initially synthesize and release androgens in females

Theca cells

Release androgens in females

Theca cells

Peripheral [1] detect skin temperature.

Thermoreceptors

[2] is the precursor compound located within colloid that is converted into thyroid hormone

Thyroglobulin

The receptors for [7] are found in the nucleus of target cells.

Thyroid hormones

The liver packages [1] into very low density lipoproteins (VLDLs).

Tiglycerides

Monozygotic twins develop from splitting of the morula white cells are still

Totipotent

Most energy stores for the body are in the form of [1] and are stored in adipose tissue

Triglycerides

Secreting androgens is not a function of the sertoli cells but for leydig cells in males instead

True

is the enzyme that activates procarboxypeptidase.

Trypsin

The [2] esophageal sphincter is a ring of skeletal muscle that regulates the movement of a [3] into the esophagus.

Upper Bolus

skeletal muscle between the pharynx and esophagus

Upper esophageal sphincter

In order to convert amino acids to gluconeogenic precursors, their ammonium ion must be removed in the liver, which is then converted to [9], thereby making it water soluble enough to be excreted by the kidneys.

Urea

Is the site where fertilization normally takes place

Uterine tubes

Both the _______ and cervical canal forms the birth canal

Vagina

Is the structure that conducts sperm from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct

Vans deferens

To increase the absorptive efficiency of the small intestine, the surface area of the mucosa is increased by the presence of folds in the wall called [9], and projections of the cell membrane called [10].

Villi Microvilli

The absorptive state is primarily

anabolic state

Functions to maintain steady level of androgens in the lumen of seminiferous tubules

androgen-binding protein

Insulin and glucagon are known as what type of hormones together?

antagonistic hormones

The enteric nervous system receives its inputs from both _______neurons and ______neurons in the wall of the gastrointestinal tract.

autonomic neurons sensory neurons

The [5] represents the energy requirement for performing necessary tasks as pumping blood and transporting ions.

basal metabolic rate

The gastric mucosal barrier consists of a layer of mucous and ________that protects the stomach wall from the acidic luminal contents

bicarbonate

is a medication whose mechanism of action is in reducing glucose production in the liver and increasing the sensitivity of receptors to insulin

biguanides

The liver eliminates trace metals, cholesterol, certain drugs, and bilirubin as waste products in _____. Bile salts are recycled by the ___________.

bile enterohepatic circulation.

Microvascular damage, macrovascular damage, atherosclerosis

blood vessels

Type of DM may result in hyperglycemia

both type 1 DM and type 2 DM

Type of DM may result in polyuria

both type 1 DM and type 2 DM

Lethargy, coma

brain

Digestion of carbohydrates to monosaccharides is completed by a variety of _________bound to the apical membranes of absorptive cells lining the small intestine

brush border enzymes

Dietary control of diabetes mellitus type 1 and 2 includes limiting the intake of

carbohydrates

Once diffusion from the endometrium becomes inadequate for delivery of oxygen, the placenta develops from projections of the ___________________ into the endometrium, which facilitates exchange of nutrients and waste by the short distance between maternal and fetal blood.

chorionic villi____

After the second mitotic division, each cell contains a random mixture of maternal and paternal alleles on one sister

chromatid

From the stomach the ______moves from the duodenum then to the jejunum and finally to the ileum of the small intestine.

chyme

is found in breast milk in the first one or two days after birth, it is a watery fluid containing a vast array of proteins but few other nutrients.

colostrum

The secretion of paracrine by the granulosa cells that stimulates the completion of meiosis I is a response of the dominant follicle to stimulation by luteinizing hormone (LH) during the late

follicular phase

The secretory activity of the anterior pituitary begins to change during late ___________ such that estrogen reverses its negative feedback control of LH release, changing over to a positive feedback loop which increases the release of luteinizing hormone (LH)

follicular phase

is the phase of the ovarian cycle in which one follicle (the dominant follicle) will continue to develop because its cells maintain estrogen secretion in the face of falling FSH levels.

follicular phase

In the intestine, the smooth muscle cells contraction requires an action potential and its force is therefore graded by the [1] of action potentials.

frequency

Therefore, glucagon increases plasma glucose concentration by promoting _______ and ____________in the liver.

gluconeogenesis glycogenolysis

In the female reproductive cycle, a single ovum is normally produced every 28 days. The loss of reproductive capacity that occurs as a female ages is caused by changes in __________.

hormone secretory patterns

The secretion of estrogen and progesterone by the corpus luteum during pregnancy is maintained by human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG)

human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG)

During _________ the follicle with the oocyte is pressed tight against the ovary wall and bursts

ovulation

During menopause there is a reduction in estrogen release that results in loss of ____, decreased breast size, and an increased risk for both heart disease and osteoporosis.

ovulation

Each oocyte remains under mitotic arrest, the pause in oogenesis that occurs between birth until just before

ovulation

the follicle with the oocyte is pressed tight against the wall and bursts.

ovulation

The ejection of milk that occurs while the infant is suckling is mediated by _____________-induced myoepithelial cell contraction.

