POLI SCI Exam 2 (ch.5-9)

Guinn v. United States

-15th amendment -declared the grandfather clauses in the Maryland and Oklahoma constitutions to be repugnant to the Fifteenth Amendment and therefore null and void.

Fifteenth Amendment

-1870 constitutional amendment that guaranteed voting rights regardless of race or previous condition of servitude

independent

-A voter or candidate who does not identify with a political party. -More recently, the increase in non-party-affiliated _____________ may mean that although young people heavily supported Democrat Barack Obama over Republican John McCain in the 2008 election, Democrats should not count on a lifelong attachment. -Americans do not identify as strongly with political parties as they once did bc of Split ticket voting and The rise in political ____________ -ex: +members of a Protestant church, which may be part of a mainstream denomination or may be _____________ -In many cases, the largest proportion of people in any demographic category self-identify as __________ from Republicans or Democrats. +Women identify as Democrats 37% , Republicans 23%, or ________________ 35% -Given that most Americans still tend to lean toward one of the two major political parties even if they identify as ______________, it is not surprising that most children learn at a fairly young age to think of themselves as either Democrats or Republicans. -In this view, called dealignment theory, large numbers of ____________ voters may result in political volatility, but the absence of strong partisan attachments means that it is no longer easy to "lock in" political preferences for decades. -Not only has the number of ____________________s grown over the last half-century, but voters are also less willing to vote a straight ticket—that is, to vote for all the candidates of one party. -This trend, along with the increase in the number of voters who call themselves _______________, suggests that parties have lost much of their hold on the loyalty of the voters. -A problem with dealignment theory is that many "_______________" voters are not all that ______________ -These true _____________ are swing voters—they can swing back and forth between the parties. +These voters are important in deciding elections. Some analysts believe, however, that swing voters are far less numerous today than they were two or three decades ago. +Swing voters are only relevant if the district or contest itself is competitive.

Federal Regulation of Lobbying Act of 1946

-Congress made its first attempt to control lobbyists and lobbying activities through Title III of _______________, -provided for public disclosure more than for regulation, and it neglected to specify which agency would enforce its provisions. -The 1946 legislation defined a lobbyist as any person or organization that received money to be used principally to influence legislation before Congress. +Such persons and individuals were supposed to register their clients and the purposes of their efforts and report quarterly on their activities. -legislation was tested in a 1954 Supreme Court case, United States v. Harriss, and was found to be constitutional. +Court agreed that the lobbying law did not violate due process, freedom of speech or of the press, or the freedom to petition. +Court narrowly construed the act, however, holding that it applied only to lobbyists who were influencing federal legislation directly.

Some criticism of the electoral college

-Critics say it is elitist to not let the people directly elect the president -Too complicated and hard to understand for many voters -Presidential campaigning is focused on the states with the most electors -System favors smaller states -Candidate can win the popular vote and not win presidency

Party-in-the-electorate: differences

-Democrats: Are generally considered more liberal Have generally appealed to more disadvantaged groups in society African americans are much more likely to identify with the democratic party Union members Jews and catholics Those with less education -Republicans Generally more conservative Suburban and rural areas Business and professional occupations Higher incomes Fundamentalist or evangelical christians

Health Care Interest Groups

-Doctors (AMA) -Hospitals -Drug Companies -Insurance Companies -AARP -Unions -Small businesses -Religious right -Lawyers -Women's groups -Homeless advocates -Nursing home/long-term care -Cigarette Manufacturers -Mental Health Association

qualifications for office

-Eligibility to run for federal office is based on citizenship, residency, and age. -Each office has different requirements. -Only the president is required to be a natural-born citizen. -Candidates for senator and representative could be naturalized citizens. -People run for political office to further their careers, to carry out specific political programs, or in response to certain issues or events. -Legal qualifications for holding political office are minimal at state and local levels, but office holders remain predominantly white and male and are likely to be from the professional class.

impact of third parties has taken two forms

-First, third parties can influence one of the major parties to take up one or more issues. -Second, third parties can determine the outcome of a particular election by pulling votes from one of the major-party candidates in what is called the "spoiler effect."

indirect lobbying techniques

-Generating public pressure -Using constituents as lobbyists -Holding marches or rallies -Promoting boycotts -The importance of the electronic media cannot be understated for ______________________ -In contrast, the interest group uses the general public or individual constituents to influence the government on its behalf. -A strategy employed by interest groups that uses third parties to influence government officials. -Interest groups can also try to influence government policy by working through others, who may be constituents or the general public. -__________________mask the interest group's own activities and make the effort appear to be spontaneous.

Partisanship

-Government action based on firm allegiance to a political party -plays an important role in the day-to-day operations of Congress, with party membership determining everything from office space to committee assignments.

Super PACs

-Independent expenditure-only PACs are known as Super PACs because they may accept donations of any size and can endorse candidates. Their contributions and expenditures must be periodically reported to the FEC. -political committee that can accept unlimited contributions from individuals and corporations to spend supporting a candidate as long as its efforts are not coordinated with the candidate's own campaign. -Technically known as independent expenditure only committees-- may raise unlimited sums of money from corporations, unions, associations and individuals -Must report their donors to the Federal Election Commision on a monthly or quarterly basis as a traditional PAC would. -Unlike traditional PACs, __________ are prohibited from donating money directly to political candidates -As of february 28, 2020, 1666 groups organized ________ have reported total receipts of $492,315,210 and total independent expenditures of $68,383,154 in the 2020 cycle

Why has the two-party system endured?

-Historical foundations of the system -Political socialization and practical considerations -political culture -The winner-take-all electoral system -State and federal laws favoring the two-party system.

The Third-Party System: Republicans' Rise to Power and The Civil War (1860-1896)

-In the 1850s, hostility between the North and South over slavery divided both parties. +The Whigs were the first party to split apart. =They had been the party of an active federal government, but Southerners had come to believe that a strong central government might use its power to free their slaves. =Southern Whigs therefore ceased to exist as an organized party. =Northern Whigs united with antislavery Democrats and members of the radical antislavery Free Soil Party to form the modern Republican Party. -After the Civil War, the Democratic Party was able to heal its divisions. +Southern resentment of the Republicans' role in defeating the South and fears that the federal government would intervene on behalf of African Americans ensured that the Democrats would dominate the white South for the next century. -"Rum, Romanism, and Rebellion" +Northern Democrats feared a strong government for other reasons. =The Republicans thought that the government should promote business and economic growth, but many also wanted to use the power of government to impose evangelical Protestant moral values on society. Democrats opposed what they saw as culturally coercive measures. +Many Republicans wanted to limit or even prohibit the sale of alcohol. =They favored the establishment of public schools—with a Protestant curriculum. =As a result, Catholics were strongly Democratic. +In 1884, Protestant minister Samuel Burchard described the Democrats as the party of "rum, Romanism, and rebellion." =This remark was offensive to Catholics, but as offensive as it may have been, Burchard's characterization of the Democrats contained an element of truth. -The Triumph of the Republicans +the parties were evenly matched in strength. +The abolition of the three-fifths rule meant that African Americans would be counted fully when allocating House seats and electoral votes to the South. +The Republicans therefore had to carry almost every Northern state to win, and this was not always possible. =In the 1890s, however, the Republicans gained a decisive edge. In that decade, the populist movement emerged in the West and South to champion the interests of small farmers, who were often heavily in debt. -Populists supported inflation, which benefited debtors by reducing the real value of outstanding debts. =In 1896, when William Jennings Bryan became the Democratic candidate for president, the Democrats embraced populism. +From 1896 until 1932, the Republicans were successfully able to present themselves as the party that knew how to manage the economy.

independent expenditures

-Nonregulated contributions from political action committees (PACs), organizations, and individuals. -The funds may be spent on advertising or other campaign activities, so long as those expenditures are not coordinated with those of a candidate. -Super PACs +Technically known as _____________________ only committees- may raise unlimited sums of money from corporations, unions, associations and individuals -As of february 28, 2020, 1666 groups organized Super PACs have reported total receipts of $492,315,210 and total ___________________ of $68,383,154 in the 2020 cycle

Antifederalists

-Opponents of ratification of the Constitution and of a strong central government, generally. -favor weaker government

527 organizations

-Organizations that, under section 527 of the Internal Revenue Code, raise and spend money to advance political causes -527s are tax exempt interest groups that use soft money contributions +Can be partisan or ideological. +Can raise more money than PACs. -named after the provision of the tax code that governs the activities of these organizations; -political organization with the primary purpose of affecting elections -are tax-exempt -disclosure of income, spending, and donors to the IRS -are not subject to any limits in terms of the amount of money they can raise or spend, or the size of the donation they receive

life cycle effect

-People change as they grow older because of age-specific experiences and thus people are likely to hold age-specific attitudes. -Older Americans tend to be somewhat more conservative than younger Americans, particularly on social issues and, to some extent, on economic issues. -Experiences like employment, marriage, children, and other responsibilities.

Presenting alternative policies to the electorate

-Political parties are focused on a broad set of issues with specific positions on each. -Because political parties are large and complex organizations, there may be smaller constituencies within the party that hold different opinions, but each party reflects a set of principles. -The Democrats or Republicans in Congress who vote together do so because they represent constituencies that have similar expectations and demands.

Separate but equal

-Principle upheld in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) in which the Supreme Court ruled that segregation of public facilities was legal. -The 1896 doctrine holding that separate-but-equal facilities do not violate the equal protection clause. -brown v. board of education = End of the Separate-but-equal Doctrine +Determined that the separate but equal doctrine established by Plessy v. Ferguson violated the 14th Amendment.

de jure segregation

-Racial segregation that occurs because of laws or administrative decisions by public agencies.

de facto segregation

-Racial segregation that occurs because of past social and economic conditions and residential racial patterns.

Is Realignment Still Possible?

-The nature of American political parties created the pattern of realignment in American history. The sheer size of the country, combined with the inexorable pressure toward a two-party system, resulted in parties made up of voters with conflicting interests or values. -For realignment to occur, a substantial body of citizens must come to believe that their party can no longer represent their interests or values. -Therefore, the current party system should be more stable than in the past, and a major realignment is not likely to take place in the foreseeable future.

Sampling

-The process of selecting representative units from a total population -necessary that the sample of individuals be representative of all voters in the population.

distribution of public opinion

-The public demonstrated low levels of knowledge concerning public affairs and the basic workings of parties, politics, and government. -distributed among several different positions, and the distribution of opinion tells us how divided the public is on an issue and whether compromise is possible. -nonopinion: A poll shows a _____________ indicating that most Americans either have no information about the issue or are not interested enough to formulate a position. -consensus opinion: General agreement among the citizenry on an issue. -divisive opinion: Issues on which the public holds widely differing attitudes +Public opinion that is polarized between two quite different positions.

