Physiology Lab
People who hyperventilation may get dizzy [due to cerebral vasoconstriction] causing anxiety and further hyperventilation. Such people are sometimes urged to breathe into a paper bag. What good would this do? Explain the physiological mechanisms involved.
Breathing into a paper bag would force the person to breath back in the expired CO2. Ther person has a high pH value (alkalosis) that causes the dizziness being experienced. Breathing back in the CO2 would cause an increase in H+ concentration allowing the pH to fall. The normal pH is thus restored relieving associated symptoms.
The glands in the duodenum that secrete an alkaline mucus
Brunners glands
What substance couples electrical excitation to muscle contraction ?
Ca 2+
People who live at high altitude often have a high RBC count, a condition called polycythemia. Explain the cause of the polycythemia and its possible benefit. Do you think it could have any adverse effects? Explain
Caused from increase in erthropoeitin secretion by the kidney. The increase in RBC production, raises the hematocrit value. Benefit would be a higher O2 carrying capacity in the blood but it would have adverse effects including thicker blood that could lead to increased blood pressure as well as other cardiovascular disease
How might the patients history of COPD relate the the measured values of an arterial PCO2 of 50 mm Hg
Due to the COPD, uncompensated respiratory acidosis has occurred because the patient has above normal PCO2 level of 50 mmHg. (normal =38-42) a decrease blood pH of 7.30 (normal = 7.38-7.42) and a high level of plasma bicarbonate of 24 mEq/L (normal = 22-25). COPD involves a decreased responsiveness to hypoxia and hypercapnia (deficiency in O2 in tissues and increased CO2 blood concentration) which can lead to ventilation inequalities in alveolar dead space. This can contribute to acidosis.
What cardiovascular adaptations are associated with endurance training? How do these changes help to improve performance
Endurance training increases cardiac output through a higher blood volume and stronger contraction of ventricles. This allows more blood to be ejected each beat and the O2 demand is increased which stimulates increase in blood volume. Higher stroke volume and larger blood volume allow cardiac output to be achieved at a slower rate which inturn increases endurance and performance
Describe how the structure of a sarcomere changes during muscle contraction
1. The actin filaments slide over myosin so the H-zone and Iband decrease in size and the Z lines come closer to each other. 2. Myosin doesn't move so A band size doesn't change
Describe some of the causes of anemia. Why is anemia dangerous?
1. high rate of RBC destruction or insufficient RBC production due to dietary deficiencies in iron and/ or B12 2. Bone marrow disease Dangerous because the carrying capacity of O2 by the blood is significantly reduced which can cause hypoxemia and cellular hypoxia
One hemoglobin molecule contains ___ heme groups; each heme group normally combines with one molecule of _______
4, oxygen
What is the normal measurement of arterial carbon dioxide levels?
40 mm Hg
A solution with a H+ concentration of 10^-9 molar has a pH of
9
What is the normal percent oxyhemoglobin saturation of arterial blood?
97%
The percent oxyhemoglobin saturation is measured in babies under treatment for respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) and in patients under general anesthesia. What information would these measurements provide under these conditions.
A baby in respiratory distress means that their lungs are filled with fluid so they don't give enough O2 into the blood. A person under general anesthesia and characterized from various stages that can cause hypoxia and needs monitoring. Oxygen saturation tells the blood status of O2 levels.
Newborn babies, particularly premature ones, often have a rapid rate of red blood cell destruction and have jaundice. What is the relationship between these two conditions? How is this jaundiced treated, and how does this treatment work
A baby undergoes RBC destruction during labor and delivery which causes excessive amounts of heme from hemoglobin to be released. The free heme molecules are converted into Bilirubin by the liver and circulates in the blood. If the body (liver) is unable to eliminate the excess amount of circulating Bilirubin through excreting it as bile, the concentration can rise high enough that it causes jaundice in Newborns dont have fully functioning livers at the time of birth so jaundice can develop. In newborns it normally goes away on its own, but if it is severe, light therapy is used to lower the levels of bilirubin because the light changes the shape of bilirubin following the excretion in both urine and stool
Many diuretic drugs used clinically inhibit Na+ reabsorption in the loop of Henle. Predict the effect of these drugs on the urinary excretion of Cl- and K+, and explain your answer.
Drugs that inhibit the reabsorption of Na + in the loop of Henle which causes and increase in urinary excretion of Na and slo of Cl- that follows the Na. Further downstream in the distal tubule, aldosterone promotes rapid, reabsorption of the excess, Na+ in exchange for K+. Increase excretion of K+ also happens due to the increase secretion of K+ by the tubule
Describe the location of digestive enzymes produced by the small intestine, and explain how these cooperate with pancreatic juices.
Epithelial cells that face the lumen of the small intestine produce digestive enzyme that are fixed within the microvilli and work to digest the polymers and monomers as the food passes. Epithelial enzymes activate trypsin which then activate pancreatic juice enzymes. This enhances digestive activity.
What condition does this patients plasma K+ measurment indicate? What could she do to treat the condition?