oxytocin

Erectile function requires an increase in _________ nervous activity

parasympathetic

Nitric oxide is the neurotransmitter released from the _________nerves to dilate the penile arterioles to increase blood flow to the erectile tissue.

parasympathetic

Carbonic anhydrase is located in and the lumen of the small intestine

parietal cells

Chief cells

pepsinogen

Neuropathy

peripheral nerves

The sperm is moved by the flow of luminal fluid and _______ from the seminiferous tubules to the epididymis

peristalsis

GHRH is stimulated by a decrease in ______

plasma glucose

Therefore, insulin decreases _________ concentration through the uptake of glucose into cells, converting free glucose in cells to glycogen, and suppressing gluconeogenesis.

plasma glucose

The term for excessive eating- polyphagia

polyphagia

The spermatogonium's chromosomes are replicated and the cell differentiates to become a _______________

primary spermatocyte

___________ has 46 duplicated chromosomes possessing two sister chromatids apiece in spermatogenesis

primary spermatocyte

____________ goes through meiosis I in spermatogenesis to yield two _______________ which possess 23 duplicated chromosomes

primary spermatocyte Secondary spermatocytes

promotes the maintenance of thickened endometrium.

profesterone

promotes the growth of glandular tissue in the breasts.

progesterone

promotes the maintenance of thickened myometrium.

progesterone

suppresses the contractile activity of uterine smooth muscle cells.

progesterone

The production of milk is stimulated by release of _______________________ from the hypothalamus.

prolactin-releasing hormone (PRH)

Fibroblasts lay down the new extracellular matrix as the wound heals during the

proliferation phase

Fibroblasts secrete collagen as a wound heals during the

proliferation phase

Keratinocytes are the epidermal cells that proliferate to cover the opening of a wound during the

proliferation phase

The endometrium and the myometrium of the uterus proliferate during the ________ of the uterine cycle

proliferative phase

promoted by estrogen in which the endometrium and the myometrium of the uterus proliferate.

proliferative phase

functions to secrete several enzymes and citrate into the urethra during ejaculation

prostate gland

The intestine-intestinal reflex

protects the small intestine by inhibiting contractions while the intestines are injured or severely distended.

causes mesangial cells to secrete excess extracellular matrix in kidneys under hyperglycemic conditions

protein kinase C

triggers the release of paracrines that cause vasodilation, which increases blood flow into the glomerulus

protein kinase C

Provide an energy storage that is used primarily in times of starvation and are not metabolized by nervous tissue

proteins

______________that occurs at the beginning of the follicular phase is responsible for stimulating follicular development through ___________

reduction in progesterone and estrogen -stimulating the release of FSH.

7.

release stored glucose

Collagen becomes organized and cross-linked during the

remodeling phase

Damage to the microvasculature contributes to several diabetic conditions, including ______, _______, _________, and delayed wound healing.

retinopathy, nephropathy, neuropathy

As the food is broken into smaller pieces in the mouth, it is combined with _____ that facilitates its movement down the esophagus

saliva

6.

secrete more glucagon

The changes in the uterus that occur during the ________ of the uterine cycle are mediated by increased progesterone from the corpus luteum

secretory phase

is a medicine for treatment of diabetes that sensitizes tissue to insulin

thiazolidinediones

Type of DM is caused by damage to beta cells of the pancreas

type 1 DM

Type of DM is caused by inadequate insulin secretion

type 1 DM

The subclass of type 1 DM that attacks antigens of proinsulin, glutamic acid decarboxylase, tyrosine phosphorylase-like protein, zinc transporter 8, and other proteins in the islets of Langerhans

type 1a DM

The subclass of type 1 DM that is an autoimmune disorder that attacks beta cells of the pancreas

type 1a DM

The subclass of type 1 DM that is also called idiopathic type 1 DM, it is the form that involves destruction of pancreatic beta cells

type 1b DM

Type of DM can occur secondary to obesity, while obesity can also occur secondary to it

type 2 DM

Type of DM in which the age of onset has traditionally been thought to be in people over 40 years of age, but occurrence in children is found to be increasing, indicating a reduction in the average age of onset

type 2 DM

Type of DM is caused by a decreased response in tissues to insulin

type 2 DM

Type of DM is most common form of diabetes mellitus

type 2 DM

In order to convert amino acids to gluconeogenic precursors, their ammonium ion must be removed in the liver, which is then converted to _____, thereby making it water soluble enough to be excreted by the kidneys.

urea

Input + production

utilization + output

Secretes a lubricating fluid into the vagina that facilitates the entry of the penis during copulation

vestibular (Bartholin's)

increased lipolysis

2.

Is caused by prolonged exposure to a cold environment

Hypothermia

is a chemical messenger that induces the sensation of feeling full (satiety).

Insulin

Responsible for the synthesis and secretion of testosterone and other androgens

Leydig cells

Enzyme found in saliva (mouth)

Lingual lipase

Lipids are disassembled by

Lipase

Broken down by lipases used by most cells and nervous tissue only in times of starvation

Lipids

smooth muscle between the esophagus and stomach

Lower esophageal sphincter

Technical word for chewing

Mastication

is a weak bulge in the wall of a small blood vessel.