Unit rule / winner-take-all

-The rule that grants all of a state's electoral votes to the candidate who receives the most popular votes in the state. -State parties are also important in national politics because of the ___________, which awards electoral votes in presidential elections as an indivisible bloc (except in Maine and Nebraska). -With the exception of maine and nebraska, all states follow the _________ +All of the state's electoral votes are cast for the presidential candidate receiving a plurality of the popular vote in that state. +Candidates need 270 electoral votes to win.

service sector

-The sector of the economy that provides services--such as health care, banking, and education--contrast to the sector that produces goods.

ticket splitting

-Voting with one party for one office and with another party for other offices. It has become the norm in American voting behavior. -The trend toward ticket splitting—voting for a president and congressperson of different parties—has increased sharply since 1952. -Voting for candidates of two or more parties for different offices. For example, a voter splits her ticket if she votes for a Republican presidential candidate and a Democratic congressional candidate. -This practice may indicate a lack of trust in government or the relative weakness of party identification among many voters. -Voters seem comfortable with having a president affiliated with one party and a Congress controlled by the other.

consensus opinion

-When a large proportion of the American public appears to express the same view on an issue, a ____________ exists, at least at the moment the poll was taken. -General agreement among the citizenry on an issue. -When a majority are on one side

accepting responsibility for operating the government

-When a party elects the president or governor and members of the legislature, it accepts the responsibility for running the government based on the principles it espouses. -This includes staffing the executive branch with loyal party supporters and developing linkages among the elected officials to gain support for policies and their implementation.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

-a law designed to help end formal and informal barriers to African-American suffrage -outlawed discriminatory voter-registration tests and authorized federal registration of persons and federally administered procedures in any state or political subdivision evidencing electoral discrimination or low registration rates. -The most significant consequence of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 was that it increased the number of African Americans registered to vote. -Outlawed discriminatory voter registration tests -Authorized federal registration of persons and federally administered voting procedures in any jurisdiction or state that discriminated electorally against a particular group.

industrial interest groups

-likely to agree on anything that reduces government regulation or taxation -they often do not concur on the specifics of policy and the sector has been troubled by disagreement and fragmentation within its ranks

affirmative action

-a policy in educational admissions or job hiring that gives special attention or compensatory treatment to traditionally disadvantaged groups in an effort to overcome present effects of past discrimination -attempt to "level the playing field" by giving special preferences in educational admissions and employment decisions to groups that have been discriminated against in the past.

incentive

-a reason or motive for supporting or participating in the activities of a group based on the desire to associate with others and to share with others a particular interest or hobby

material incentives

-a reason or motive having to do with economic benefits or opportunities -ex: +AARP (American Association of Retired Persons) =provide discounts, automobile insurance, and organized travel opportunities for its members =organization even offers free access to a range of computer games on its webpage =has become the largest interest group in the US claiming more than 38 million members

coverage error

-a sampling error that occurs when the sample chosen to complete a survey does not provide a good representation of the population -If those missed in the sample differ substantially from those covered, the bias can lead to errors in reporting the results (similar to the Literary Digest example).

Swing State

-a state that does not consistently vote either Democratic or Republican in presidential elections

national committee

-delegates who run party affairs between national conventions -Each of the parties chooses a ________________ -standing committee of a national political party established to direct and coordinate party activities between national party conventions. -elected by the individual state parties, to direct and coordinate party activities during the following four years. +The Democrats include at least two members (a man and a woman) from each state, from the District of Columbia, and from the several territories. -The Republicans also include state chairpersons from every state carried by the Republican Party in the preceding presidential, gubernatorial, or congressional elections. -The selections of national committee members are ratified by the delegates in attendance. -The national committee ratifies the presidential nominee's choice of a national chairperson, who acts as the spokesperson for the party. +The national chairperson and the national committee plan the next campaign, as well as the next convention, raise financial contributions, and publicize the national party. +The national chairperson is an important face for the party, but his or her power today is less than party leaders enjoyed four decades ago.

divided government

-many Americans have seemed to prefer a ___________, with the executive and legislative branches controlled by different parties. +A situation in which one major political party controls the presidency and the other controls the chambers of Congress, or in which one party controls a state governorship and the other controls the state legislature.

primary election

-election in which voters decide which of the candidates within a party will represent the party in the general election -To nominate candidates for office, voters participate in primary elections, which may be restricted to party identifiers (closed), open to all (open), or allow voters to choose between both parties' candidates (blanket). -presidential primary A statewide primary election of delegates to a political party's national convention, held to determine a party's presidential nominee. -white primary A state primary election that restricts voting to whites only; outlawed by the Supreme Court in 1944. -those in which voters decide which of the candidates within a party will represent the party's ticket in the general elections Primary = among candidates within each party

Civil Liberties

-freedoms to think and act without government interference or fear of unfair legal treatment -Although the terms civil rights and _______ are sometimes used interchangeably, scholars make a distinction between the two. +__________ are limitations on government; they specify what the government cannot do. +Civil rights in contrast, specify what the government must do—to ensure equal protection and freedom from discrimination. -In the 2004 and 2008 election campaigns, however, the __________ issue propelled many of the Muslim American voters toward the Democrats.

peer groups and socialization

-get away from direct parental supervision -the "generation gap" (conflicting norms) -often govern short term goals -Associations among peers are nonpolitical. +Political attitudes are more likely to be shaped by peer groups when peer groups are involved directly in political activities. -socialization agent

Political Parties

-groups that help elect people and shape policies -___________ is a group of political activists who organize to win elections, operate the government, and determine public policy. -__________ differ from interest groups in that interest groups +Do not want to operate the gov. +Do not put forth political candidates +Tend to sharpen issues, while ________ tend to blur their issue positions to attract voters -Functions of ____________ +Recruit candidates for public office +Organize and run elections +Present alternative policies to voters +Accept responsibility for operating government +Act as organized opposition to party in power

Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act

-of 2002 -banned soft money contributions to the national parties, -limited advertising by interest groups, and increased the limits on individual contributions. -Allowed campaign ads by outside special-interest groups up to 60 days before a general election and up to 30 days before a primary election -Increased contribution limit for individuals to $2000 with annual increases ($2800) -Raised max. Amount individuals can give to $95000 over a two-year election cycle -citizens united v. FEC (2010)

Realignment: The Myths

-of Dominance +One is that in realignment, a newly dominant party must replace the previously dominant party. Realignment could easily strengthen an already dominant party. Alternatively, realignment could result in a tie. This has happened—twice. +The most recent realignment has sometimes been linked to the elections of 1968. The realignment was a gradual process that took place over many years. It is sometimes referred to as a "rolling realignment." -of Predictability +A second myth concerning realignments is that they take place every 36 years. Supposedly, there were realigning elections in 1860, 1896, 1932, and 1968, and therefore 2004 must have been a year for realignment. no force could cause political realignments at precise 36-year intervals.

Political Endorsements

-organizations/individuals who voice who they are voting for -a public declaration of one's personal or group's support of a candidate for elected office.

Twenty-fourth Amendment (1964)

-outlawed poll taxes, which had been used to prevent the poor from voting

Why so many interest groups?

-the right to join a group is protected by the first amendment to the U.S. Constitution +not only are all ppl guaranteed the right "peaceably to assemble" but they are also guaranteed the right "to petition the Government for a redress of grievances" +this constitutional provision encourages Americans to form groups and to express their opinions to the government or to their elected representatives as members of a group

Incumbency

-the holding of an office or the period during which one is held. -This coalition of disparate groups acting under a single moniker is not "for" or "against" any single policy or program, but is rather an expression of negative opinion directed at ___________ of both parties.

party in the electorate

-the voters who consider themselves allied or associated with the party -made up of all of the people who affiliate and identify with the political party. +Those members of the general public who identify with a political party or who express a preference for one party over another. +not required to participate in every election, they are the most likely to do so because they feel a sense of loyalty to the party and use their partisanship as a cue to decide who will earn their vote. +Party membership might be a rational calculation of which party is most likely to advance their material interest, but for most people, identifying with a party is more analogous to identifying with a geographic region or a major sports team. +Some states require you to specify your party affiliation when you register to vote, whereas others do not. =In some places, you only have two formal choices when declaring your party—Democrat or Republican—whereas, in others, you might be allowed to choose from among many minor parties. +Perhaps you think of yourself as a Libertarian, but because there are few Libertarian candidates standing for election in each race, you select candidates from other parties that match your preferences most closely for a given office or in a given year.

Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

-unanimously held that the racial segregation of children in public schools violated the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment. -Brown claimed that Topeka's racial segregation violated the Constitution's Equal Protection Clause because the city's black and white schools were not equal to each other and never could be. -Overruled Plessy v. Ferguson's "separate but equal" doctrine and would eventually led to the desegregation of schools across the South

Pluralism

-views the political struggle as pitting different groups against each other to reach a compromise vital to the public interest.

Qualifications for Senate

30 yrs old, citizen for 9 years, live in state

Open primary

A primary in which any registered voter can vote (but must vote for candidates of only one party)

organizing and running elections

Although elections are a government activity, political parties actually organize the voter-registration drives, recruit the volunteers to work at the polls, provide most of the campaign activity to stimulate interest in the election, and work to increase voter participation.

Uses of public opinion

By the media By the office-holders By candidates In evaluations

How is Public Opinion expressed?

Elections Initiatives and Referenda Demonstrations Letters to the Editor, Public Officials Through Interest Groups On Blogs and Social Networks Public Opinion Polls (best way)

Public opinion and the political process

Government policy tends to follow public opinion Public opinion can also limit government action

single-issue groups

Groups that have a narrow interest, tend to dislike compromise, and often draw membership from people new to politics.

Run-off primary

If no candidate receives a majority of the votes in the first primary, the top two candidates compete in a second (or run-off) primary

closed primary

The type of primary in which the voter is limited to choosing candidates of the party of which he or she is a member

Types of Primaries

closed, open, blanket., runoff

types of public opinion

consensus, divisive, non-opinion

socialization agents

the individuals, groups, or institutions that teach us how to participate effectively in society Family Most important, first transmitters of political process Schools Peers and Peer group Religion Economic Status Political Events Opinion Leaders Media These are not independent > all related but play their own role

Organization of Political Parties

(1) National National chair, national committee, national convention (2) State State committees/conventions, congressional district committees (3) Local City and county committees, precinct and ward committees, activists and volunteers, identifiers and voters -provides the structural framework for the political party by recruiting volunteers to become party leaders; identifying potential candidates; and organizing caucuses, conventions, and election campaigns for its candidates. -_________and its active workers keep the party functioning between elections, as well as make sure that the party puts forth electable candidates and articulates clear positions in the elections. +If the party-in-the-electorate declines in numbers and loyalty, the ________ must try to find a strategy to rebuild the grassroots following.