Excess aldosterone causes K+ loss through urine and decreases K+ concentration. ACE inhibitor prevents aldosterone and more Na is excreted and K+ is retained to achieve the electrolyte balance. Hypokalemia is observed before use of ACE inhibitor and symptoms of hypokalemia are elevated blood pressure, muscle weakness, cramps, constipation. Oral supplement of K+ can be used to help treat if the case is too severe, intravenous system can be used.
what can raise the BUN measurement? What can raise the plasma creatinine measurement? Which of these measurements is most indicative of the ability to filter the blood?
A high BUN value can mean kidney injury or disease is present. Kidney damage can be caused by high blood pressure or diabetes. an increase in plasma creatinine can be caused by a decrease in blood flow or low blood pressure caused by artery disease or severe dehydration. BUN measurment would be most indicative because damage to kidney will alter its function
How does a persons aerobic capacity and lactate threshold change with age? What causes these changes? How might these changes be minimized?
A persons aerobic capacity and lactate threshold decreases with age mostly caused by declines in maximum heart rate and lung function. These changes can be caused by environment the lungs and heart are exposed to. The weakening of the cells in the lungs, heart, and elasticity and amount of physical activity minimize changes by being more active.
If a person has blood type A the possible genotypes that the person may have are
AA and AO
the rarest blood type is blood type
AB-
What is the action of ACE and what effect would an ACE inhibitor have on urine Na+. ? What effect would it have on plasma Na+, plasma volume and blood pressure?
ACE is angiotensin converting enzyme. ACE inhibitors are drugs used to treat hypertension. ACE inhibitors act by vasodilation and increase blood flow and decrease the cardiac output. Blood volume is also reduced. The renin-angiotensin aldosterone system regulates blood pressure. THe blood pressure is increased by the Na and H2O reabsorption by aldosterone and vasoconstriction to increase blood pressure. ACE converts angiotensin into angiotensin II. ACE inhibitors prevent conversion. This causes vasodilation and increased blood pressure flow. Excess Na is sent through urine and plasma concentration is decrease and urine concentration increase
the neurotransmitter chemical that stimulates contraction of skeletal muscles is
ACh
If a person is blood O marries a person who is blood type A, what are the possible blood types their children could have
AO or OO
Trace the course of events starting from the moment Ach binds to its receptors in the sarcolemma and ending when Ca2+ enters the sarcoplasm
Ach binds to receptors in the sarcolemma which causes action potentials to take place. This causes the voltage gated Ca 2+ channels in the T-tubules to make the Ca 2+ release channels in the sarcoplasmic reticulum leading to diffusion of Ca2+ into the sarcoplasm
An excess of what molecule produced the yellowish discoloration and what is a likely reason for this to occur? How does the steatorrhea relate to this reason?
Excess billirubin in tissues casues the yellow discoloration. high levels could arise from the gallbladder being blocked and cant drain properly as well as liver disfunction, hepatitis, bile duct inflammation, hemolytic anemia etc. Steatorrhea is related to the reason of yellow discoloration because of the absence or deficiency in bile salts reaching the intestine which allow normal abosrption of fat and fat soluble vitamines
How could Botox help to treat a person with stabismus? How could Botox injections produce smoother skin, but also cause a droopy forehead and eyelid?
Botox could weaken the affected muscle on one side of the eye allowing the muscle on the opposite side of the eye to work better Botox has the ability to diffuse to other muscles and cause eyelids of forehead to drop Botox injection are dermal fillers and when injected into a wrinkle help to plump up skin and smooth the surface
The enzyme in RBC that catalyzes the formation of carbonic acid is
carbonic anhydrase
A molecule formed from the combination of hemoglobin and carbon monoxide is
carbooxyhemoglobin
The type of hemoglobin bound to carbon monoxide
carboxyhemoglobin
the cells of the gastric mucosa that secrete pepsinogen
chief cells
The particles consisting of a combination of triglycerides and protein, secreted by intestinal epithelial cells into the central lacteals of the villi are called
chylomicrons
The different forms of hemoglobin can be distinguished visually because they have different
colors so they absorb different amounts of light at each wavelength
the major glucocorticoid is
cortisol
substance from the description of the renal plasma clearance that is only slightly greater than the GFR for
creatinine
In the lungs, normal hemoglobin without oxygen, or ______ binds to oxygen to become ________
deoxyhemoglobin, oxyhemoglobin
The last Korotkoff sound occurs when the cuff pressure equals the
diastole
As a person gets older, the maximum cardiac rate
dicreases
What is the function of bile salts?
emulsification
the cells of the gastric mucosa that secrete histamine
entero chromaffin- like Cells (ECL's)
The hormone ______ stimulates the bone marrow to produce red blood cells; this hormone is secreted by the ______
erthropietin, kidney
The chief estrogenic hormone is
estradiol
eighteen carbon sex steroid
estrogen
define lactate threshold
exercise intensity at which blood concentration of lactate and or lactic acid begins to increase
Arrange the structures in decreasing order: sarcomere, fibril, filaments fiber
fiber>fibril>sarcomere> filament
Explain why frozen food keeps longer than food at room temperature
freezing inhibits the actions of enzymes. the enzymes important to food are those that hydrolyze proteins. when food is frozen it keeps longer due to the enzymes in the organisms promoting the decomp at room temperature not being able to in freezing conditions.
