Political Science
statecraft
"The use of the assets or the resources and tools (economic, military, intelligence, media) that a state has to pursue its interest and to affect the behavior of others, whether friendly or hostile," according to foreign policy expert and former diplomat Dennis Ross.
French Revolution
(1789) Brought down the Bourbon monarchy in France in the name of "liberté, egalité, et fraternité" (liberty, equality, and fraternity); introduced the contagion of liberalism in a Europe still ruled by conservative, aristocratic, and royalist institutions; and ushered in the rule of Napoléon Bonaparte. Prelude to the First Republic in France and to the Napoleonic Wars.
Biological Weapons
A 1972 international arms control treaty that pledged the destruction of biological weapon stockpiles and outlawed the production and storage of such weapons.
Camp David Accords
A 1979 agreement by which Israel gave the Sinai back to Egypt in return for Egypt's recognition of Israel's right to exist; the two former enemies established full diplomatic relations and pledged to remain at peace with one another.
Chemical Weapons Convention
A 1993 international arms control treaty to eliminate chemical weapons within 10 years. It calls for the destruction of chemical weapons stockpiles and the monitoring of companies making compounds that can be used to produce nerve agents in order to end production of chemical weapons.
withering away of the state
A Marxist category of analysis describing what happens after capitalism is overthrown, private property and social classes are abolished, and the need for coercive state power supposedly disappears.
crimes against peace
A Nuremberg war crimes trial category, covering the violation of international peace by waging an unjustified, aggressive war.
Geneva Convention
A body of international law dealing with the treatment of the wounded, prisoners of war, and civilians in a war zone.
Hundred Flowers
A brief period in China (1956) when Mao Zedong directed that freedom of expression and individualism be allowed; it was quashed when violent criticism of the regime erupted.
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
A cartel established in 1961 that, since 1973, has successfully manipulated the worldwide supply of and price for oil, with far-reaching consequences for the world economy and political structure.
crimes against humanity
A category of crime, first introduced at the Nuremberg trials of Nazi war criminals, covering the wanton, brutal extermination of millions of innocent civilians.
Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution
A chaotic period beginning in 1966, when the youth of China (the Red Guards), at Mao Zedong's direction, attacked all bureaucratic and military officials on the pretext that a reemergence of capitalist and materialist tendencies was taking place. The offending officials were sent to forced labor camps to be "reeducated."
kulaks
A class of well-to-do landowners in Russian society that was purged by Joseph Stalin because it resisted his drive to establish huge collective farms under state control.
balance-of-power
A classic theory of international relations that holds that nations of approximately equal strength will seek to maintain the status quo by preventing any one nation from gaining superiority over the others. In a balance-of-power system, participating nations form alliances and fight limited wars, with one nation acting as a "keeper of the balance," alternately supporting rival blocs to prevent a power imbalance.
multinational corporations (MNC)
A company that conducts substantial business in several nations.
sustainable growth
A concept popular among environmentalists and liberal economists that emphasizes the need for economic strategies that take account of the high-cost and long term impact on the environment (including global warming) of economic policies aimed at profit-maximization, current consumption, and the like.
catalytic war
A conflict that begins as a localized and limited encounter but grows into a general war after other parties are drawn into the conflict through the activation of military alliances.
appellate courts
A court that reviews cases on appeal from district courts.
presidential democracy
A democratic form of government in which the chief executive is chosen by separate election, serves a fixed term, and has powers carefully separated from those of the other branches of government.
Green Revolution
A dramatic rise in agricultural output, resulting from modern irrigation systems and synthetic fertilizers, characteristic of modern India, Mexico, Taiwan, and the Philippines.
economic stimulus
A fiscal tool of government designed to bolster a weak economy and create jobs via public works projects and deficit spending.
oligarchy
A form of authoritarian government in which a small group of powerful individuals wields absolute power.
democratic socialism
A form of government based on popular elections, public ownership and control of the main sectors of the economy, and broad welfare pro grams in health and education to benefit citizens.
direct democracy
A form of government in which political decisions are made directly by citizens rather than by their representatives.
republic
A form of government in which sovereignty resides in the people of that country, rather than with the rulers. The vast majority of republics today are democratic or representative republics, meaning that the sovereign power is exercised by elected representatives who are responsible to the citizenry.
republic
A form of government in which sovereignty resides in the people of that country, rather than with the rulers. The vast majority ofrepublics today are democratic or representative republics, meaning that the sovereign power is exercised by elected representatives who are responsible to the citizenry.
domestic terrorism
A form of terrorism practiced within a country by people with no ties to any government.
revolution
A fundamental change in the political and social institutions of a society, often accompanied by violence, cultural upheaval, and civil war.