Republican Party

-1854 - anti-slavery Whigs and Democrats, Free Soilers and reformers from the Northwest met and formed party in order to keep slavery out of the territories -Evidence indicates that the years of economic prosperity under President Reagan during the 1980s led many young people to identify with the ____________ -The Republicans also include state chairpersons from every state carried by the ____________ in the preceding presidential, gubernatorial, or congressional elections. -With the election of John Quincy Adams as president, the Democratic-Republican Party split into two entities. -The followers of Adams called themselves National Republicans. +Later, the National Republicans took the name Whig Party, which had been a traditional name for British liberals. -Northern Whigs united with antislavery Democrats and members of the radical antislavery Free Soil Party to form the modern ______________ -on women +continued its stance as the party opposed to a woman's right to choose. +Their message, which officially allowed abortions under certain conditions, was completely undercut by Senate candidates who would not allow abortion in the case of rape and who made very peculiar statements about rape-caused pregnancies.

Citizens United v. FEC

-A 2010 decision by the United States Supreme Court holding that independent expenditures are free speech protected by the 1st Amendment and so cannot be limited by federal law. -Leads to creation of SuperPACs & massive rise in amount of third party electioneering (Citizens for a Better Tomorrow, Tomorrow)

Super Tuesday

-A Tuesday in early March in which many presidential primaries, particularly in the South, are held. -The day on which a large number of states- many of them concentrated in a particular region- all hold their primaries on the same day

Political Action Committee (PAC)

-A committee set up by and representing a corporation, labor union, or special-interest group. PACs raise and give campaign donations. -Since corporations and labor unions could not contribute directly to candidates, they established ___________________, which are the organizations that receive contributions from 50 or more individuals and contribute money to at least 5 candidates for federal office - ________ can contribute up to $5,000 to each candidate in each election

Fifth Amendment

-A constitutional amendment designed to protect the rights of persons accused of crimes, including protection against double jeopardy, self-incrimination, and punishment without due process of law.

party platform

-A document was drawn up at each national convention outlining the policies, positions, and principles of the party. -a set of guiding principles and policy positions intended to bring coherence to the party brand. -However, the _________ is drafted by a committee of loyal party activists who may have supported different candidates for the party's nomination prior to the convention. -Compromises are required to reach an agreement on the ___________, and the positions articulated in the document are likely to reflect the beliefs of the strongest partisans rather than the average party voter. -Republican delegates are more ideologically conservative than the likely Republican voter, just as delegates to the Democratic convention are more liberal than the majority of their party's voters. -the _________ is not binding on candidates, officeholders, or even the party itself. -Statements of the direction in which the parties want the country to go -Generally, point out real differences between the parties +Provide a means to reach out to various groups that are important to the party +Nominees generally try to control the ____________ writing process so that it does not contain provisions that the candidate cannot live with (although at times they will relinquish a point in an effort to rebuild their electoral coalition).

Party-Column, or Indiana, Ballot

-A form of general election ballot in which all of a party's candidates for elective office are arranged in one column under the party's label and symbol. -It emphasizes voting for the party, rather than for the office or individual.

Office-Block Ballot (Massachusetts Ballot)

-A form of general election ballot in which candidates for elective office are grouped together under the title of each office. -It emphasizes voting for the office and the individual candidate, rather than for the party. -Groups all the candidates for a particular elective office under the title of that office

party convention

-A meeting of party delegates to vote on matters of policy and in some cases to select party candidates for public office. -held to finalize the nomination of a candidate for president. -Democratic Convention +July 13 - July 16 +Milwaukee, WI -Republican Convention +August 24 - August 27 +Charlotte, NC -where the presidential and vice-presidential candidates are officially nominated and where delegates adopt the party platform.

national party convention

-A national meeting of delegates elected in primaries, caucuses, or state conventions who assemble once every four years to nominate candidates for president and vice president, ratify the party platform, elect officers, and adopt rules. -The national party organization is responsible for the ___________ -attended by thousands of convention delegates from around the country. -The ________ is where the presidential and vice-presidential candidates are officially nominated and where delegates adopt the party platform.

Delegates

-A person who is chosen or elected to represent a person or group -individuals chosen to represent their states at their party conventions prior to a presidential election. - ____________ are selected by parties at the state level, and the rules for ____________ selection in each state vary.

Tipping

-A phenomenon that occurs when a group that is becoming more numerous over time grows large enough to change the political balance in a district, state, or country. -Political transformation can also result from changes in the composition of the electorate. demographically based change tipping. -Immigration is one cause of this phenomenon. -Tipping in Massachusetts =The Yankees were numerically dominant from the founding of the state until 1928. =In that year, for the first time, Democratic Irish voters came to outnumber the Republican Yankees. =Massachusetts, which previously had been one of the most solidly Republican states, cast its presidential vote for Democrat Al Smith. =Within a few years, Massachusetts became one of the most reliably Democratic states in the nation. -Tipping in California =California may have experienced a tipping effect during the 1990s. =From 1952 until 1992, California consistently supported Republican presidential candidates, turning Democratic only in the landslide election of Lyndon Johnson in 1964. =In 1992, however, the California electorate gave Democrat Bill Clinton a larger percentage of its votes than he received in the country as a whole. =Since then, no Republican presidential candidate has managed to carry California. =In 1999, California became the third state, after Hawaii and New Mexico, in which non-Latino whites do not make up a majority of the population.

Whig Party

-An American political party formed in the 1830s to oppose President Andrew Jackson and the Democrats, stood for protective tariffs, national banking, and federal aid for internal improvements -aka the National Republicans

third party

-A political party organized in opposition to the major parties in a two-party system -(Technically, of course, there could be fourth, fifth, or sixth parties as well, but we use the term third party because it has endured.) -Third parties can come into existence in three ways: (1)They may be founded from scratch by individuals or groups who are committed to a particular interest, issue, or ideology; (2)they can split off from one of the major parties when a group becomes dissatisfied with the major party's policies; or (3)they can be organized around a particular charismatic leader and serve as that person's vehicle for contesting elections. -have forced the major parties to recognize new issues or trends in the thinking of Americans. -Political scientists believe that third parties have acted as safety valves for dissident groups, preventing major confrontations and political unrest. -No _______ candidate has earned electoral votes since 1968, highlighting the strength of the two main parties. -longest-lived third parties have been those with strong ideological foundations that are typically at odds with the majority mind-set. +The Socialist Party is an example. =The party was founded in 1901 and lasted until 1972, when it was finally dissolved. (A smaller party later took up the name.) -Members of a minor party regard themselves as outsiders and look to one another for support +ideology provides great psychological cohesiveness.

Majoritarianism

-A political theory holding that in a democracy, the government ought to do what the majority of the people want.

political polling

-A poll that asks a sample of people for their feelings on a particular issue, such as what they think of a political party or a commercial product.

open primary

-A primary in which any registered voter can vote (but must vote for candidates of only one party).

Realignment

-A process in which a substantial group of voters switches party allegiance, producing a long-term change in the political landscape. -Research indicates that a ____________ is occurring among those of higher economic status: professionals now tend to vote Democratic, whereas small-business owners, managers, and corporate executives tend to vote Republican -One mechanism by which a party might gain dominance -Major constituencies shift their allegiance from one party to another, creating a long-term alteration in the political environment. -has often been associated with particular elections, called realigning elections.

white primaries

-A southern expedient to keep blacks from participating in primary elections -A state primary election that restricts voting to whites only; outlawed by the Supreme Court in 1944. -since political party primaries were private, the parties could exclude African-AMericans -After 1877, the Democrats dominated politics in the South, and whichever candidate won the Democratic primary was virtually guaranteed to win the general election. Since African-Americans were excluded from such primaries, they were effectively denied their right to vote. -[Ruled unconstitutional violation of the 15th Amendment in Smith v. Allwright (1944)].

Lobbying

-A strategy by which organized interests seek to influence the passage of legislation by exerting direct pressure on members of the legislature. -The term ___________ comes from the activities of private citizens regularly congregating in the lobbies of legislative chambers before a session to petition legislators. -In the latter part of the 1800s, railroad and industrial groups openly bribed state legislators to pass legislation beneficial to their interests, giving ________ a well-deserved bad name. -Most lobbyists today are professionals. +They are either consultants to a company or interest group or members of one of the Washington, DC, law firms that specialize in providing such services. -direct interest group technique -includes: +Holding private meetings with public officials where lobbyists often furnish needed info. +Testifying before congressional committees +Testifying before executive rulemaking committees +Assisting legislators or bureaucrats in drafting legislation or prospective regulations +Inviting legislators to social occasions +Providing political info to legislators and other gov. officials +Supplying nominations for federal appointments to the executive branch

Smith v. Allwright

-A supreme court case in 1944 that ruled that it was unconstitutional to deny membership in political parties to African Americans as a way of excluding them from voting in primaries. -white primaries = Ruled unconstitutional violation of the 15th Amendment

Rational Ignorance Effect

-An effect produced when people purposely and rationally decide not to become informed on an issue because they believe that their vote on the issue is not likely to be a deciding one; a lack of incentive to seek the necessary information to cast an intelligent vote. -a reason why ppl dont vote

rating system

-A system by which a particular interest group evaluates (rates) the performance of legislators based on how often the legislators have voted with the group's position on particular issues. -Many interest groups attempt to influence the overall behavior of legislators through their ________________ -The interest group selects legislation that it believes is most important to its goals and then monitors how legislators vote on it. -Each legislator is given a score based on the percentage of times that he or she voted in favor of the group's position. -The usual scheme ranges from 0 to 100 percent. -Ratings are a shorthand way of describing members' voting records for interested citizens. They can also be used to embarrass members.

poll tax

-A tax of a fixed amount per person and payable as a requirement for the right to vote -A special tax that must be paid as a qualification for voting. The Twenty-fourth Amendment to the Constitution outlawed the ___________ in national elections, and in 1966, the Supreme Court declared it unconstitutional in all elections. -required the payment of a fee to vote. Since african-americans tended to be economically disadvantaged, this effectively restricted the right to vote for many of them. -The 24th Amendment (ratified in 1964) made this illegal in Federal elections; applied to all elections in Harper vs. Virginia State Board of Elections (1966).

party identification

-An informal and subjective affiliation with a political party that most people acquire in childhood. -Political campaigns In the last decade, have become more candidate centered rather than party centered due to technological innovations and decreasing ______________ -Ppl acquire their political attitudes, often including their ______________, through relationships with their families, friends, and coworkers. -ticket splitting: may indicate a lack of trust in government or the relative weakness of ___________ among many voters. -Linking oneself to a particular political party. -A psychological attachment that can persist without legal recognition or evidence of formal party membership and without a consistent record of party support

soft money

-Campaign contributions unregulated by federal or state law, usually given to parties and party committees to help fund general party activities. -The Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA) of 2002 banned ______________ contributions to the national parties, limited advertising by interest groups, and increased the limits on individual contributions. -Money that is raised for political purposes that is outside of the constraints specified under the Federal Election Campaign Acts -Unregulated money not to be used directly for federal campaigns -May be used for activities such as party building, voter education, and voter registration drives -In reaction to the ban on _________contributions to national political parties, many interest groups began to set up 527 organizations

Plurality

-At virtually every level of government in the United States, the outcome of elections is based on the ____________, winner-take-all principle -A number of votes cast for a candidate that is greater than the number of votes for any other candidate but not necessarily a majority. -If the electors pledged to a particular presidential candidate receive a ____________ of 40 percent of the votes in a state, that presidential candidate will receive all of the state's votes in the electoral college. -In cases where no candidate receives a majority of the electoral vote, the election is decided in the House of Representatives from among the three highest candidates; +decided by a ____________ of each state's delegation;

presidential election

-Elections held in years when the president is on the ballot. -every four years -The ____________ of 2000 was one instance in which a minor party may have altered the outcome. +Green candidate Ralph Nader received almost 100,000 votes in Florida, a majority of which would probably have gone to Democrat Al Gore if Nader had not been in the race. -the winner of a close _______________ is chosen by only one-fourth of voting-age population -affect congressional and gubernatorial races

Party leaders

-Members of the House and Senate who are chosen by the Democratic or Republican caucus in each chamber to represent the party's interests in that chamber and who give some central direction to the chamber's work. - pay close attention to the affiliation of their members in the electorate because winning a majority of contests is the way to gain control of the government and enact the party's policies.

social movement

-Interest groups are often spawned by mass ____________ -it is A movement that represents the demands of a large segment of the public for political, economic, or social change. -the first expression of discontent with the existing system. -They may be the authentic voice of weaker or oppressed groups in society that do not have the means or standing to organize as interest groups.