Microaneurysm- Retinopathy

Term for excessive urination

Polyuria

Form the blood testis barrier

Sertoli cells

Secrete fluid into the lumen of seminiferous tubules to support sperm development and transport

Sertoli cells- males

Energy input=

energy utilization + energy output

is the enzyme that cleaves trypsinogen to trypsin.

enterokinase

The liver secretes bile, synthesizes albumin, synthesizes and modifies hormones, and removes aged [6].

erythrocytes

is the primary medicine for regulating diabetes mellitus type 1

exogenous insulin

Retinopathy

eye

The second meiotic division in oogenesis occurs when the ovum has been ________ yielding an ovum, which receives most of the cytoplasm, and a second polar body, which degenerates

fertilized

Polyphagia

gastrointestinal tract

The release of ______ during the absorptive state by certain amino acids in a high-protein meal facilitate maintenance of blood glucose in a low-carbohydrate meal.

glucagon

Impotency

gonads

As the follicle develops the epithelial cells increase to more than one layer and the cells are _______

granulosa cells

Cardiomyopathy

heart

is the first enzyme of glycolysis that has a great affinity for glucose

hexokinase

blood levels are decreased by diabetes mellitus

high-density lipoproteins (HDLs)

To maintain [1], the human body must be kept in balance

homeostasis

parietal cells

hydrogen ions acidify stomach through carbonic anhydrase catalyzed reaction -intrinsic factor - absorption of vitamin B12

The [7] consists of a series of intense anal contractions accompanied by pyloric relaxation that function to sweep the stomach clean of its contents

migrating motility complex

Within the ovaries each follicle contains a single

oocyte

5.

secrete less insulin

The gastroileal reflex

stimulates the motility of the ileum in response to the presence of chime in the stomach.

secretes a lubricating fluid into the vagina that facilitates the entry of the penis during copulation.

vestibular (Bartholin's) gland

The liver also secretes a bicarbonate rich fluid. The liver eliminates trace metals, cholesterol, certain drugs, and bilirubin as ________.

waste products in bile

Energy input=

work performed + heat released

develops when the follicles are in the preantral stage

zona pellucida

develops when the follicles are in the preantral stage.

zona pellucida

Is the hormone responsible for the secretion of a thick oil by the sebaceous gland

Testosteone

The process where fecal material is removed from the body

Defecation

The most [5] form of thyroid hormone secreted into the blood is T4.

Abundant

Function is to secrete fluids into the reproductive tract and transport gametes

Accessory reproductive organs

The liver further converts it into [3], which is stored in the [4].

Bile Gallbladder

Number 2

Duodenum

Diabetes causes retinopathy in where?

Eye

The presence of glucose in the urine

Glucosuria

Neck cells

Mucus

The [2] contains blood vessels, lymphatic vessels and Peyer's patches

Lamina Propria

Lobule

liver functional unit

increased glucagon secretion

1.

Wound healing is a synchronized procession of three phases following injury and blood clot formation: ________, _________, and _________. Diabetes delays wound healing by slowing the rate of all phases.

1. ) inflammation 2.) proliferation 3.) remodeling

Three distinct segments of a fully developed sperm

1. Head-Acrosome 2. Midpiece with mitochondira 3. Tail-flagellum

When a spermatogonium undergoes mitosis, only one undergoes further differentiation and meiosis to become a mature sperm; the other stays a spermatogonium which allows males to continue to produce sperm through their adults lives. Put the following in the correct order of sperm development.

1. Spermatogonia (2n_ 2. Primary Spermatocytes (2n X 2) 3. Secondary spermatocytes (n X 2) 4. Spermatids (n) 5. Spermatozoa (n)

process by which smaller molecules are transported into the bloodstream -Movement of a substance from the external environment to the internal environment by transport across the epithelium

Absoprtion

The movement of a substance from the external environment to the internal environment by transport across an epithelium

Absorption

During the ________ the primary source for most of the body cells is glucose recently absorbed into the blood stream

Absorptive state

In the _______ energy input exceeds output and thus is stored in macromolecules

Absorptive state

In the _______ glucose is stored as glycogen in liver and skeletal muscle

Absorptive state

In the _______ most body cells use glucose for energy

Absorptive state

In the _______ plasma insulin levels increase

Absorptive state

In the _______ the liver converts amino acids into fatty acids

Absorptive state

The liver synthesizes triglycerides and packages them into lipoproteins during the _____________

Absorptive state

What state does liver convert amino acids into fatty acids?

Absorptive state

__________ is produced from catabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins and it is a substrate for the Krebs cycle and for lipid synthesis.

Acetyl CoA

Are different variations of the same gene

Alleles

Glucagon is secreted from [5] of the pancreas and stimulates [6].

Alpha cells Catabolism

Inhibit brush border enzymes that hydrolyze disaccharides trisaccharides and oligosaccharides and decrease absorption of _______

Alpha- glucosidase inhibitors

Most [5] that enter the liver are converted to keto acids that become [4].