The type of hemoglobin where the heme iron is in the oxidized Fe 2+ state
hemoglobin
blood is transported from the intestine to the liver in a large vessel known as the
hepatic portal vein
The condition of athletes bradycardia, is caused by
high levels of inhibitory activity by the vagus nerve to the SA node
another name for cortisol is
hydrocortisone
What condition does the person described in question 4 have with BP 168/112
hypertenstion
Suppose the 5alpha reductase inhibitor drug described in question 11 also caused hair to grow in a man with male pattern baldness. What could you conclude about the cause of the male pattern baldness?
if there is an increase in the free testosterone levels it leads to balding. Male pattern baldness is an example of androgenic alopecia leading to decline in hair growth because of the conversion of
The most common cause of the condition described in question 9 is
inadequate supply of dietary iron
Osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus of the brain are stimulated by and ______ in plasma osmotic pressure
increase
define alkalosis
increase base in blood causing pH to rise above 7.45
define acidosis
increasing acidity in the blood causing pH to fall below 7.35
the three components of the mucosa layer of the digestive tract are the
inner epithelium, the lamina propria and the muscularis mucosa
molecule in the plasma that is filtered but neither reabsorbed nor secreted
inulin
substance from the description of the renal plasma clearance that is equal to the GFR for
inulin
Which food group is not digested significantly until it reaches the small intestine?
lipids
bile is produced by the ______ and stored in the ________
liver; gallbladder
define aerobic capacity
maximum rate of oxygen capacity by the body
A hemoglobin molecule containing oxidized iron . (Fe 3+) is called
methemoglobin
the foldings of the plasma membrane of intestinal epithelial cells that produce the brush border are called
microvilli
define base
molecule that accepts H+ with a higher pH
define acid
molecule that can donate free H+ to solution with lower pH
Estradiol is secreted by the
ovaries
Name two different endocrine glands that secrete progesterone
ovaries and adrenal gland
The molecule formed by the binding of oxygen to deoxyhemoglobin
oxyhemoglobin
the microscopic exocrine units of the pancreas are called ______; the endocrine structures are known as the ____
pancreatic acini, islets of Langerhans
the cells of the gastric mucosa that secrete HCL
parietal cells
the enzyme in gastric juice that partially digests protein is _____; this enzyme has a pH optimum of ____
pepsin;1.6 to 2.4
Type A negative
present a, absent b, rh
Type AB negative
present a,b; absent rh
Type O positive
present rh, absent a,b
twenty one carbon sex steroid
progesterone
molecule in the plasma that is not filtered to a significant degree
protein
The antidiuretic hormone specifically stimulates the kidneys to _____
reabsorb water from the nephron
One red blood cells are destroyed by the ______ system, which includes these three organs
reticuloendothelial, 1. spleen 2. liver 3. bone marrow
The Ca 2+ is stored in which intracellular organelle
sarcoplasmic reticulum
Once blood has reached the liver, it travels through large capillaries called
sinusoids
If a person has athlete's bradycardia, the resting heart rate is _______ than average
slower
The measurement that is 1.00 for pure water and that increases in proportion to the general solute concentration of a solution
specific gravity
The scientific name of the device used to take a blood pressure reading is the
sphygmomanometer
what are anabolic steroids and why do some athletes and body builders illegally take them? Describe some of their side effects and explain the mechanisms of how they can (a) stimulate growth of female-like breast tissue in men and (b) cause atrophy in testes
synthetic androgens that promote protein synthesis in muscles and other organs a. liver and adipose tissue can change androgens into estrogens development of gynecomastia ( abnormal growth of female mammary tissue) b. high levels of exogenous androgens also inhibit the secretion of FSH and LH from the pituitary --> cause atrophy of testes and erectile disfunction
when blood pressure measurments are taken, the first sound of Korotkoff occurs when the cuff presure equals the _____ pressure
systolic
The arterial blood pressure is directly proportional to two factors
the cardiac output and the total peripheral resistance
What can you conclude about the pH optimum of pepsin?
the enzyme pepsin has both a pH optimum toward a higher acidity and a temperature optimum of around 37
Describe how the specific gravity of the urine changes after drinking water and explain the physiological mechanisms responsible for this change
the urine specific gravity should decrease. The increase in H2O intake decreases plasma osmolality. The osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus sense the increase in water concentration and decrease release of ADH from the posterior pituitary. When there is less ADH circulating, the kidneys aren't able to retain as much water. This results in the release of excess water in the urine and decrease in specific gravity.