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)

-Legalized segregation in publicly owned facilities on the basis of "separate but equal."

Regulating Lobbyists

-Legislative Reorganization Act of 1946 +Public disclosure more than regulation -1995 reforms +Defined lobbyist as anyone who spent 20% or more of his or her time lobbying congress or the executive branch +Must register within 45 days with the clerk of the house or secretary of the senate must file quarterly reports disclosing the nature of the lobbying efforts. -Congressional changes +Congress also adopted new rules that set limits on gifts +Banned "all-expenses paid" trips +Stopped the broad practice of taking members of congress to lunch or dinner, although there are exemptions and exceptions

Twenty-sixth Amendment (1971)

-Lowered the voting age from 21 to 18

Red State/Blue State

-Red States: Generally vote for the Republican candidate. (more conservative) -Blue States: Generally vote for the Democrat candidate. (more Liberal) -America had become divided between states that were solidly Republican or Democratic in their leanings, with a handful of "swing states." +States that had shown strong support for a Republican candidate were deemed "red states" +so-called Democratic states were labeled "blue states." -These labels have now become part of our political culture, and the outcome of any presidential race is portrayed in red and blue.

Shelby County v. Holder (2013)

-Struck down provision of Voting Rights Act of 1965 requiring states engaged in past discrimination to get federal preclearance before instituting changes in voting laws or practices; -allowed restrictive state voter ID laws to go forward (Roberts Court) -Shelby county, Alabama had been subject to the provisions of section 5 of the VRA since 1965 -Argued that conditions had changed and that Shelby county should no longer be required to meet the preclearance provisions of the Act -On june 25, 2013, the Court ruled by a 5-to-4 vote that section 4(b) is unconstitutional because the coverage formula is based on data over 40 years old, making it no longer responsive to current needs and therefore an impermissible burden on the constitutional principles of federalism and equal sovereignty of the states -As a result, no jurisdiction is currently subject to the provisions of Section 5.

United States v. Windsor (2013)

-Struck down the federal Defense of Marriage of Marriage Act's (DOMA) -restrictions of marriage rights to only heterosexual couples as unconstitutional violation of the 5th amendment due process clause -same sex married couples now receive federal benefits (Roberts Court) -the case that the U.S. Supreme Court declare unconstitutional Section 3 of the Defense of Marriage Act of 1996 (DOMA), which prevented the federal government from recognizing same-sex marriages for the purpose of federal laws or programs even when those couples were legally married in their home state

Dred Scott v. Sanford

-Supreme Court case that decided US Congress did not have the power to prohibit slavery in federal territories and slaves, as private property, could not be taken away without due process - -basically slaves would remain slaves in non-slave states and slaves could not sue because they were not citizens -involved in a case that invalidated the Missouri Compromise and had a significant role in setting up the conflicts leading to the Civil War

Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)

-The Fourteenth Amendment requires a State to license a marriage between two people of the same sex and to recognize a marriage between two people of the same sex when their marriage was lawfully licensed and performed out-of-State. -In 2015, the Supreme Court in the case of Obergefell v. Hodges declared that same sex married couples were to be constitutionally accorded the same recognition as opposite sex couples at state or territory levels as well as at the federal level.

Currently active ideological parties

-The Libertarian Party supports a laissez-faire ("let it be") capitalist economic program, together with a hands-off policy on regulating matters of moral conduct. -The Green Party began as a grassroots environmentalist organization with affiliated political parties across North America and Western Europe. It was established in the United States as a national party in 1996 and nominated Ralph Nader to run for president in 2000. Nader campaigned against what he called "corporate greed," advocated universal health insurance, and promoted environmental concerns

two-party system

-The United States has had a _________ since about 1800. -A political system in which only two parties have a reasonable chance of winning. -The function and character of the political parties, as well as the persistence of the ___________, are largely the result of unique historical forces operating from our country's beginning as an independent nation. -why (1)the historical foundations of the system, (2)political socialization and practical considerations, (3)the winner-take-all electoral system, and (4)state and federal laws favoring the two-party system. -When a ____________ has been in existence for almost two centuries, it becomes difficult to imagine an alternative.

negative campaigning

-The act of attacking an opposing candidate's platform, past political performance, or personal characteristics. -a reason why ppl do not vote

party competition

-The battle of the parties for control of public offices. -Ups and downs of the two major parties are one of the most important elements in American politics. -By 1816, the Federalist Party had virtually collapsed, and two-party ___________ did not really exist. -a factor that influences who votes

Nineteenth Amendment

-The constitutional amendment adopted in 1920 that guarantees women the right to vote.

Thirteenth Amendment

-The constitutional amendment ratified after the Civil War that forbade slavery and involuntary servitude. -freed all slaves

First Amendment

-The constitutional amendment that establishes the four great liberties: freedom of the press, of speech, of religion, and of assembly.

Political Knowledge in the U.S.

-The first empirical studies of political knowledge were conducted in the 1940s. -The characterization of the American public emerging from the early studies (through the 1960s) was discouraging: the American public was found to be apathetic, uninterested in politics, unconcerned about who wins elections, and had few strong political opinions. -The public demonstrated low levels of knowledge concerning public affairs and the basic workings of parties, politics, and government

party organization

-The formal structure and leadership of a political party, including election committees; local, state, and national executives; and paid professional staff. -National party organization: +National chairperson =Republicans: ronna mcdaniel =Democrats: tom perez +National committee +National convention and delegates -State party organization +State chairperson =Democrats: trav robertson =Republicans: drew mckissick +State central committee +Unit rule -Local party organization +Where most ppl are involved +Recruit members and candidates +Campaign workers +Poll workers -provides the structural framework for the political party by recruiting volunteers to become party leaders; identifying potential candidates; and organizing caucuses, conventions, and election campaigns for its candidates. -____________ and its active workers keep the party functioning between elections, as well as make sure that the party puts forth electable candidates and articulates clear positions in the elections. -If the party-in-the-electorate declines in numbers and loyalty, the _______________ must try to find a strategy to rebuild the grassroots following. -Each of the American political parties has a parallel structure at the national, state, and local levels. +This often leads people to believe that the national party dictates to the state and local parties, but in reality, the political parties have a confederal structure in which each unit has significant autonomy and is linked only loosely to the other units.

Local Party Organizations

-The lowest level of party machinery is the ___________, supported by district leaders, precinct or ward captains, and party workers. -Much of the work is coordinated by county committees and their chairpersons. -In the 1800s, the institution of patronage—rewarding the party faithful with government jobs or contracts—held the local organization together. +The practice of rewarding faithful party workers and followers with government employment and contracts. -Today, _____________ still can contribute a great deal to local election campaigns. -These organizations are able to provide the foot soldiers of politics—individuals who pass out literature and get out the vote on Election Day, which can be crucial in local elections. -In many regions, local Democratic and Republican organizations still exercise some patronage, such as awarding courthouse jobs, contracts for street repair, and other lucrative construction contracts. -____________ are also the most important vehicles for recruiting young adults into political work, because political involvement at the local level offers activists many opportunities to gain experience.

randomness

-The most important principle in sampling, or poll taking, is _______________ -Every person should have a known chance, and especially an equal chance, of being sampled. +A small sample should be representative of the whole group, both in demographic characteristics (age, religion, race, region, and the like) and in opinions. +The ideal way to sample the voting population of the United States would be to put all voter names into a jar—or a computer—and randomly sample, say, 2,000 of them. =Too costly and inefficient > pollsters have developed other ways to obtain good samples. =One way is to choose a random selection of telephone numbers and interview the respective households. produced a relatively accurate sample at a low cost until: -2014: the proportion of people living in households without a landline grew to two in five (43%) with another 17% mostly using cell phones -The prevalence of cell-only households is highest in Idaho (52.3 percent) and lowest in New Jersey (19.4 percent).

political knowledge

-The range of factual info about politics that is stored in long term memory -(long term)- focuses on information that citizens bring to their interpretation of the world rather than on info that is provided as new issues emerge and events unfold. -Areas of ____________ +Rules of the Game =The basic structure of gov. =Its basic values =Its basic elements +Substance of Politics =What the issues are =What their history is =What the relevant facts are =Alternatives +People and Players

Each of the American political parties has a parallel structure at the national, state, and local levels.