Amino acids Fatty acids

The _______ functions to cushion the developing embryo against physical trauma

Amniotic fluid

Number 11

Ampula of vater

The structure at which the flow of bile from the liver and juices from the exocrine pancreas converge

Ampulla of Vater

An increase in cAMP levels in thyroid follicular cells cause ________

An increase in secretion of thyroid hormones

Acetyl CoA catabolized in the Krebs cycle used as a substrate for triglyceride and cholesterol synthesis

Anabolism

Synthesis of large molecules from smaller molecules, generally requiring an input of energy

Anabolism

That the same small biomolecules that provide energy are also used to synthesize larger biomolecules

Anabolism

is the development of new blood vessels.

Angiogenesis

occurs to compensate for the decrease in blood flow due to blockage of blood vessels, however these new blood vessels are weak and leaky, causing blurred vision and possibly blindness.

Angiogenesis

acts on thirst centers in the anterior hypothalamus to trigger polydipsia.

Angiostenin II

acts on thirst centers in the anterior hypothalamus to trigger polydipsia.

Angiotension II

As a follicle develops into the Graafian follicle, the ___________ continues to increase in size until the fluid's pressure causes the follicle to burst at ovulation

Antrum

Are chromosomes other than sex chromosomes

Autosomes

Peristalsis is __________ Segmentation is ____ and ______

Coordinated back and forth

The hormonal trigger for menstruation involves a loss of progesterone secretion from the ______________

Corpus luteum

Sperm are unable to fertilize the egg upon entry into the vagina and must undergo __________ allowing them to more readily adhere to the ovum, which facilitates fertilization

Capacitation

Broken down by salivary amylase and ppancreatic amylase and used by all cells

Carbohydrates

Transported as glucose in the bloodstream

Carbohydrates

When __________ are consumed, they can be used to produce energy or converted to glycogen for storage

Carbohydrates

is a disease of the cardiac muscle that weakens the heart, it is characterized by a reduction in the contractility of the cardiac muscle which leads to a decreased stroke volume.

Cardiomyopathy

Breakdown of large molecules into smaller molecules; generally releases energy

Catabolism

The migration of sperm into the uterus on their way to contact the ovum, is facilitated by the secretion of a thin mucus into the _______

Cervical canal

Secrete pepsinogen into the lumen of the stomach

Chief cells

The secretion of _____________ is predominantly regulated by protein digestion products and fat presence in the duodenum.

Cholecystokinin

When you eat fat, the cells of your small intestine release the hormone [5].

Cholecystokinin

facilitates digestion of fats by stimulation of gallbladder contraction and relaxation of the sphincter of Oddi.

Cholecystokinin

stimulates gall bladder contraction.

Cholecystokinin

stimulates the relaxation of the sphincter of Oddi.

Cholecystokinin

From cartilage

Chondrocytes

Once the ______ begins to enter the duodenum, it must first be deacidified before any of the enzymes in the pancreatic juices can be activated.

Chyme

The peristaltic waves of the stomach will result in the mixing of [4] if the pyloric sphincter is closed.

Chyme

The primary function of the colon is to reduce the volume of the [4].

Chyme

Proteins are cleaved by

Chymotrypsin

The ripening of the cervix in the weeks prior to parturition involves the enzymatic breakdown of __________________ fibers in its connective tissue.

Collagen

Number 8

Common bile duct

Number 7

Common hepatic duct

Is the process whereby energy is transferred to and from the body through direct contact with a solid body- It occurs when a person sits on a metal chair on cold day, they feel the cold of the metal

Conduction

Is an example of movement of heat by the movement of a gas or liquid carrying the heat- Wind chill is the result of this transferring heat away from your body due to the movement of air

Convection

Is the process whereby gametes from each parent fuse to produce a new cell

Fertilization

Implantation of the blastocyst into the endometrium results from the trophoblast secretion of enzymes and paracrines that initiates the

Decidual response

Glucagon secretion is stimulated by [7] blood glucose, increased sympathetic activity, and increased blood amino acids.

Decreased

The liver also performs several hormone-related functions such as hormone _____, _____, ______and ________ of hormone-binding proteins.

Degradation Synthesis Modification Secretion

and glucoamylase found in the apical membrane of enterocytes break down limit dextrins and strait-chain glucose polymers to glucose monomers

Dextrinase

Break down limit dextrins and strait-chain glucose polymers to glucose monomers

Dextrinase and glucoamylase

probably causes blood vessel damage primarily through shear stress on the blood vessel due to elevated pressure.

Diabetes mellitus type 1

probably causes blood vessel damage through decreased nitric oxide release from endothelial cells.

Diabetes mellitus type 2 (Effect of Diabetes Mellitus on Microvasculature)

The release of T3 and T4 occurs through [3], and they can bind to [4] to be transported in the bloodstream.

Diffusion Albumin

Is the breakdown of nutrient molecules that are present in food to smaller molecules by enzymes in the lumen of the digestive tract

Digestion

is an unpleasant sensation produced by innocuous stimuli.