ABC war
A general term for war involving weapons of mass destructions (WMD), especially atomic (nuclear), biological, and chemical weapons. See weapons of mass destruction (WMD).
nation-state
A geographically defined community administered by a government.
theocracy
A government based on religion and dominated by the clergy.
political development
A government's ability to exert power effectively, to provide for public order and services, and to withstand eventual changes in leadership.
sovereignty
A government's capacity to assert supreme power successfully in a political state.
institutional interest group
A group of government officials and bureaucrats with expertise and vested interests in certain policies and programs that often par allel those of special interests in the private sector; as insiders with powerful allies in the private sector, members of certain institutional interest groups (such as defense, intelligence, energy, and agriculture) are in an advantageous position to lobby U.S. Congress for increased funding in the annual "battle of the budget."
peer group
A group of people similar in age and characteristics.
due process
A guarantee of fair legal procedure; it is found in the Fifth and Fourteenth amendments of the U.S. Constitution.
ex post facto law
A law that retroactively criminalizes acts that were legal at the time they were committed.
bill of attainder
A legislative decree that declares a person guilty and prescribes punishment without any judicial process.
Magna Carta
A list of political concessions granted in 1215 by King John to his barons that became the basis for the rule of law in England.
intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM)
A long-range missile armed with multiple nuclear warheads capable of striking targets anywhere in the world; both the United States and Russia possess large arsenals of these ultimate strategic weapons.
Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)
A loose federation of newly sovereign nations created after the collapse of the Soviet Union; it consisted of almost all the republics that previously had made up the USSR.
stratified sampling
A manner of polling in which participants are chosen on the basis of age, income, socioeconomic background, and the like, so that the sample mirrors the larger population; the opposite of random sampling.
nationalistic universalism
A messianic foreign policy that seeks to spread the ideas and institutions of one nation to other nations.
Warsaw Pact
A military alliance between the former Soviet Union and its satellite states, created in 1955, that established a unified military command and allowed the Soviet army to maintain large garrisons within the satellite states, ostensibly to defend them from outside attack.
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
A military alliance, founded in 1949, originally consisting of the United States, Great Britain, Canada, Germany, France, Italy, Greece, Turkey, Portugal, Norway, Belgium, Denmark, the Netherlands, Iceland, and Luxembourg; previously, its principal aim was to prevent Soviet aggression in Europe. At present, 26 states, including many former Eastern European states that were once members of the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact, belong to NATO.
participatory
A model of democracy that seeks to expand citizen participation in government to the maximum possible degree.
cosmopolitan democracy
A model of democracy that sees the individual as part of a world order, not merely (or even primarily) as a citizen of a particular nation-state.
developmental democracy
A model of democracy that stresses the development of virtuous citizens.
pluralist democracy
A model of democracy that stresses vigorous competition among various interests in a free society.
mixed regime
A nation in which the various branches of government represent social classes.
status quo strategy
A national policy of maintaining the existing balance of power through collective security agreements, diplomacy, and negotiation, as well as through "legitimizing instruments," such as international law and international organizations.
mutual assured destruction (MAD)
A nuclear stale mate in which both sides in an adversarial relationship know that if either one initiates a war, the other will retain enough retaliatory ("second strike") capability to administer unacceptable damage even after absorbing the full impact of a nuclear surprise attack; during the Cold War, a stable strategic relationship between the two superpowers.
nonviolent resistance
A passive form of confrontation and protest; also called civil disobedience at times.
lobbyist
A person who attempts to influence governmental policy in favor of some special interest.
positivism
A philosophy of science, originated by Auguste Comte, that stresses observable, scientific facts as the sole basis of proof and truth; a skeptical view of ideas or beliefs based on religion or metaphysics.