The primary cause of higher aerobic capacity of endurance- trained athletes is
their higher aerobic outputs and increase rates of oxygen delivery to muscles
Actin and myosin comprise the ____ and ______ filaments respectively
thin and thick
Ca 2+ binds to a regulatory protein known as _______ which in turn is bound to an inhibitory protein called _____
troponin, tropomyosin
which tube contained the most starch following incubation. which tube contained the most reducing sugars? what conclusions can you draw
tube 1 and tube 4 had the most starch and tube 2 had most reducing sugar. This establishes that salivary amylase functions best at a neutral pH and is somewhat destroyed by boiling
molecule in the plasma that is filtered and partially reabsorbed
urea
substance from the description of the renal plasma clearance that is greater than zero but less than the GFR for
urea
The sounds of Korotkoff are produced by
vibrations due to turbulent flow of blood in a partially compressed artery
microscopic fingerlike projections of mucosa in the small intestine are called
villi
what do you think happens to the digestion of a bite of bread after you swallow it
while chewing on a bite of bread, the amylase from salive acts on the bread starch which reduces it to form sugar. once swallowed, the acidic gastric juice would inactivate the salivary amylase. this process was observed in tube 3 from the addition of HCL which greatly reduced amylase activity.
Could a person have a low hematocrit yet have a normal red blood cell count? Explain what might cause this condition
yes, if the persons plasma volume is larger than normal the measurement of a lower than normal hemocrit level would suggest that the packed cell volume is too low, even though the RBC count may be normal. This condition could caused due to excessive fluid intake
hydrocortisone is secreted by the
zona fasciculata of the adrenal cortex
aldosterone is secreted by
zona glomlerosa of the adrenal cortex
Explain how hyperventilation and hypoventilation affect the blood pH
Hyperventilation with an increase in ventilation and loss of CO2 will cause the equation to shift to the left . Loss of CO2 leads to abnormal decrease in carbonic acid and decrease in H+ concentration which produces increase in blood pH. Hypoventilation shifts the equation to the right because decrease ventilation lets levels of CO2 to accumulate. An increase level of carbonic acid leads to increase number of H+ from dissociation and thus the blood pH would decrease
Predict the effects on muscles of a drug that blocks the action of acetylcholinesterase, an enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine. Compare that to the effects on muscles of a drug that blocks acetylcholine receptors
If ach-ase was blocked, the muscle would constantly contract (spastic paralysis) If Ach receptors were blocked, it would cause muscle flaccid paralysis
Leakage of plasma proteins into the intestinal lumen is a protein losing enteropathy. how might this relate to childs edema, intestinal biopsy observations and blood test results
Leakage may lead to enteric protein loss from lymphatic obstruction, ulcerations then followed by increased mucosal permeability to protein --> cell death. Hypoproteinemia may also result which could lead to excessive swelling due to peripheral edema from a decrease in plasma oncotic pressure. ****Excess eosinophils found upon the biopsy***
Describe the microscopic anatomy of the liver and explain how this structure a) allows the liver to modify chemical composition of the blood. b) keeps blood separate from bile
Liver has a plate like arrangement of hepatocytes in which each plate is one cell thick. a. blood travels in sinusoids between the plates which allows close interaction of blood and hepatocytes which allow the modification of blood chemical composition b. Bile travels between hepatic plates in separate vessels that way it is kept separate form blood. Vessels are called canalluli.
What are the patients MCV and MCHC and what do they suggest? What do you think is the most likely caused of the patients symptoms and how might this be treated?
MCV in normal range but MCHC is low. The most likely cause is poor nutritional intake or absorption of iron . Low MCHC iron deficiency anemia
Athletes not only have a higher maximal oxygen uptake, they can exercise at a higher percentage of this maximum before reaching their lactate threshold. Explain what these terms mean and how they relate to the adaptations within the athletes cardiovascular and muscular systems
Maximal oxygen uptake measures the maximum rate of O2 consumption by the body. Endurance athletes have a higher aerobic capacity so it takes more to reach their lactate threshold from exercising at 80% of their maximal O2 uptake. They have increased CO so they have increased rates of O2 delivery to muscles and thus a higher aerobic capacity. Lactic threshold is % of aerobic capacity when lactic acid rises a lot
What is myocardial ischemia? How might exercise provoke this condition? How might a regular exercise program in a healthy person help reduce the chances of developing myocardial ischemia? What other measures should be taken to minimize risk of developing myocardial ischemia?
Myocardial ischemia occurs when blood flow to the heart muscle is decreased by partial or complete blockage of the hearts arteries. This decreases O2 supply. Regular exercise increases overall health, maintains good blood flow to the heart. Reduces chance for high blood pressure as well as high cholesterol which can cause blockages. Healthy diet is important to decrease risk for developing myocardial ischemia as well as possible drug choices like Beta blockers and aspirin.
Suppose you were to grind up homogenate a pancreas. Do you think it would be possible to isolate insulin from this homogenate?