Dysethesia (pain)

During ejaculation, the epididymis, vas deferens,__________ and skeletal muscles at the base of the penis contract

Ejaculatory duct

Aids in the digestion of fats by increasing the surface area of the fat globules exposed to enzymes

Emulsification

Increases the surface area of the fat globule exposed to enzymes

Emulsification

The process whereby bile salts breakdown fat globules into smaller droplets

Emulsification

occurs as nephropathy progresses, it is when the kidneys fail and dialysis or kidney transplant is essential to sustain life.

End-stage renal disease

The submucosal plexus and the myenteric plexus make up the [6] or intrinsic nervous system.

Enteric nervous system

__________ of the mucous membrane of the mucosal layer are classified as _________cells if they secrete fluids and enzymes into the lumen and _________cells if they release hormones into the bloodstream.

Enterocytes exocrine endocrine

Bile salts are recycled by the [8].

Enterohepatic circulation

Sperm acquire motility after they undergo further maturation in the _______

Epididymis

stimulates lipolysis and gluconeogenesis, it also increases blood fatty acid levels and ketone production

Epinephrine

stimulates lipolysis and gluconeogenesis, it also increases blood fatty acid levels and ketone production.

Epinephrine

In the young, the __________ is composed of cartilage, which plays an important role in the elongation of bone during gorwth

Epiphyseal plate

Sex hormones trigger ______ closure

Epiphyseal plate

The volume of blood within the ______________ increases during sexual arousal, causing the penis to become erect

Erectile tissue

The activity of smooth muscle cells of the myometrium is regulated by __________, which increases the responsivness of the myometrium to the hormone oxytocin.

Estrogen

promotes the development of tissue that carries milk to the nipples.

Estrogen

______ maintains the body during pregnancy, prepares the body for delivery and for lactation. Whereas _______maintains the body during pregnancy, prepares the body for parturition and for postnatal nourishment. Estrogens are permissive to the actions of progesterone by inducing expression of progesterone receptors in the endometrium

Estrogen progesterone

Is an example of loss of heat by conversion of a liquid to vapor

Evaporation

Is composed of skeletal muscle between the anus and the external environment

External anal sphincter

Spermatogenesis is directly stimulated by

FSH and testosterone

A fair, fat, forty-three-year-old woman had been having episodes of griping abdominal pain after fatty meals. One day she ate French onion soup with lots of cheese and suffered severe enough pain that she called in sick. Her supervisor pointed out that she always gets sick after fatty foods. She went to the clinic and the nurse in triage took her vitals and history. The nurse noticed that the whites of her eyes were yellow and that she had tenderness on the right side of her abdomen. Blood pressure and heart rate were normal. Based on this initial assessment, what organs do you think might be involved in this woman's illness, and why? Choose the two most likely organs involved in her illness.

Gall bladder, because it stores bile and might be related to the bilirubin buildup in her blood. Liver, because of the yellow coloration in her eyes, which indicates that the liver is not processing bilirubin.

Is bone function to provide nutrients to cells embedded within the rigid bone matrix

Gap junctions

[5] is affected by the volume of chime in the stomach, composition of the chime, force of gastric contraction and amount of peptides in the duodenum.

Gastric emptying

Enzyme secreted into the gastric lumen

Gastric lipase

___________ is increased by the distension of the stomach.

Gastric motility

[3] control of gastrointestinal function refers to its site of origin in the stomach.

Gastric phase

G cells

Gastrin

The secretion of _____________ is predominantly regulated by proteins and protein digestion products in the stomach; distenstion of the stomach; and parasympathetic input to the stomach.

Gastrin

stimulates gastric secretion and motility.

Gastrin

The doctor wants to give Joe an insulin injection, but Joe is unwilling to take it. He tells you that his little sister was on insulin and died in the night after taking her shot. How could insulin hurt somebody with diabetes?

Giving too much insulin can lower plasma glucose levels until the brain and heart do not get enough glucose to function properly.

The metabolic adjustments that occur in the body during the switch from absorptive to postabsorptive state are largely triggered by increases in __________.

Glucagon

_________ secretion increases in diabetes mellitus because the alpha cells in the pancreas are signaling for more glucose.

Glucagon

Inhibits growth

Glucocorticoids

Excess [3] in the liver that is not required for energy and not stored as [2] is converted to [4].

Glucose Glycogen Fatty acids

When eating a protein rich meal that is low in carbohydrates, _______ levels will rise only slightly because rising levels of amino acids would stimulate both _______ and ________secretion.

Glucose Insulin glucagon

Is composed of smooth muscle between the small and large intestine

Ileocecal sphincter

Glucagon [3] glycogenolysis, increased gluconeogenesis, increased ketone synthesis, and increased protein degradation.

Increased

Insulin secretion is stimulated by [3] blood glucose, increased blood amino acids, increased parasympathetic nervous activity and increased glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide.