-This often leads people to believe that the national party dictates to the state and local parties, but in reality, the political parties have a confederal structure in which each unit has significant autonomy and is linked only loosely to the other units. -State and local organizations are essential to the party's overall functions, but their influence varies by state. -In some states, parties receive significant contributions from individuals and interest groups for their operations, whereas in other states and localities political parties are very weak organizations with very little funding.

blanket primary

-Voters can votes for candidates of more than one party (all candidates names are printed on the same ballot)

sampling error

-an error that occurs when a sample somehow does not represent the target population -Polls may also report erroneous results because the pool of respondents was not chosen in a scientific manner; that is, the form of sampling and the number of people sampled may be too small to overcome _________ - it is the difference between the sample result and the true result if the entire population had been interviewed. -The rise of cell phone use introduces new complexities. +Because cell phone area codes may not correspond to the physical location of the owner, geographic representation in sampling frames is difficult to confirm. +Unscientific mail-in polls, telephone call-in polls, Internet polls, and polls completed by the workers in a campaign office are not scientific and do not give an accurate picture of the public's views. +According to Cliff Zukin, a Rutgers professor and past president of the American Association for Public Opinion Research, how to identify "likely voters" is one of the greatest challenges pollsters face today. -When a poll changes its method from reporting the views of eligible voters to reporting those of likely voters, the results tend to change dramatically.

political culture

-commonly shared attitudes, beliefs, and core values about how government should operate -a set of attitudes and ideas about the nation and the government. -The elements of our _____________ include certain shared beliefs about the most important values in the American political system, including (1)liberty, equality, and property; (2)support for religious freedom; and (3)community service and personal achievement. -When people share certain beliefs about the system and a reservoir of good feeling exists toward the institutions of government, the nation will be better able to weather periods of crisis. -The ______________ also helps Americans evaluate their government's performance. -as technologies mature and become more integrated into our daily lives, it remains important to carefully assess their impact on our ___________, shared values, and identity as a nation. -red state blue state has endured bc of our ____________

party in government

-consists of elected and appointed officials who identify with a political party. -the third component of American political parties. -After the election is over and the winners are announced, the focus of party activity shifts to organizing and controlling the government. -Partisanship plays an important role in the day-to-day operations of Congress, with party membership determining everything from office space to committee assignments. plays an important role in the day-to-day operations of Congress, with party membership determining everything from office space to committee assignments.

civil rights act of 1866

-law that established federal guarantees of civil rights for all citizens -This act extended citizenship to anyone born in the US, gave African-Americans full equality before the law, -and gave the national gov. the power to intervene when states attempted to restrict the citizenship rights of blacks.

environmental interest groups

-promote: policies to control pollution, combat global warming, wilderness protection, species preservation

splinter parties

-parties that have split away from one of the major parties -The impetus for these splinter parties, or factions, has usually been a situation in which a particular personality was at odds with the major party. -A new party formed by a dissident faction within a major political party. Often, splinter parties have emerged when a particular personality was at odds with the major party. -The most successful of these splinter parties was the Bull Moose Progressive Party, formed in 1912 to support Theodore Roosevelt for president. -The Republican National Convention of that year denied Roosevelt the nomination, although he had won most of the primaries. He therefore left the Republicans and ran against Republican "regular" William Howard Taft in the general election. -Third parties have also been formed to back individual candidates who were not rebelling against a particular party. -Ross Perot, for example, who challenged Republican George H. W. Bush and Democrat Bill Clinton in 1992, had not previously been active in a major party. -By 1996, Perot's organization was formalized as the Reform Party.

single-interest group

-political action committees that concentrate their efforts exclusively on one issue -may be call attention to their causes bc they have simple, straightforward goals and bc their members tend to care intensely about the issues -can easily motivate their members to contact legislators or to organize demonstrations in support of their policy goals

straight ticket voting

-practice of voting for candidates of only one party in an election -In the early 1900s, straight-ticket voting was nearly universal -Voting exclusively for the candidates of one party. -This trend, along with the increase in the number of voters who call themselves independents, suggests that parties have lost much of their hold on the loyalty of the voters.

Reasons for not voting

-reasons for which a citizen will not vote including the Uninformative media coverage Negative campaigning "Rational ignorance" effect System issues

Single member district system

-system in which the people elect one representative per district. -With a winner-take-all rule, this system strengthens the two major parties and weakens minor parties.

The State Party Organization

-the Union has 50 states, plus the District of Columbia and the U.S. territories, and an equal number of party organizations for each major party. -There are more than 100 state parties (and even more if local and minor parties are included. -Because every state party is unique, it is impossible to describe what an "average" state political party is like. state parties have several organizational features in common. -Each state party has a chairperson, a committee, and local organizations. -the role of the state central committee +The principal organized structure of each political party within each state. This committee is responsible for carrying out policy decisions of the party's state convention. +—the principal organized structure of each political party within each state—is similar in the various states. +The committee, usually composed of members who represent congressional districts, state legislative districts, or counties, has responsibility for carrying out the policy decisions of the party's state convention. -In some states, the state committee can issue directives to the state chairperson. +Similar to the national committee, the state central committee controls the use of party campaign funds during political campaigns. -State parties are also important in national politics because of the unit rule, which awards electoral votes in presidential elections as an indivisible bloc (except in Maine and Nebraska).

Hyperpluralism

-the ability of interest groups to mandate policy or to defeat policies needed by the nation may work against the public good.

public opinion

-the distribution of the population's beliefs about politics and policy issues -expressed and conveyed to public officials through polls, which are reported daily in the media. -Sometimes _________ is expressed through mass demonstrations, rallies, or protests -In the past, public opinion has had a dramatic impact on presidents. +In 1968, President Lyndon B. Johnson did not run for reelection because of the intense and negative public reaction to the war in Vietnam. +In 1974, President Richard Nixon resigned in the wake of a scandal when it was obvious that ______________ no longer supported him. -Among the many different publics, no single public opinion exists. +________ is the aggregate of individual attitudes or beliefs shared by some portion of the adult population. distributed among several different positions, and the distribution of opinion tells us how divided the public is on an issue and whether compromise is possible. -Sometimes public officials have a difficult time discerning the public's opinion on a specific issue from the public's expression of general anger or dissatisfaction. -When ___________ changes dramatically, government policy is more likely to follow changing public attitudes -does not make public policy; rather, it restrains officials from taking truly unpopular actions. -Today, many contend that the media's influence on _________ has grown to equal that of the family. -One of the most common means of gathering and measuring __________ on specific issues is, of course, through the use of opinion polls. -technological advances in communication have made gathering _________data more difficult in some ways. -also helps candidates identify the most important concerns among the people and may help them shape their campaigns successfully. -surveys of ________ are not equivalent to elections in the United States. -A vital component of ____________ in the United States is the considerable ambivalence with which the public regards many major national institutions. -Candidates use _____________ polls and focus groups to gauge their popularity and to test the mood of the country.

Non-opinion

-the lack of an opinion on an issue or policy among the majority -a form of public opinion -A poll shows a distribution of opinion indicating that most Americans either have no information about the issue or are not interested enough to formulate a position. This is referred to as ________ -When large percentage of ppl dont have an opinion

political socialization

-the process by which people gain their political attitudes and opinions -views that are expressed as political opinions are acquired through the process of _______________ -Ppl acquire their political attitudes, often including their party identification, through relationships with their families, friends, and coworkers. -Scholars have long believed that the most important early sources of political socialization are found in the family and the schools. +Children learn their parents' views on politics and on political leaders through observation and approval seeking. =If parents are strong supporters of a political party, children are very likely to identify with that same party. =If parents are alienated from the political system or totally disinterested in politics, children will tend to hold the same attitudes. -Socialization agents +Family =Most important, first transmitters of political process +Schools =The more formal education a person receives, the more likely it is that he or she will be interested in politics, be confident in his or her ability to understand political issues, and be an active participant in the political process. +Peers and Peer group +Religion +Economic Status +Political Events +Opinion Leaders +Media +These are not independent > all related but play their own role

A history of political parties in the U.S.

1) the formative years: 1789-1828 +The era of good feelings: 1817-1825 +One party denominated 2) national two party rule: 1828-1860 +Democratic party- andrew jackson +Whig party- john quincy adams +Relatively equal balance of power 3) post civil war period: 1860-1896 +Whigs in north= opposed +Whigs in south= for it 4) the progressive movement: 1896-1932 +Gov more involved and improving society +Temporary split in republican party +Allowed democrats to win two elections 5) New Deal Period: 1932-1968 6) modern era-an era of divided +Government: 1968-present +Divided Government: a situation in which one major political party controls the presidency and the other controls at least one of the chambers of Congress (or in which one party controls a state governorship and the other controls at least one chamber of the state legislature.) -The challenge for ______________ and candidates is to harness the energy of social media to engage young people in politics. -_________are an important feature of the political landscape in the United States. -made up of people who use the organization, resources, and access to power that the parties provide in order to influence the outcomes of government. play an important coordinating role across institutions and among the local, state, and national levels. -_______________are absolutely necessary to make our system function. -E. Schattschneider—"modern democracy is unthinkable save in terms of _____________." -American ___________ because of our electoral structure where majorities determine most victories, tend to be as inclusive as possible in order to attract every possible voter, while still maintaining their unique "brand." -serve to channel the public's energy and divergent opinions into political solutions enacted by government. Parties have played this role in American politics since the founding. -___________ are built by appealing to groups of people and knitting together a coalition based on shared interests.

Qualifications for President

35 years old, born in the U.S., and has to have lived in the U.S. for 14 years

Vice-president: who is eligible?

Must be natural born citizen At least 35 years old Be a resident of the country for 14 yrs by the time of inauguration Typically not a resident of the same state as candidate for president

Blanket primary

Voters can votes for candidates of more than one party (all candidates names are printed on the same ballot)

Push Polls

polls taken for the purpose of providing information on an opponent that would lead respondents to vote against that candidate -have been condemned by the polling industry and are considered unethical, but they are still used.

One of the most common means of gathering and measuring public opinion on specific issues is, of course, through the use of

opinion polls.

If children are exposed to political ideas at school and in the media, they will share these ideas with their parents, giving parents what some scholars call a "second chance" at ______________________

political socialization.

pluralist theory

proposes that these many groups will try to influence the government and struggle to reach a compromise that will be advantageous to all sides.

Common Cause

public interest group maintained and funded by direct mail solicitation

examples of social movements

• Civil Rights Movement • Women's Rights Movement • End of Holocaust in WWII • Black Lives Matter • Neo-Nazi/Alt-Right -most mainstream political and social leaders disapproved of the women's movement of the 1800s. After the Civil War, when more women became active in professional life, the first real women's rights group, the National Woman Suffrage Association, came into being. -civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s =African Americans found themselves in an even more disadvantaged situation after the end of the Reconstruction period. =They were unable to exercise their political rights in many Southern and border states, and their participation in any form of organization could lead to economic ruin, physical harassment, or even death. =Today, a new component has been added, Black Lives Matter, a nascent social movement that calls attention to the treatment of African Americans by the police and the criminal justice system. -National Farm Workers Association =In the mid-twentieth century, Hispanic or Latino Americans became part of a social movement to improve the treatment of immigrant workers. =Cesar Chavez, a farmworker, organized the Mexican farm laborers in California and other Western states to demand better working conditions, better treatment, and the right to form a union. =A strike against the grape growers in California and led a successful national boycott of table grapes for six years. =became a nationally recognized union, the United Farm Workers -the National Council of La Raza =By the 1960s, other leaders within the Hispanic American community founded to improve educational and employment opportunities for their community. ="La Raza" became recognized as an advocacy group that spoke for Hispanic Americans. -The Stonewall riots in New York City =were the beginning of the drive for greater rights and protections for gays and lesbians in the United States. =This social movement began in New York City and San Francisco and then spread to gay communities throughout the nation. =There is no doubt that lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) Americans have become a well-recognized interest group.