No. Grinding up the pancreas would release hormones from the pancreatic islets and the digestive enzymes. Since insulin is a protein, the digestive enzymes would fragment insulin molecules into unuseful and unrecognizable products
Endurance athletes such as marathon runners often ingest salt along with water and/sports drinks containing salt, Explain the physiological mechanisms by which this would improve hydration
Normally the majority of salts and electrolytes and water would be eliminated out of the body through continuous sweating. This would lead to decrease in blood pH because of low H2O content and more CO2. The CO2 produces carbonic acid and H+ to decrease blood pH. Which causes metabolic acidosis. It is important to hydrate with water and electrolytes to obtain isotonicity. The renal system always reabsorbs H2) content from the tubular reabsorption using antidieuretic hormone or vasopressin
The most common Rh type is
O+
the universal blood donor is blood type
O-
Trace the course of events starting from the moment Ca2+ enters the sarcoplasm and ending when the cross-bridges have completed one power stroke
Once Ca2+ enters the sarcoplasm, it binds to troponin which makes the tropomyosin move out of the way of the actin binding sites and undergoes a power stroke consisting of the filaments sliding
molecule in the plasma that is filtered and completely secreted
PAH
substance from the description of the renal plasma clearance that is equal to the total plasma flow rate to the kidneys for
PAH
How do arterial PCO2, plasma bicarbonate concentration, and blood pH relate to each other? What diagnosis do the patients measurements indicate?
PCO2 is the pressure exerted by a portion of CO2 on the blood which is dissolved in plasma. CO2 is present in carbonic acid in the blood. If carbonic acid levels increase the blood pH decreases. If levels of CO2 are still increasing the condition is respiratory acidosis
How does the increase in blood pressure and pulse rate after exercise and the return of these values to baseline following exercise, compare in people who are and who are not physically fit?
People who are physically fit from increased exercise have a higher stroke volume and thus a greater cardiac output than those who don't exercise a lot. increased CO, increased delivery of O2 to muscles due to an increased rate of blood flow. MAP is directly correlated to cardiac rate and CO, so a fit persons blood pressure would rise more slowly and therefore return to baseline values after exercise.
What blood measurement would be abnormally increased in a person with Carbon monoxide poisoning? What are the dangers of Carbon monoxide poisoning?
Poisoning occurs with levels of over 10% and severe poisoning with levels over 20-25%. People living in high levels of pollution may have levels of 5% and heavy smokers can tolerate up to 15%. Dangers are severe cerebral and cardiac ischemia, respiratory problems and chronic heart disease.
What does a pulse oximeter measure? What is a normal measurement of percent oxyhemoglobin at sea level and why would this measurement be different at high altitude?
Pulse oximeter measures the oxygen saturation of the blood. A normal measurement at sea level is about 98%. At higher altitude the measurement would be lower because of atmospheric pressure decrease while O2 fraction is the same and pO2 decreases as altitude increases
What do the patients blood measurments indicate? How might these relate to her chronic fatigue? what is jaundice and how might it be produced?
RBC are slightly below average. hematocrit is below average and hemoglobin is below average. Low levels of RBC indicates anemia, low MCHC cells are hypoenromic and could be caused by iron deficiency because there is severe lack of oxygen in the blood. Jaundice is a buildup of bilirubin and can be produced by inflamed liver or obstructed bile duct
Define the term hematocrit
Ratio of the volume of red packed blood cells to total blood volume
What are the dangers of of giving a person a transfusion when the blood types don't match
Red blood cells could potentially clump together or agglutination. If clumping occurs, it would plug the blood vessels that would then prevent normal blood flow to tissues and other areas of the body
What is the probable reason for the value of the resting cardiac rate in patient
Regular exercise promotes increase in cardiac output due to an increase in lung capacity and heart size. This will decrease the heart rate while at rest because of adaptations over time. The increase heart size is the thickness of heart walls and increased volume of the hearts chambers
The person most in danger of having a child who develops erythroblastosis fetalis is a women who has the blood type ___ when her husband has the blood type ____
Rh-, Rh +
What is a likely explanation maximum cardiac rate achieved before the ECG abnormally appeared?
ST segment elevation is due to the repolarization during exercise is T segment normally only gets to 150 in most athletes so this indicates corinary artial disease such as myocardial ischemia
Given that most healthy people at that altitude measure a percent oxyhemoglobin saturation of at least 93%, what could account for this persons lower measurement
The person was a smoker. Cigarette smoke also consists of Carbon monoxide which binds to hemoglobin
Imagine a dehydrated desert prospector and a champagne-quaffing partygoer, each of whom drinks a liter of water at time zero and voids urine over a period of 3 hours. Using their urine samples, compare the probable differences in volume and composition (Hint: Alcohol inhibits ADH secretion). Use relative terms, such as increased or decreased.
The prospectors secretion of ADH was higher than the partygoer due to the dehydration. The partygoer would be overly hydrated along with consumption of alcohol leading to an increase volume excretion of diluted urine. The more dilute the urine is, the decreased specific gravity. The dehydrated prospector has a decrease in circulating blood volume and and an increase secretion of aldosterone. The aldosterone would thus stimulate an increase in reabsorption of Na, Cl so less is excreted in the urine
Suppose substance A is reabsorbed about 30% whereas substance B is secreted about 30%. Explain how their renal plasma clearance values relate to each other and to the glomerular filtration rate (GFR)
The renal plasma clearance of A would be less than glomerular filtration rate measurement. The renal plasma clearance of B would be greater than the glomerular filtration rate measurement.