Increased

Macrophages- first cell on the scene to act in the inflammatory response

Inflammation

Neutrophils arrive to the wound area by chemotaxis and assist in fighting the infection through secreting cytokines during the

Inflammation phase

Provides negative feedback to FSH secretion, but not LH, in both males and females

Inhibin

Insulin [4] the breakdown of proteins, fats and glycogen as well as inhibits gluconeogenesis.

Inhibits

Energy [2] arrives in the form of absorbed [3].

Input Nutrients

is composed of smooth muscle between the anus and the internal environment

Internal anal sphincter

One of the more experienced nurses says it is easy to spot a patient with ketoacidosis because of his/her heavy breathing. Why would somebody with ketones and fatty acids in his/her blood breathe heavily?

Joe's heavy breathing is a response to the acid in his blood. By exhaling more, he will remove CO2 from his blood and bring the blood's pH up.

symptoms include dehydration, fruity odor to breath, polyuria, and electrolyte imbalance.

Ketoacidosis

is the production of ketones

Ketogeneisis

elevated ketone levels in the blood

Ketosis

[7] are macrophages in the liver

Kupffer cells

generally affect the peripheral nervous system.

Nephropathies

have an early indicator marked by proteinuria (presence of proteins in the urine).

Nephropathies

Is the neurotransmitter released from parasympathetic nerves to dilate the penile arteries to increase blood flow to the erectile tissue

Nitric oxide

Released from parasympathetic nerves to dilate arteries to increase blood flow to the erectile tissue

Nitric oxide

Primordial follicle contains

Oogonia

Is the cell type that resorbs bone during remodeling

Osetoclasts

Is the cell type that deposits bone during remodeling

Osteoblasts

Produce osteoid

Osteoblasts

Release enzymes that degrade the osteoid

Osteoclasts

Is the cell type surrounded by calcified bone and secretes matrix to support bone

Osteocyte

An organic compound called ______________ gives bone its ability to withstand bones forces

Osteoid

During menopause there is a reduction in strogen release that results in loss of _______ decreased breast size and an increased risk for both heart disease and osteoporosis

Ovulation

Each oocyte remains under meiotic arrest, the pause in oogenesis that occurs between birth until before ____________

Ovulation

stimulates the uterus directly to cause contractions and indirectly by stimulating the release of prostaglandins from myometrial cells which locally cause uterine contractions as well.

Oxytocin

Number 9

Pancreas

Number 10

Pancreatic duct

From the pancreas, digestion takes place in the small intestine

Pancreatic lipases

is an abnormal sensation of the skin such as tingling or numbness.

Paresthesia

Acid in stomach comes from

Parietal cells

Produce intrinsic factor

Parietal cells

Secrete hydrogen ions (acid) into the lumen of the stomach

Parietal cells

The digestion of proteins begins in the stomach with the activation of the zymogen

Pepsinogen

Is the outer layer of the uterus made up of peritoneal serous coat supported by a thin layer of connective tissue

Perimetrium

3] is initiated by the entry of the bolus into the esophagus stimulating stretch receptors and continues through the stomach and small intestine.

Peristalsis

Caused by the coordinated activity between the circular and longitudinal muscle layers of the muscularis externa in adjoining segments of the GI tract

Peristalsis

[3] is the contraction of the circular muscle layer and relaxation of the longitudinal muscle in the proximal segment coupled with the contraction of longitudinal muscle and relaxation of the circular muscle in the distal segment.

Peristalsis

contraction of the circular muscle layer and relaxation of the longitudinal muscle in the proximal segment coupled with the contraction of longitudinal muscle and relaxation of the circular muscle in the distal segment

Peristalsis

The [10] is the membrane that lines the abdominal cavity.

Peritoneum

Ciliary action and ________ move the oocyte through the uterine tubue

Perstalsis

The _______ forms from both the chroionic villi and endometrial tissue of the mother

Placenta

The term for excessive thirst

Polydipsia

Digested by amylases located in saliva and pancreatic juice

Polysaccharides

Inactivation of sperm binding proteins in the zona pellucida and hardening of the zona pellucida prevents

Polyspermy

A follicle in its earliest stage of development is called a ________ and contains an oogonia

Primordial follicle

A follicle in the earliest stage of development with a developing ovum or oocyte surrounded by a single layer of specialized epithelial cells called follicle cells

Primordial follicle

Inhibits uterine contractions

Progesterone

Proliferative phase is promoted by estrogen and the secretory phase was promoted by __________

Progesterone

The decrease in secretion of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) during pregnancy is regulated primarily by

Progesterone

Fibroblasts lay down new extracellular matrix as the wound heels?

Proliferation

In the uterine cycle the _________ is promoted by estrogen

Proliferative phase

stimulate uterine contraction and the softening of the cervix so it can dilate.

Prostaglandins

Gastric mucosal barrier

Protects the stomach lining

Secretion of cholecystokinin is predominantly regulated by which of the following

Protein digestion products and fat presence in duodenum

Broken down by trypsin's and peptidases and used by most cells except those in nervous tissue

Proteins

Transported as amino acids in the bloodstream

Proteins

The flow of chyme from the stomach to the small intestine is physically regulated by the [8] sphincter

Pyloric

smooth mucle between the stomach and duodenum

Pyloric sphincter

The process whereby energy is transferred to and from the body through electromagnetic waves

Radiation

[2] is the decrease in rugae folding within the stomach in advance of the arrival of a bolus of food.