Equal Protection Clause

-14th amendment clause that prohibits states from denying equal protection under the law, and has been used to combat discrimination -Civil rights in contrast, specify what the government must do—to ensure _____________ and freedom from discrimination. -separate but equal doctrine +The 1896 doctrine holding that separate-but-equal facilities do not violate the ___________________ -brown v. board of education (1954) +In an unanimous decision, the supreme court ruled that public school segregation by race violated the ___________ of the 14th amendment. +Separate facilities are inherently unequal and ordered the next year (2nd Brown case) that children, should attend school on a non-discriminatory basis, "with all deliberate speed" -Plessy v. Ferguson +Plessy sued claiming that such action violated his 14th Amendment guarantee of ____________________ of the laws.

grandfather clause

-A clause in registration laws allowing people who do not meet registration requirements to vote if they or their ancestors had voted before 1867. -several states passed laws that restricted the right to vote to those who could prove that their _____________ had voted before 1867. -Since most African-Americans could not vote before 1870, they were denied the vote by such provisions. -[This was ruled an unconstitutional violation of the 15th Amendment in Guinn vs. United States (1915)]. -A device used by Southern states to disenfranchise African Americans. It restricted voting to those whose grandfathers had voted before 1867.

Electoral College

-A group of people named by each state legislature to select the president and vice president -The pattern of a Republican Congress and a Democratic president would have continued after the election of 2000 if Democratic presidential candidate Al Gore had prevailed. +Gore won the popular vote, but he lost the ________________ by a narrow margin. -Recall that the voters in each state do not vote for a president directly, but vote for ___________ delegates who are committed to the various presidential candidates. +These delegates are called electors. -If the electors pledged to a particular presidential candidate receive a plurality of 40 percent of the votes in a state, that presidential candidate will receive all of the state's votes in the _____________ -Constitutional foundations: +Article ii, section 1 +12th amendment +23 amendment +An example of the founders' concerns about "direct democracy" the president and vice president are not voted on directly by the ppl; the ppl instead vote for "electors" -Every state gets 2, and then congressional district votes too -Choice of electors +State's number of electors equals that state's number of senators (2) plus its number of representatives -Electors' Commitment: electors are pledged to cast their votes for the candidate that wins in their state. -The ballots are counted and certified before a joint session of Congress early in January. -With the exception of maine and nebraska, all states follow the unit rule +All of the state's electoral votes are cast for the presidential candidate receiving a plurality of the popular vote in that state. -Candidates need 270 electoral votes to win.

Era of Good Feelings

-A name for President Monroe's two terms, a period of strong nationalism, economic growth, and territorial expansion. -Since the Federalist party dissolved after the War of 1812, there was only one political party and no partisan conflicts. -From 1800 to 1820, a majority of U.S. voters regularly elected Republicans to the presidency and to Congress. -By 1816, the Federalist Party had virtually collapsed, and two-party competition did not really exist. -The Republicans opposed the Federalists' call for a stronger, more active central government, however, they undertook active government policies such as acquiring the Louisiana Territory and Florida and establishing a national bank. -Because the Republicans faced no real political opposition and little political debate was stirred, the administration of James Monroe (served 1817-1825) came to be known as the ________________

reasons for the gender gap

-A number of explanations have been offered: +the increase in the number of working women, +Feminism +women's concerns over abortion rights and other social issues +changing political attitudes of men. -Lena Edlund and Rohini Pande of Columbia University, however, have identified another factor leading to the gender gap—the disparate economic impact on men and women of not being married. +For the last three decades, men and women have tended to marry later in life or stay single even after having children. +The divorce rate has also risen dramatically. +Particularly for those in the middle class, this decline in marriage has tended to make men richer and women relatively poorer. Consequently, support for Democrats is higher among single or divorced women. -In 2004, observers noted that women seemed more concerned about homeland security and terrorism than men, so much so that the media coined a new term: security moms. +Origins have been traced to a poll reporting that although only 17% of men were personally concerned that a member of their family would be the victim of a terrorist attack, 43% of women and 53% of mothers with children under 18 expressed the same concern. -Laurel Elder and Steven Greene found that parenthood does not move men or women in a more conservative direction +suggest that labels applied to groups of voters based on demographic characteristics may not always be accurate explanations of voting behavior or political attitudes. Polling in April 2016 found that Trump was viewed unfavorably by 70% of women overall and by 46% of Republican women, leaving him with the largest favorability gender gap of any candidate in the race

Liberalism

-A political ideology that emphasizes +rule of law, +representative democracy, +rights of citizens, +the protection of private property. -This ideology, derived from the Enlightenment, was especially popular among the property-owning middle classes.

Conservatism

-A political or theological orientation advocating the preservation of the best in society and opposing radical changes. -Those with high incomes tend to oppose government intervention in the economy or support it only when it benefits business. -Republicans +Generally more _________________ +Suburban and rural areas +Business and professional occupations +Higher incomes +Fundamentalist or evangelical christians

Democratic Party

-A political party formed by supporters of Andrew Jackson after the presidential election of 1824. -One of the most clear-cut examples of a major party adopting the issues of a minor party took place in 1896, when the ______________ co-opted the Populist demand for "free silver"—that is, a policy of coining enough new money to create inflation. -Are generally considered more liberal -Have generally appealed to more disadvantaged groups in society -African americans are much more likely to identify with the _____________________ -Union members -Jews and catholics -Those with less education -used to require a two-thirds vote to win nomination -Voters who grew up in the 1930s during the Great Depression were likely to form lifelong attachments to the _________________ the party of Franklin D. Roosevelt. -some extremely wealthy people support the _____________ -the stronger of the two parties favored personal liberty and opportunity for the "common man." -As a result of Roosevelt's new deal, African Americans began to support the ____________ in large numbers—a development that would have stunned any American politician of the 1800s. -On issues important to women, the _________________ championed reproductive rights for women, health-care initiatives for women, and their support for the right of women to choose an abortion. -Latino voters saw the __________ as more likely to pass immigration reform than the Republicans.

The United States has had a two-party system since about 1800.

-A political system in which only two parties have a reasonable chance of winning. -The function and character of the political parties, as well as the persistence of the two-party system, are largely the result of unique historical forces operating from our country's beginning as an independent nation.

purposive incentives

-A reason for supporting or participating in the activities of a group that is based on agreement with the goals of the group. +ex: someone with a strong interest in human rights might have a ____________ to join Amnesty International -offer individuals the satisfaction of taking action when the goals of a group correspond to their beliefs or principles -individuals feel strongly enough about the issues to support the group's work with money and time -research shows that ppl really do care about the policy stance of an interest group and join them to feel that they are doing something about a cause that is important to thek

battleground states (swing state)

-A state that is likely to be so closely fought that the campaigns devote exceptional effort to winning the popular and electoral vote there. -In recent years, attention has been lavished on battleground states where presidential contests were closely fought. -In fact, Trump's margin of victory in these states may have helped Republicans in tight races. -term ______ refers to any state that could reasonably be won by either the Democratic or Republican presidential candidate by a "swing" in votes.

Federalists

-A term used to describe supporters of the Constitution during ratification debates in state legislatures. -______________ and Anti-Federalists +differed as to the size and functions of government and ultimately over whether the constitutions should be ratified. +Thus, they represent the first signs that America would be shaped by political parties. -included John Adams, the second president (served 1797-1801). -They represented commercial interests such as merchants and large planters and supported a strong national government. -The Republicans opposed the ___________ call for a stronger, more active central government, however they undertook active government policies such as acquiring the Louisiana Territory and Florida and establishing a national bank.

literacy test

-A test administered as a precondition for voting, often used to prevent African Americans from exercising their right to vote. -potential voters were asked to read, recite, or interpret sometimes very difficult text to satisfaction of the local registrar (outlawed by 1965 Voting Rights Act)

closed primary

-A type of primary in which the voter is limited to choosing candidates of the party of which he or she is a member.

issue advocacy

-Advertising paid for by interest groups that support or oppose a candidate or a candidate's position on an issue without mentioning voting or elections. -Spending unregulated funds on advertising that promotes positions on issues rather than candidates -Cannot use the words "vote for" or "vote against"

general election

-An election held to choose which candidate will hold office -Those in which voters decide which candidates will actually fill the nation's elective offices. (___________ = between opposing parties). -The Federal Election Commission (FEC) rules for campaign financing also place restrictions on minor-party candidates. +Such candidates are not eligible for federal matching funds in either the primary or the ______________ -Party-column ballot: +_____________ ballot in which all of a party's candidates are arranged in one column under the party's label to vote -Since 2008, candidates for president have refused public funding both in the primary campaign and the ______________ -"Leveling the playing field" for candidates in either the primaries or the ________________ seemed to be obsolete. -The _______________ campaign begins after the national conventions and party conventions mark the beginning of the ___________ campaign -Candidates are elected in the ________________

Historical Basis of the Two-Party System

-At times, cultural differences have been important, with advocates of government-sponsored morality (such as banning alcoholic beverages) pitted against advocates of personal liberty. -During much of the 1900s, economic differences were paramount. -In the New Deal period, the Democrats became known as the party of the working class, whereas the Republicans became known as the party of the middle and upper classes and commercial interests. -When politics is based on an argument between just two opposing points of view, advocates of each viewpoint can mobilize most effectively by forming a single, unified party. -The dualist nature of conflict is challenged in conditions of uncertainty or issue complexity when just two positions don't seem to cover the issue. -When a ________________ has been in existence for almost two centuries, it becomes difficult to imagine an alternative.

recruiting candidates for office

-Because a primary goal of parties is to gain control of government, they must work to recruit candidates for all elective offices. -If parties did not search out and encourage political hopefuls, far more offices would be uncontested, and voters would have limited choices.

Post-Party System Era (1968-present?)

-Between the elections of 1968 and 2014, the presidency, the House of Representatives, and the Senate were simultaneously controlled by a single party only about one-third of the time. +The Democrats controlled all three institutions during the presidency of Jimmy Carter (1977-1981), the first two years of Bill Clinton's presidency (1992-1994), and the first two years of Barack Obama's presidency (2008-2010). +The Republicans controlled all three institutions during the third through sixth years of George W. Bush's presidency. -Before the 1992 elections, the electorate seemed to prefer, in most circumstances, to match a Republican president with a Democratic Congress. +Under Bill Clinton, that state of affairs was reversed, with a Democratic president serving alongside a Republican Congress. -Red State, Blue State +The pattern of a Republican Congress and a Democratic president would have continued after the election of 2000 if Democratic presidential candidate Al Gore had prevailed. =Gore won the popular vote, but he lost the electoral college by a narrow margin. =The outcome of the Bush-Gore contest in 2000 produced lingering bitterness in the political scene and may have increased general distrust of the electoral process. +America had become divided between states that were solidly Republican or Democratic in their leanings, with a handful of "swing states." =States that had shown strong support for a Republican candidate were deemed "red states" =so-called Democratic states were labeled "blue states." =These labels have now become part of our political culture, and the outcome of any presidential race is portrayed in red and blue. +In 2008, the nation watched an unprecedented Democratic primary fight between Hillary Rodham Clinton and Barack Obama—each representing a first for the nation with the contest promising a woman or an African American nominee. =Analysts began to talk about a realignment of voters to form a progressive coalition that might last well into the future. -However, the economic collapse of the banks and onset of the economic recession that began during the end of the 2008 campaign lingered through much of President Obama's first term.