nihilism
A philosophy that holds that the total destruction of all existing social and political institutions is a desirable end in itself.
imperialism
A policy of territorial expansion (empire building), often by means of military conquest; derived from the word empire.
nonalignment
A policy specific to the Cold War in which many developing countries—formerly known as Third World countries—preferred not to align them selves with either the United States and its allies (the West) or the Soviet Union and its allies (the East); nonalignment differs from neutrality in that it does not commit a state to nonaggression or noninvolvement in local conflicts and, unlike neutrality, it did not become an important concept in international relations until after World War II.
charismatic leader
A political leader who gains legitimacy largely through the adoration of the populace. Such adoration may spring from past heroic feats (real or imagined) or from personal oratorical skills and political writings.
idealism
A political philosophy that considers values, ideals, and moral principles as the key to comprehending, and possibly changing, the behavior of nation-states.
liberal
A political philosophy that emphasizes individualism, equality, and civil rights above other values (see also conservative).
conservative
A political philosophy that emphasizes prosperity, security, and tradition above other values (see also liberal).
communism
A political system based on radical equality; the antithesis of capitalism.
totalitarianism
A political system in which every facet of the society, the economy, and thegovernment is tightly controlled by the ruling elite. Secret police ter rorism and a radical ideology implemented through mass mobilization and propaganda are hallmarks of the totalitarian state's methods and goals.
statesman
A politician in a position of authority who possesses exceptional political skills, practical wisdom, and concern for the public good and whose leadership has a significant positive effect on society.
random sampling
A polling method that involves canvassing people at random from the population; the opposite of stratified sampling.
Marshall Plan
A post-World War II program of massive economic assistance to Western Europe, inspired by the fear that those war devastated countries were ripe for communist backed revolutions.
junta
A ruling oligarchy, especially one made up of military officers.
behavioral psychology
A school of psychological thought that holds that the way people (and animals) act is determined by the stimuli they receive from the environment and from other persons and that human or animal behavior can be manipulated by carefully structuring the environment to provide positive stimuli for desired behavior and negative stimuli for unwanted behavior.
politburo
A small clique that formed the supreme decision-making body in the former Soviet Union. Its members often belonged to the Secretariat and were ministers of key governmental departments.
ascriptive
A society in which an individual's status and position are ascribed by society on the basis of religion, gender, age, or some other attribute.
dystopia
A society whose creators set out to build the perfect political order only to discover that they cannot remain in power except through coercion and by maintaining a ruthless monopoly over the means of communication.
sovereign wealth fund
A state owned investment fund made up of financial assets such as stocks, bonds, precious metals, and property; such funds invest globally. China, for example, has invested huge sums in the United States via its sovereign wealth fund.
welfare state
A state whose government is concerned with providing for the social welfare of its citizens and does so usually with specific public policies, such as health insurance, minimum wages, and housing subsidies.
Monroe Doctrine
A status quo international policy laid down by U.S. president James Monroe, who pledged the United States to resist any attempts by outside powers to alter the balance of power in the American hemisphere.
motor voter law
A statute that allows residents of a given locality to register to vote at convenient places, such as welfare offices and drivers' license bureaus; the idea behind laws of this kind is to remove technical obstacles to voting and thus promote better turnouts in elections.
expansionist strategy
A strategy by which a nation seeks to enlarge its territory or influence.
superpower
A superpower must, above all, have a full range of power capabilities, including not only military muscle but also economic, political, diplomatic, and even moral clout. Second, it must have global reach, the capacity to project power to all parts of the world. Third, it must be willing to assert its leadership role in the international arena. During the Cold War, the United States and the Soviet Union both qualified as superpowers by these criteria.
equilibrium
A synonym for the word balance; also often used interchangeably with stability in literature on international relations.
libertarianism
A system based on the belief that government is a necessary evil that should interfere with individual freedom and privacy as little as possible; also known as minimalism.
monarchism
A system based on the belief that political power should be concentrated in one person (for example, a king) who rules by decree.