Receptive relaxation

[6] are the folds in the stomach that can flatten to expand the stomach volume giving it greater surface area.

Rugae

As the food is broken into smaller pieces in the mouth, it is combined with [1] that facilitates its movement down the esophagus

Saliva

_______is composed of mucus, amylases, bicarbonate ions, and lysozymes.

Saliva

Functions to keep the temperature of the testes less than body temperature for optimal sperm development

Scrotum

______________ undergo meiosis II in spermatogenesis to become __________, which have 23 single chromosomes (n) but have not developed the mature sperm' characteristic features

Secondary spermatocytes Spermatids

2.

Secrete less glucagon

1.

Secrete more insulin

In the ______ the liver packages lipids into very low density lipoproteins to transport lipids to adipose tissue

absorptive state

In the _______ carbohydrates are converted to fat

absorptive state

In the __________ glucose transport into most body cells increases

absorptive state

Increased insulin secretion

absorptive state

by beta cells In response to increased blood glucose, increased blood amino acids, increased parasympathetic nervous system activity, and increased glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide

absorptive state

The decrease in blood glucose [8] glucose receptors in the brain, which leads directly to a(n) increase in sympathetic activity

activates

Many individual amino acids enter the epithelial cells that line the lumen of the digestive tract via sodium-linked secondary ____________ (cotransport with sodium).

active transport

The absorption of glucose involves secondary ______________ across the apical membrane and facilitated diffusion across the basolateral membrane.

active transport

The absorption of sodium through the small intestine is driven by ____________ and is typically linked to absorption of chloride.

active transport

are proteins that have been glycosylated through a non-enzymatic process known as glycosylation

advanced glycosylation end-products (AGEs)

is the primary protein that appears in the urine with nephropathy

albumin

decease blood glucose levels by inhibiting digestion of carbohydrates in the small intestine

alpha-glucosidase inhibitors

is a medication whose mechanism of action is to inhibit brush border enzymes that hydrolyze disaccharides, trisaccharides, and oligosaccharides to glucose or other monosachharides, thereby decreasing absorption of glucose

alpha-glucosidase inhibitors

is the enzyme responsible for cleavage of the amino acid at the amine portion of the peptide fragment.

aminopeptidase

Catalyzes reactions with polysaccharides

amylase

The hormonal trigger for menstruation involves a loss of progesterone secretion from the _______

corpus luteum

The ruptured follicle is then transformed into a gland called the ___________, which secretes estrogens, progesterone and inhibin

corpus luteum

Fetal release of _______________________ appears to be partially responsible for stimulating parturition.

corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)

4.

decreased plasma glucose

is damage to the blood vessels of the eye

diabetic retinopathy

is the leading cause of adult-onset blindness in the United States

diabetic retinopathy

Both follicle stimulating hormone and _____________ stimulates follicle growth

estrogen

promotes the deposition of fatty tissues in the breast.

estrogen

promotes the growth of uterine smooth muscle cells.

estrogen

promotes the secretion of prolactin.

estrogen

Both follicle stimulating hormone and _______stimulates follicle growth.

estrogens

Enterocytes of the mucous membrane of the mucosal layer are classified as ________cells if they secrete fluids and enzymes into the lumen and ______cells if they release hormones into the bloodstream.

exocrine endocrine

must be injected into patients with diabetes mellitus type 1 as opposed to oral administration because the insulin is a peptide that would be degraded in the gastrointestinal tract and would therefore only be absorbed as individual amino acids

exogenous insulin

Enterocytes secrete transferrin into the lumen of the small intestine so that iron can be absorbed by

facilitated diffusion

For calcium to be absorbed by _____________, it must bind to calcium-binding protein (calbindin) a hormone-regulated brush border protein.

facilitated diffusion

The absorption of fructose across the apical membrane of the luminal epithelial cells occurs through

facilitated diffusion

Vitamin B12 is absorbed through ______________ in the ileum through complexing with intrinsic factor.

facilitated diffusion

Each ova is embedded in a ___________ with only a small proportion advancing beyond the primordial follicle

follicle

The decrease in estrogen secretion by granulosa cells and the secretion of enzymes by the granulosa cells that degrades the follicle wall is a response of the dominant follicle to stimulation by luteinzing hormone (LH) during the late

follicular phase

Pyrogen-induced upward movement of the set point is the ultimate cause of the [3] in body temperature associated with an infection.

increase

The [3] in the set point of body temperature that occurs during a fever is caused by the release of substances from white blood cells that affect the hypothalamic temperature set point

increase

Therefore, epinephrine can also _______ blood glucose levels.

increase

Decrease in blood glucose activates glucose receptors in the brain- leads to a

increase in sympathetic activity

3.

increased glucose uptake

8.

increased plasma glucose

Macrophages and neutrophils phagocytose debris in the area of the wound during the

inflammation phase

Macrophages are the first cell type on the scene during the

inflammation phase

Transforming growth factor beta and platelet-derived growth factor are released by platelets during hemostasis to promote

inflammation phase

The ____________________ is the part of the blastocyst that develops into the fetus.

inner cell mass

The swallowing reflex

is initiated by the propelling of food to the back of the mouth with the tongue.