Campaign Assistance

-Groups recognize that the greatest concern of legislators is to be reelected, so they focus on the legislators' campaign needs. -Associations with large memberships, such as labor unions, are able to provide workers for political campaigns, including precinct workers to get out the vote, volunteers to put up posters and pass out literature, and people to staff telephone banks for campaign headquarters. -Endorsements are important because an interest group usually publicizes its choices in its membership publication and because the candidate can use the endorsement in her or his campaign literature. -The 2009 decision of the Supreme Court in Citizens United v. FEC makes it possible for unions, interest groups, and corporations to spend money directly on advertising for and against candidates in every election.

Direct Lobbying Techniques

-Hold private meetings with public officials where lobbyists often furnish needed information -Testify before congressional committees -Testify before executive rule making committees -Assisting legislators or bureaucrats in drafting legislation or prospective regulations -Inviting legislators to social occasions -Providing political information to legislators and other government officials -Supplying nominations for federal appointments to the executive branch -With direct techniques, +the interest group and its lobbyists approach the officials personally to present their case. +An interest group activity that involves interaction with government officials to further the group's goals.

The First-Party System: The Development of Parties, 1789-1828

-In September 1796, George Washington, who had served as president for almost two full terms, decided not to run again. +In his farewell address, Washington warned that the country might be destroyed by the "baneful effects of the spirit of party." +He viewed parties as a threat to both national unity and the concept of popular government. +Early in his career, Thomas Jefferson agreed, stating in 1789, "[i]f I could not go to heaven but with a party, I would not go there at all." -In the years after the ratification of the Constitution, Americans realized that something more permanent than a faction would be necessary to identify candidates for office and represent competing political ideas among the people. +The result was two political parties formed around the ideas represented by the Federalists and the Anti-Federalists. +One party was called the Federalists included John Adams, the second president (served 1797-1801). =They represented commercial interests such as merchants and large planters and supported a strong national government. +Another party was the Anti-Federalists and came to be called the Republicans, or Jeffersonian Republicans. =Thomas Jefferson led the other party =Jefferson's Republicans represented artisans and farmers. =They strongly supported states' rights. -In 1800, when Jefferson defeated Adams in the presidential contest, one of the world's first peaceful transfers of power from one party to another was achieved.

The Fourth-Party System: The Progressive Interlude and Republican Dominance (1896-1932)

-In the early 1900s, a spirit of political reform arose in both major parties. +progressivism, this spirit was compounded by a fear of the growing power of great corporations and a belief that honest, impartial government could regulate the economy effectively. -In 1912, the Republican Party temporarily split as former Republican president Theodore Roosevelt campaigned for the presidency on a third-party Progressive, or "Bull Moose," ticket. -The Republican split permitted the election of Woodrow Wilson, the Democratic candidate, along with a Democratic Congress. +Wilson's progressivism marked the beginning of a radical change in Democratic policies +Under Wilson, the Democrats became for the first time at least as receptive as the Republicans to government action in the economy.

Using Constituents as Lobbyists

-Interest groups also use constituents to lobby for their goals. -In the "shotgun" approach, the interest group tries to mobilize large numbers of constituents to email, tweet, write, or phone their legislators or the president. +These efforts are effective on Capitol Hill only with a very large number of responses, however, because legislators know that the voters did not initiate the communications on their own. =Artificially manufactured grassroots activity has been aptly labeled Astroturf lobbying. -With this approach, known as the "rifle" technique or the "Utah plant manager theory," the interest group might, for example, ask the manager of a local plant in Utah to contact the senator from Utah. -The importance of the electronic media cannot be understated for indirect lobbying.

generating public pressure

-Interest groups try to produce a groundswell of public pressure to influence the government. +Such efforts may include advertisements in national magazines and newspapers, mass mailings, television publicity, and demonstrations. -Interest groups also may commission polls to find out what the public's sentiments are and then publicize the results. +The intent of this activity is to convince policymakers that public opinion overwhelmingly supports the group's position. -Some corporations and interest groups also engage in a practice that might be called climate control. +The use of public relations techniques to create favorable public opinion toward an interest group, industry, or corporation. +Public relations efforts are aimed at improving the public image of the industry or group and are not necessarily related to any specific political issue. +Contributions by corporations and groups in support of public television programs, sponsorship of special events, and commercials extolling the virtues of corporate research are some ways of achieving climate control. +Ex: to improve its image in the wake of the 2010Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico, British Petroleum (BP) launched a set of advertisements featuring individuals who work for the corporation talking about the cleanup, the good work done by BP, and their own pride in working for the corporation.

Black Codes

-Laws passed by Southern states immediately after the Civil War denying most legal rights to freed slaves.

Jim Crow Laws

-Limited rights of blacks. -Literacy tests, -grandfather clauses -poll taxes all limited black voting rights -Laws enacted by Southern states that enforced segregation in schools, on transportation, and in public accommodations.

The Second-Party System: Democrats and Whigs (1828-1860)

-Organized two-party politics returned in 1824. -With the election of John Quincy Adams as president, the Democratic-Republican Party split into two entities. +The followers of Adams called themselves National Republicans. +Later, the National Republicans took the name Whig Party, which had been a traditional name for British liberals. =The Whigs stood for federal spending on internal improvements such as roads. =It was understood implicitly that the common man was a white man—the small number of free blacks who could vote identified overwhelmingly as Whigs =A major party in the United States during the first half of the nineteenth century, formally established in 1836. =The Whig Party was anti-Jackson and represented a variety of regional interests. -The followers of Andrew Jackson, who defeated Adams in 1828, formed the Democratic Party. +The Democrats, the stronger of the two parties, favored personal liberty and opportunity for the "common man." +One of the two major American political parties evolving out of the Republican Party of Thomas Jefferson. +The Jacksonian Democrats' success was linked to superior efforts to involve common citizens in the political process, a philosophy known as populism. -The parties adopted the techniques of mass campaigns, including rallies and parades. +Lavishing food and drink on voters at polling places also became a common practice. +Perhaps of greatest importance, however, was the push to cultivate party identity and loyalty. +In large part, the spirit that motivated the new mass politics was democratic pride in participation.

Unorganized Poor

-Rely on indirect representation +Churches, welfare workers, other NGOs -americans who are disadvantaged economically cannot afford to join interest groups and if they are members of the working poor they may have multiple jobs leaving them no time to participate in interest groups -no interest groups exists or has formed to lobby for more effective policies to help these people -R Allen Hays studied groups and individuals who have lobbied for public housing and other issues related to the poor and concluded that the poor depend largely on indirect representation

The Fifth-Party System: The New Deal and Democratic Dominance (1932-1968)

-Republican ascendancy ended with the election of 1932, in the depths of the Great Depression. -Republican Herbert Hoover was president when the Depression began in 1929. +Although Hoover took some measures to fight the Depression, they fell far short of what the public demanded. +Significantly, Hoover opposed federal relief for the unemployed and the destitute. -In 1932, Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt was elected president by an overwhelming margin. +Under Roosevelt, the Democrats began to make major interventions in the economy in an attempt to combat the Depression and to relieve the suffering of the unemployed. =Roosevelt's New Deal relief programs were open to all citizens, both black and white. -As a result, African Americans began to support the Democratic Party in large numbers—a development that would have stunned any American politician of the 1800s. -Roosevelt's political coalition (the New Deal coalition) was broad enough to establish the Democrats as the new majority party and reelect Franklin D. Roosevelt. (He served an unprecedented four terms as president.) -The New Deal coalition managed the unlikely feat of including both African Americans and Southern whites who were hostile to African American advancement. +This balancing act came to an end in the 1960s, a decade marked by the civil rights movement, several years of race riots in major cities, and increasingly heated protests against the Vietnam War. +For many economically liberal, socially conservative voters (especially in the South), social issues had become more important than economic ones, and these voters left the Democrats. -The Great Depression shattered the working-class belief in Republican economic competence. -Vice President Harry Truman assumed the presidency upon Roosevelt's death and was elected to a full term in 1948. -In the 1950s, Republican Dwight D. Eisenhower, the leading U.S. general during World War II, won two terms as president. -Otherwise, with minor interruptions, the Democratic ascendancy lasted until 1968. The result since 1968 has been an era in which neither party dominates

factors affecting turnout

-Researchers characterize this as the "new normal" and expect the positive __________ trend to continue in future elections as young people begin to identify voting as an expression of power. - - _____________ influencing who votes Age Education Minority status Income level Two-party competition -Effect of low voter _____________ Some feel low voter participation is a threat to representative democratic gov. Others feel it represents satisfaction with the status quo -Voter participation in the United States is low compared with that of other countries.. -Another factor affecting ______________ is the extent to which elections are competitive within a state. -It is also true that the number of eligible voters is smaller than the number of people of voting age because of ineligible felons and immigrants who are not yet citizens.

austrailian ballot

-Since 1888, all U.S. states have used this rather than an open, public ballot. -A secret ballot prepared, distributed, and tabulated by government officials at public expense.

acting as the organized opposition to the party in power

-The "out" party, or the one not in control, is expected to articulate its own policies and stand in opposition to the winning party when appropriate for the nation. -By presenting alternative perspectives to the party in power, the opposition party forces debate on the policy alternatives and ensures that careful scrutiny is paid to policies enacted.

coattail effect

-The boost that candidates may get in an election because of the popularity of candidates above them on the ballot, especially the president.

free rider problem

-The difficulty interest groups face in recruiting members when the benefits can be obtained without joining

influence of economic status

-The rich trend toward the right; the poor trend toward the left. -Some very poor individuals are devoted Republicans, just as some extremely wealthy people support the Democratic Party. -Research indicates that a realignment is occurring among those of higher economic status: professionals now tend to vote Democratic, whereas small-business owners, managers, and corporate executives tend to vote Republican

climate control

-The use of public relations techniques to create favorable public opinion toward an interest group, industry, or corporation. -Contributions by corporations and groups in support of public television programs, sponsorship of special events, and commercials extolling the virtues of corporate research are some ways of achieving ________________. -Public relations efforts are aimed at improving the public image of the industry or group and are not necessarily related to any specific political issue. -Ex: to improve its image in the wake of the 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico, British Petroleum (BP) launched a set of advertisements featuring individuals who work for the corporation talking about the cleanup, the good work done by BP, and their own pride in working for the corporation.

gender gap

-Until the 1980s, there was little evidence that men's and women's political attitudes were very different. the election of Ronald Reagan in 1980, however, scholars began to detect a _______________ - It is The difference between the percentage of women who vote for a particular candidate and the percentage of men who vote for the candidate. - ____________ has reappeared in subsequent presidential elections, with women being more likely than men to support the Democratic candidate -The ___________ ranges from about 7 to 12 percent. -Because more women are registered to vote and more women vote than men, as a result of the _____________, female voters can reasonably claim to have delivered victories in many electoral contests.