Explain what is meant by the renal plasma clearance and describe how it is measured
The renal plasma clearance rate = excretion rate of compound divided by the concentration of that compound in the blood.
Predict what might happen to the beating of a heart if the blood concentration of Ca2+ were abnormally increased
The strength of the contraction in heart beats should increase as well. This is because Ca 2+ ions couples electrical excitation to muscle contraction. An increase in Ca2+ would result in an increase in cardiac contraction
The concentration of estriol and estetriol increases in the blood of pregnant women and the pregnancy progresses. How would the migration of these two hormones compare to the migration of estradiol in this chromatography exercise?
They have differing polarities and the estriol and estetriol would be more polar and less soluble in the non polar solvent. Thus they would travel less and have smaller Rf value than estradiol
suppose a persons bloo pressure is 168/112, a. what is the systolic pressure b. what is diastolic pressure
a. 168 b. 112
Which of the steroid hormones in this exercise was the most soluble in the solvent ? Which was least soluble ?
-Estradiol was the most soluble because it traveled the farthest up the plate - Hydrocortisone was the least soluble because it traveled the shortest distance
Describe how breathing rate changes following 10 seconds of hyperventilation. Explain the physiological mechanisms responsible for the changed breathing pattern.
After the 10 seconds of hyperventilation, breathing rate decreased. Breathing rate is correlated to blood CO2 levels as well as pH. Hyperventilation causes excessive elimination of CO2 as well as a decrease in carbonic acid and increase in pH. The increase in pH reduces desire to breath until the levels of CO2 restore the blood pH to normal. The restoration of pH should let the respiratory centers in the medulla oblongata return to normal as well leading to a more normal breathing pattern.
The hormone that stimulates the reabsorption of Na + from the nephron tubules and also stimulates the secretion of K+ into the tubules is
Aldosterone from the adrenal cortex
Identify the sites of action of aldosterone in the renal nephrons and relate these actions of aldosterone on the kidney. Explain how these actions help to maintain the homeostasis of (a) blood sodium concentration and volume and (b) blood potassium concentration
Aldosterone- dependent on K+ secretion (in exchange for Na+) occurs specifically along the late distal tubule to the cortical portion of the collecting duct in direct response to an increase in the plasma K+ concentration The secretion of aldosterone from the adrenal cortex may also stimulate the decrease in blood Na+ or blood volume. Any decrease in blood Na+ or blood volume stimulates the release of enzyme renin which catalyzes formation of angiotension II--> stimulates vasoconstriction and secretion of aldosterone Aldosterone--> reabsorption Na+--> exchange for K+ secretion into renal tubules since the H2O follows the reabsorbed Na+ into the blood plasma concentration and blood volume is maintained (homeostasis) A rise in K+ directly causes the specific K+ channels to become inserted in the membrane of the cortical collecting duct when blood K+ falls, the K+ channels are removed from the membrane by endocytosis and K secretion is decreases (homeostasis)
Intravenous infusions of sodium bicarbonate are often given to acidotic patients to correct the acidosis and relieve the strain of rapid breathing. Explain why bicarbonate is helpful in this situation. What would happen if too much bicarbonate were given? Explain
An increase in blood bicarbonate combines with and buffers the high free H+ concentration which will cause acidosis. The fall in the H+ concentration decreases stimulation of respiratory centers and the breathing slows down. A decrease in H+ from the increase in bicarbonate would thus increase the blood pH and lower your bodies urge to breath.
A general term for an abnormally low red blood cell count or hemoglobin concentration
Anemia
In what way are carbon monoxide poisoning and anemia different? In what way are they similar?
Anemia is produced from not having enough RBC so your body doesn't get enough oxygen Carbon monoxide poisoning is similar in that it reduces the amount of Oxygen carried by hemoglobin The differences are that CO2 binds to blood cells instead of O2 in poisoning which damages tissues and organs. It doesn't have anything to do with limited number of blood cells like anemia.
The substance that stimulates vasoconstriction and also stimulates the secretion of ADH is
Angiotensis II
Why doesn't starch normally digest itself? Why doesn't gastric juice normally digest the duodenum?
Because it is line with epithelial cells which produce mucus. The mucus forms a barrier between the lining of the stomach and whatever the stomach contains. The digestive juices are secreted by the stomach wall and glands with no mucus barrier
Describe what is meant by laminar flow and turbulent flow. Before you inflate the cuff which term more closely describes the blood flow in the brachial artery? Explain
Before the cuff is inflated, the arterial blood flows in a smooth layered laminar pattern. Because there is no compression of the artery, the blood flow is relatively silent. Turbulent flow is when artery is compressed by the cuff which narrows the lumen creating vibrations known as korotkoff sounds
heme derived from hemoglobin, minus the iron is converted into a different pigment, known as _______; an accumulation of this pigment can cause a yellowing known as ______
Bilirubin, jaundice
Athletes sometimes use blood doping to enhance performance. They bank red blood cells prior to an athletic event and they return the banked red blood cells to their blood just before competition. This is considered cheating and is banned by most athletic organizations. How could blood doping provide an advantage to the athlete? What could be its health disadvantage? Why do you think this practice could be difficult to detect?