The defecation reflex

is stimulated by distension of the rectum.

Nephropathy, proteinuria, polyuria

kidneys

found in the apical membrane of enterocytes hydrolyzes lactose to glucose and galactose.

lactase

A ______ is a lymphatic vessel located in the villus. The from the epithelial cells lining the small intestine make up the brush border.

lacteal microvilli

The__________contains blood vessels, lymphatic vessels and Peyer's patches

lamina propria

The secretion of paracrine by the granulosa cells that stimulates the completion of meiosis I is a response of the dominant follicle to stimulation by luteinizing hormone (LH) during the

late follicular phase.

degrades triglycerides into a monoglyceride and 2 free fatty acids which can be readily exchanged in the lumen with micelles.

lipase

The surge in plasma ___________ that occurs at the beginning of the luteal phase triggers both ovulation and development of the corpus luteum.

luteinizing hormone

The purpose of _________in males is the secretion of androgens form the leydig cells

luteinizing hormone (LH)

Digestion is aided by ___________________

mechanical breakdown

In the absence of the implantation of a fertilized embryo, the _________of the uterine cycle is initiated by the degeneration of the corpus luteum.

menstrual phase

The mesothelium and the peritoneum are continuous with the ___________, a system of clear, thin membranes that interconnects most of the abdominal organs and houses nerves and blood vessels running to them.

mesenteries

The __________ is a layer of epithelial cells on the outer side of the serosa that secretes a watery lubricating fluid that makes it easier for organs to slide past one another. The ________ is the membrane that lines the abdominal cavity.

mesothelium peritoneum

The gastrointestinal tract is divided into layers from the lumen to the external surface. These are ________, ________, _______ _________, and _______.

mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, and serosa.

The __________ contains both inner circular and an outer longitudinal layer. The inner circular muscle layer of the muscularis externa is where __________ potentials occur.

muscularis externa slow wave (spontaneous deploarizations)

The __________ is a thin layer of smooth muscle cells whose contractions stirs the luminal contents and promotes contact with the mucosal membrane.

muscularis mucosae

The _________ is another nerve cell network located within the muscularis externa, also known as the __________.

myenteric plexus Auebach's plexus

Type of DM is caused by damage to the alpha cells of the pancreas

neither type 1 nor type 2 DM

Heat released is from the breakdown of (3)

nutrients

Mature ova develop from a pool of _______ that are fixed at about 2-4 million at birth with a fraction of that number developing into mature ova

oogonia

Energy [4] is through the mechanical, chemical, and transport processes of cells to maintain body temperature and synthesize ATP.

output

the phase of the uterine cycle following the proliferative phase in which there is even more enlargement of the endometrial glands, in which the endometrium is enriched with more arterial branches, there is an increased viscosity of secretions from cervical glands, and there is enhanced secretion of fluids rich in glycogen. The changes in the uterus that occur during the secretory phase of the uterine cycle are mediated by increased progesterone from the corpus luteum.

secretory phase

Fat-soluble vitamins do not require interaction with a protein in the intestinal tract to be absorbed by

simple diffusion

In the jejunum, bicarbonate is absorbed by ______________, while in the ileum and colon, bicarbonate is secreted.

simple diffusion

Lipids are absorbed by ____________ and then packaged as chylomicrons into lacteals. Monoglycerides and free fatty acids that are not immediately transported into luminal enterocytes aggregate into micelles in the lumen of the small intestine.

simple diffusion

The products of fat degradation are absorbed in the small intestines by

simple diffusion

The submucosa contains the __________ which is part of the enteric nervous system.

submucosal plexus

is a diabetes medication that stimulates insulin release from beta cells of the pancreas

sulfonylureas

is a drug class used originally to treat typhoid fever during World War II and is now used to treat diabetes mellitus type 2

sulfonylureas

When the bolus becomes soft and moist enough to swallow, the tongue propels it to the back of the mouth and into the pharynx, where it stimulates mechanoreceptors that initiate the ____________, a series of muscle contractions coordinated by the swallowing center in the medulla.

swallowing reflex

Ejaculation involves increases in __________

sympathetic

Sex determination of a fetus is controlled by the production of ________ which is coded for by the srY gene found on the sex chromsome

testis determining factor

The primary function of thyroid hormone is to raise _____________

the basal metabolic rate (BMR).

When the first sperm binds to the oocyte the head of the sperm is transported into the cytoplasm of the oocyte which stimulates the completion of its arrested meiosis II and ______________ is produced. The two parental (haploid) pronuclei then replicate their DNA while migrating towards each other to create their first __________

the second polar body mitotic division.


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