Generational Effect (Cohort Effect)

-a long-lasting effect of the events of a particular time on the political opinions of those who came of political age at that time -Although you and your parents witnessed these events, the ways that they have influenced your attitudes about increased airport security measures or progress on civil rights might differ. When events produce such a long-lasting result, we refer to it as a _______________ -Ex: +Voters who grew up in the 1930s during the Great Depression were likely to form lifelong attachments to the Democratic Party, the party of Franklin D. Roosevelt. +Evidence indicates that the years of economic prosperity under President Reagan during the 1980s led many young people to identify with the Republican Party. +More recently, the increase in non-party-affiliated Independents may mean that although young people heavily supported Democrat Barack Obama over Republican John McCain in the 2008 election, Democrats should not count on a lifelong attachment.

Labor Interest Groups

-advocate for the economic interests of workers and trade organizations. -interest groups representing the labor movement date back to 1886, when the american federation of labor (AFL) was formed -the role of unions in american society has declined in recent decades, as witnessed by the decrease in union membership +in the age of automation and with the rise of the service sector, blue-collar workers in basic industries represent an increasingly smaller percentage of total working population

agricultural interest groups

-american farmers and their employees represent less than 2% of the US population -farmers' influence on legislation that is beneficial to their interests has been significant -ex: +The American Farm Bureau Federation (1919) =has several million members and is considered conservative =instrumental in getting government guarantees of "fair" prices during the Great Depression in the 1930s +the National Farmers Union (NFU) =represents smaller family firms =generally holds more progressive policy positions than does the farm bureau -have opposed immigration restrictions and are very involved in international trade matters as they seek new markets

Black Lives Matter Movement

-an international activist movement, originating in the African-American community, that campaigns against violence and systemic racism toward black people.

public interest group

-an organization that seeks a collective good that will not selectively and materially benefit group members -the best interests of the overall community, the national good, rather than the narrow interests of a particular group -almost impossible for one particular public policy to benefit everybody, which makes it practically impossible to define the public interest -nader organizations +the best known and perhaps the most effective public interest groups -common cause

interest group

-an organized group of individuals sharing common objectives who actively attempt to influence policy makers -they have many reasons to influence our government -james madison foresaw the importance of having multiple organizations in the political system -poll data show more than 2/3s of all americans belong to at least one group or association -________ range from small groups, such as local environmental organizations, to national groups, such as the American Civil Liberties Union and the National Education Association -________ are often spawned by mass social movements -________ continue to form and act in American society -one reason for the multitude of _________ is that the right to join a group is protected by the first amendment to the U.S. constitution -__________ and their representatives can lobby legislators for policy changes or attempt to influence the president directly -_______ can also contact the officials who write regulations and policies +when these attempts fail, they can turn to the courts and filing suit in state or federal courts to achieve their objectives Why do Americans join interest groups? Solidary incentives Reasons or motives having to do with the desire to associate with others and to share with others a particular interest or hobby Material incentives Reasons having to do with economic benefits or opportunities Purposive incentives Reasons or motives that are based on agreement with the goals of the group Types of Interest Groups (economic interest groups) Business Agricultural Labor (traditional) Public Employee Unions Interest Groups of Professionals Environmental Groups Public Interest Groups Single Issue Interest Groups (single purpose) Foreign Governments

Civil Rights Act of 1964

-banned discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin in employment and public accommodations. -It outlawed arbitrary discrimination in voter registration -Barred discrimination in public accomodations such as hotels and restaurants, whose operations affect interstate commerce -Authorized the federal government to sue to desegregate public schools and facilities -Expanded the power of civil rights commission while extending its life -Provided for the withholding of federal funds from programs administered in a discriminatory manner -It established the right to equality of opportunity in employment. -Federal government efforts to eliminate gender discrimination in the workplace include Title VII of the ____________, which prohibits, among other things, gender-based discrimination, including sexual harassment on the job.

Professional Interest Groups

-concerned mainly with the standards of their professions, but also work to influence goverment policy. -Ex: The American Medical Association, the National Education Association, the American Bar Association -some _________ are more influential than others bc of their members' social status

Unconventional forms of pressure

-interest groups may employ forms of pressure that fall outside the ordinary political process. +These can include marches, rallies, civil disobedience, or demonstrations. Such assemblies, as long as they are peaceful, are protected by the First Amendment. -Demonstrations, however, are not always peaceful. +Violent demonstrations have a long history in America, dating back to the anti-tax Boston Tea Party described in Chapter 2. +The Vietnam War (1964-1975) provoked many demonstrations, some of which were violent. -Another unconventional form of pressure is the boycott +A form of pressure or protest—an organized refusal to purchase a particular product or deal with a particular business. +a refusal to buy a particular product or deal with a particular business. +To be effective, boycotts must command widespread support. =One example was the African American boycott of buses in Montgomery, Alabama, during 1955. =Another was the boycott of California grapes that were picked by nonunion workers as part of a campaign to organize Mexican American farmworkers.

public employee unions

-labor organizations comprising federal, state, and municipal workers, including police officers and teachers -degree of unionization in the private sector has declined since 1965, but it has been partially offset by growth in unionization of ________________ -with a total membership of more than 7.2 million, ________________ are likely to continue expanding -they have become quite militant and are often involved in strikes or protests -ex: National Education Association +a powerful interest group lobbying on behalf of _____________ +a nationwide organization of about 2.8 million teachers and others connected with education

Dealignment

-large numbers of independent voters may result in political volatility, but the absence of strong partisan attachments means that it is no longer easy to "lock in" political preferences for decades. -A problem with dealignment theory is that many "independent" voters are not all that independent. -a decline in party loyalties that reduces long-term party commitment

agenda setting

-media inform the public about the issues and events of our times and thus have an agenda-setting effect -The process by which the media identifies the issues the public should be concerned about. -the media may not be successful in telling people what to think, but they are "stunningly successful in telling their audience what to think about." - Bernard Cohen

Divisive Opinion

-public opinion that is polarized between two quite different positions -Public is split on an issue

civil rights

-refers to the rights of all Americans to equal treatment under the law, as provided for by the 14th Amendment to the Constitution and by subsequent acts of Congress. -Specifies what the government must do-to ensure equal protection and freedom from discrimination. -The story of ___________ in the United States is the struggle to reconcile our ideals as a nation with the realities of discrimination individuals and groups may still encounter in daily life. -Although the government has the power to assert rights and the obligation to protect __________, it does not always do so.

Why do people join interest groups?

-solidary incentives, material incentives, purposive incentives -according to the logic of collective action, if the contribution of an individual will make a difference to the effort then it is worth it to the individual to join -people need an incentive to participate -interest groups offer the opportunity for individuals to pursue political, economic, or social goals through joint action -latent interests -difficulty interest groups face in recruiting members when the benefits can be obtained without joining > free rider

collective good

-something of value that cannot be withheld from a potential group member -According to the logic of ___________ action, if the contribution of an individual will make a difference to the effort, then it is worth it to the individual to join.

Foreign Governments

-sometimes hire former members of Congress as lobbyists.

Civil Rights Movement

-started with the struggle by African Americans for equality. -_____________ of the 1950s and 1960s +African Americans found themselves in an even more disadvantaged situation after the end of the Reconstruction period. +They were unable to exercise their political rights in many Southern and border states, and their participation in any form of organization could lead to economic ruin, physical harassment, or even death. +Today, a new component has been added, Black Lives Matter

Cohesiveness

-the extent to which team members are attracted to a team and motivated to remain in it -Members of a minor party regard themselves as outsiders and look to one another for support ideology provides great psychological _________________. -Regardless of an interest group's size or the amount of funds in its coffers, the motivation of its members is a key factor in determining how powerful it is. -If the members of a group are committed to their beliefs strongly enough to email or tweet their representatives, join a march on Washington, DC, or work together to defeat a candidate, that group is considered powerful. -They are considered powerful because their members are vocal and highly motivated. -Other measures of _____________ include the ability of a group to get its members to contact Washington, DC, quickly or to give extra money when needed. -part of what makes an interest group powerful

caucus

-the party organization, provides the structural framework for the political party by recruiting volunteers to become party leaders; identifying potential candidates; and organizing caucuses, conventions, and election campaigns for its candidates. -Some states use the _______ method of choosing convention delegates. -The Iowa _______ are traditionally the first major electoral event of presidential primaries and ________ -A meeting of party members designed to select candidates and propose policies.

Frontloading

-the practice of moving presidential primary elections to the early part of the campaign to maximize the impact of these primaries on the nomination. and capitalize on media attention

solidary incentive

-the social rewards (sense of pleasure, status, or companionship) that lead people to join political organizations -the advent of social media has made the creation of __________ much easier +even though an individual may "join" a group for free through social media, the interest group benefits from the attention garnered by these "fans"

Business Interest Groups

-umbrella groups represent certain types of businesses or companies that deal in a particular type of product such as the US Chamber of Commerce and the National Association of Manufacturers, as well as trade organizations (associations formed by members of a particular industry) -thousands of _________________ and trade associations work to influence government policies that affect their respective industries -one of the key issues on which businesses have not agreed in the past is immigration reform

Literary Digest Poll of 1936

-wrongly predicted the outcome of the presidential election because its sample was drawn from higher-income people. -In the early twentieth century, the magazine ___________ further developed the technique of opinion polling by mailing large numbers of questionnaires to individuals, many of whom were subscribers, to determine their political opinions. -From 1916 to 1936, more than 70% of the magazine's election predictions were accurate. -A major problem with the Digest's polling technique was its use of nonrepresentative respondents. +1936, at possibly the worst point of the Great Depression, the magazine's subscribers were considerably more affluent than the average American. In other words, they did not accurately represent all of the voters in the U.S. population.

Functions of political parties

1. recruiting candidates for public office 2. organizing and running elections 3. Presenting alternative policies to the electorate 4. Accepting responsibility for operating the government 5. acting as the organized opposition to the party in power. -Functions are carried out by a small nucleus of party activists operating at the local, state, and national levels. +This arrangement is quite different from the more highly structured, mass-membership party organization typical of many European parties. +American parties concentrate on winning elections rather than on signing up large numbers of deeply committed, dues-paying members who believe passionately in the party's program.

Elector

A member of the electoral college, which selects the president and vice president. Each state's electors are chosen in each presidential election year according to state laws.

Types of Interest Groups

Economic (more interest groups are formed to represent economic interests than any other set of interests) -Business -Labor -Agriculture -public employee unions -Professional -Public Interest -the unorganized poor Noneconomic -Single issue -environmental -Government

Latent Interests

Public-policy interests that are not recognized or addressed by a group at a particular time.

voter turnout

The percentage of citizens taking part in the election process; the number of eligible voters who actually "turn out" on election day to cast their ballots.