Blood doping increases hemoglobin levels and allows increase amounts of oxygen to reach and fuel the athletes muscles. Benefits include improved stamina and performance in long distance events. Health risks include blood clotting, heart attack, stroke, HIV allergic reactions, fever and rash. It is difficult to detect because what is enhancing performance is naturally produced by the body
Describe the composition of pancreatic juice and explain its functions
Contains enzymes that include trypsin, chymotrypsin to digest proteins. Amylase digests carbohydrates and lipase digest and break down fat. These juices and bile are released from the duodenum.
Suppose a man took a drug that acted as a 5alpha reductase inhibitor. What effects might this drug have on the prostate?
Conversion of testosterone to DHT is required for androgen stimulation of the prostate. A man who takes the drug would see a reduction in prostate size. DHT is required to maintain the prostate structure
Suppose a persons percent oxyhemoglobin saturation in the venous blood was 75% at rest but decreased to 35% during moderate exercise. (a) Explain why venous percent oxyhemoglobin saturation decreased during the exercise and (b) predict how the arterial percent oxyhemoglobin saturation might change during exercise
Exercise increases the rate of respiration in which O2 is needed which would lower the saturation level in order to deliver the oxygen needed to supply the muscles which less oxygen would be returned to the heart. Arterial % oxyhemoglobin should remain fairly constant
What is gynecomastia? By what mechanisms could a user of anabolic steroids develop gynecomastia?
Gynecomastia is enlargement of a mans breast. It develops in users of anabolic steroids because the steroids inhibit the production of natural male hormones causing an imbalance of estrogen and testosterone levels. The higher levels of estrogen in males causes the development of gynecomastia in anabolic steroid users. ***Testosterone converts DHT and estradiol***
Compare HCL on protein digestion by pepsin and on starch digestion by salivary amylase. Explain the physiological significance of these effects
HCL stimulated the digestive action of pepsin, whereas HCL inhibited the digestive action of salivary amylase. This is due to the difference in chemical composition and structure that determines the pH optima of the 2 enzymes. Pepsin works best in acidic environements of gastic juice whereas salivary amylase likes a neutral pH like that contained in saliva.
Given that the persons BUN:creatinine ratio was normal, what is the most likely explanation for her BUN measurement
High BUN would be due to the large protein intake by the patient
which two natural hormones do anabolic steroids mimic? What physiological mechanisms could be responsible for an enlarged prostate and shrunken testes in men who use anabolic steroids
High levels of testosterone wold be converted to DHT which would lead to an enlarged prostate Shrunken testes are due to the inhibition of natural testosterone production that causes the hormone producing cells to decrease in size from low secretions of LH and FSH influenced by the anabolic steroids
What is the significance of the glomerular filtration (GFR) measurement? Describe 2 ways that this measurement may be obtained
Important for ascessing kidney health. GFR is measured by 1. measuring renal plasma clearance of exogenously administered insulin 2. measurement of blood creatine concentration
Suppose, in performing procedure A, the test for starch and for reducing sugars both came out positive after a 1-hour incubation, but after the tubes incubated for 2 hours, the rest for starch came out negative. How could you explain these results?
In part A if tests for both starch and reducing sugar are positive at the end of one hr, you can conclude that starch was partially digested. If after 2 hrs, the test was negative you could can conclude all of the starch was digested.
Explain how hemolytic disease of the newborn is produced. How may the disease be prevented?
It is produced by the mother and is passed through the placenta. It occurs if the mother is Rn- and the fetus is Rh (+). The antibodies in the mother cross the placenta and destroy the fetus's red blood cells can be prevented by medication called Rh immunoglobin that stops the antibodies from reacting to the fetus's Rh (+) cells
What is the lamina propria and where is it located? Given the high number of eosinophils in the lamina propria suggests an allergic reaction, how might that lead to intestinal problems
Lamina propria is a thin layer made up of loose areolar connective tissue on top of the epithelium cell layer of mucosa. The mucosa acts as a natural barrier towards foreign microorganisms due to the many immune cells in the lamina propria increase the number of eosinophils in the lamina propria lead to inflammation and tissue damage which leads to GI problems
Results of blood tests performed in this exercise would be different for anemia and for carbon monoxide poisoning, yet in one respect these two conditions are similar. Explain why this statement is true
Spectrophotometry results would be similar in both condition when hemoglobin concentrations are being measured when measuring hemoglobin, all of it has to be converted to methemoglobin. in both cases the concentration of methemoglobin is low, but in anemia it is low due to low RBC count whereas in monoxide poisoning, monoxide doesn't dissociate from the hemoglobin which keeps the methemoglobin levels low
Which has the lower threshold for stimulation of muscle contraction-stimulation of the muscle directly or stimulation of the nerve that innervates the muscle? Propose an explanation for these results
Stimulation of the nerve has a lower threshold because the sarcoplasmic reticulum is directly stimulated which then releases more Ca2+. The nerve is composed of axons that innervate the muscle fibers of the gastochnemius. Because the axon branches innervate thousands of muscle fibers less voltage is required to initiate contraction. Muscle stimulation requires a higher voltage to produce the same response.
Describe the structural adaptations of the small intestine that helps increase the surface area and the rate at which digestion products can be absorbed
Structural adaptations are the membrane foldings known as villi and microvilli. Villi are the primary foldings in the plasma membrane and microvilli are the subfoldings to further increase surface area. These structures have a large supply of blood capillaries to help with the absorption of digested products. Circular folds are another feature that provide the same purpose
In proceduce C which test tube displayed the most rapid fall in pH> explain how the digestion of fat can cause a fall in pH of the solution and the function of bile salts
Test tube 3. This tube contained only the substrate molecules (fat/oil) but also contained the emulsifying agents and digestive enzymes that are able to hydrolyze the oil into fatty acid molecules. The increase in the number of fatty acid molecules decreases the pH of the solution
How are the Korotkoff sounds produced? When do you hear the first Korotkoff sound? When do you hear the last Korotkoff sound? Explain why this is true of the first and last sounds
The inflated cuff deflates slowly to just above systolic pressure and allows initial flow through the cuff and when Korotkoff sound will occur when cuff pressure equals the systolic pressure. When cuff pressure equals diastolic, the artery is no longer compressed and laminar flow is restored and no more sounds can be detected.
A person with gallstones may have jaundice and an abnormally long clotting time. Explain the possible relationship between gallstones, jaundice and blood clotting
When gallstones block the secretion of bile from the liver, billirubin accumulates in the blood. The increase in billirubin levels cause jaundice. If the secretion of bile into the intestine is blocked, normal fat digestion and absorption will be impaired. This could decrease absorption of fat soluble nutrients and vitamins including vitamin k. Vitamin K deficiency impairs plasma clotting so there is an increase in clotting time
How does a somatic motor nerve stimulate a skeletal muscle fiber to contract? List the sequence of events, and indicate where Botox would block that sequence
When nerve impulse reaches the end of the axon, Ach is released into the synaptic cleft Ach diffuses across the cleft and attatches to its receptors on the sarcolemma Ach binding then triggers electrical events to generate action potential Botox would block the release of the neurotransmitter at the neuromuscular junction so muscle contraction wouldn't occur
Describe how ADH secretion and action in the kidneys help maintain homeostasis of blood volume and concentration
When the posterior pituitary releases ADH, the osmoreceptors regulate it. These receptors are stimulated by an increase in osmotic pressure of the blood which may also occur in dehydration. When ADH is released, it promotes the reabsorption of H2O . This leads to water retention which decreases plasma osmotic pressure and the secretion of smaller volume of highly concentrated urine.
Explain the mechanism by which each of the following conditions might produce and increase in the plasma concentration of urea: a. increased protein catabolism b. decreased blood pressure as in circulatory shock. and c. kidney failure
a. urea production is increased by high protein diet so if protein breakdown increase and more urea is produced b. decrease blood pressure , the net effective filtration at the glomerulus decreases leading to decrease urea filtration of blood and increase its concentration. c. urea binds to water and some is recycled by hepatic circulation. Urea enters kidneys where it is filtered and is cleared from the body as urine passes from blood to glomerular filatration in the kindeys. some will remain in the plasma if the kidney function is affected.
A graph of the absorbance of light as a function of wavelength is cal;ed an
absorption spectrum
Hypoventilation produces a condition called respiratory _____; hyperventilation produces a condition called respiratory _____
acidosis, alkalosis
The electrical events conducted along the cell (plasma) membrane that stimulate contraction are called
action potentials
dehydroepiandrosterone is what kind of hormone?
adrenal androgen
which glad secretes dehydroepiandrosterone?
adrenal cortex
the major mineralocorticoid is
aldosterone
Starch is partially digested into maltose by the action of
amylase
steroid hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex
androgenic -->testosterone -->secreted by the testes estrogenic-->estrodiol-->secreted by the ovaries progestational -->leutinizing hormone -->secreted by anterior pituitary corticosteroid--> 1. mineral corticoids (zona glomerulosa) -->aldosterone (renin or kidneys) 2. glucocorticoids (zona fasciculata) --> cortisol or coticosterone
nineteen carbon sex steroid
androgenic hormone testosterone
as a result of stimulation, the osmoreceptors stimulate the secretion of ____ from the _______ gland
antidiuretic hormones, posterior
What is the mechanism of action of Zantac and prilosec and what do these treat? Does this relate to the reason that the patient may need surgery?
both decrease stomach acid production and are used to treat ulcer disease, gastroesoph reflux Zantac--> ranitidine is reversible competative inhibitor of histamine action at H2 receptors in gastric parietal cells Prilosec->selective and irreversible PPI. It suppresses stomach acid secretion by specific inhibition of H+/K+ ATPase system. Steatorrhea means fat isn't digesting by proper mechanisms due to blockage so has obstructive jaundice needs surgery.
The free bicarbonate in the plasma serves as the major _____ of the blood
buffer