plurality vote system
A system in which candidates who get the largest number of votes win, whether or not they garner a majority of the votes cast; in a majority vote system, if no candidate gets more than half the votes cast, a runoff election is held to determine the winner.
unitary system
A system in which the government may choose to delegate affairs to local government.
parliamentary system
A system of democratic government in which authority is concentrated in the legislative branch, which selects a prime minister and cabinet officers who serve as long as they have majority support in the parliament.
federalism
A system of limited government based on the division of authority between the central government and smaller regional governments.
anarchism
A system that opposes in principle the existence of any form of government, often through violence and lawlessness.
homeland security
A term President George W. Bush popularized after the 9/11 terrorist attacks; it refers to a whole range of counterterrorist policies, including tighter border and immigration controls, stepped-up airport security, expanded FBI surveillance powers, and more invasive police investigations.
interest aggregation
A term political scientists use to describe how the interests, concerns, and demands of various individuals and groups in society are translated into policies and programs; in constitutional democracies, a major function of political parties.
Asian flu
A term used to describe the widespread financial turmoil in Asian stock markets, financial institutions, and economies in 1997.
gender gap
A term used to refer to differences in voting between men and women in the United States; this disparity is most obvious in political issues and elections that raise the issue of appropriateness of governmental force.
protective democracy
A theory of democracy that places the highest priority on national security.
delegate theory of representation
A theory that elected officials should reflect the views of their constituencies.
fascism
A totalitarian political system that is headed by a popular charismatic leader and in which a single political party and carefully controlled violence form the bases of complete social and political control. Fascism differs from communism in that the economic structure, although controlled by the state, is privately owned.
Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty II (START II)
A treaty negotiated between the United States and the former Soviet Union that limited strategic nuclear weapons.
liberal education
A type education often associated with private colleges in the United States; stresses the development of critical thinking skills through the study of literature, philosophy, history, and science.
public opinion
A view held by citizens that influences the decisions and policies of government officials.
plebiscite
A vote by an entire community on some specific issue of public policy.
referendum
A vote through which citizens may directly repeal an action taken by the legislature.
Democracy Wall
A wall located in the heart of Beijing on which public criticism of the regime was permitted to be displayed in 1978.
civil war
A war between geographical sections or political factions within a nation.
just war
A war fought in self-defense or because it is the only way a nation can do what is right.
proxy war
A war in which two adversaries back opposing parties to a conflict by supplying money, weapons, and military advisors, while avoiding direct combat operations against each other.
inadvertent war
A war resulting from misperception, misinformation, or miscalculation; an unnecessary war.
Hague Convention
A widely accepted set of rules governing conduct in land wars, the use of new weapons, and the rights and duties of both neutral and warring parties.
individualism
According to Alexis de Tocqueville, the direction of one's feelings toward oneself and one's immediate situation; a self-centered detachment from the broader concerns of society as a whole. According to John Stuart Mill, the qualities of human character that separate humans from animals and give them uniqueness and dignity.
law of capitalist accumulation
According to Karl Marx, the invariable rule that stronger capitalists, motivated solely by greed, will gradually eliminate weaker competitors and gain increasing control of the market.
nullification
According to this controversial idea, a state can nullify acts of the U.S. Congress within its own borders; John Calhoun and other states'-rights advocates put forward this doctrine prior to the Civil War.
war on terror
After 9/11, President George W. Bush declared a worldwide "war on terrorism" aimed at defeating international terrorist organizations, destroying terrorist training camps, and bringing terrorists themselves to justice.
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
Agreement signed in 1994 by the United States, Mexico, and Canada that established a compact to allow free trade or trade with reduced tariffs among the three nations.
American Revolution (1775-1783)
Also called the War of Independence and the Revolutionary War, this epoch-making event led to the end of British rule over the 13 colonies.
World Court
Also known as the International Court of Justice, the principal judicial organ of the United Nations; the Court hears any case brought before it by parties who voluntarily accept its jurisdiction.
intifada
An Arabic word meaning "uprising"; the name given to the prolonged Palestinian uprising against Israeli occupation in the West Bank and Gaza in 1987-1993 and again in 2001-2002.
behaviorism
An approach to the study of politics that emphasizes fact-based evaluations of action.
normative approach
An approach to the study of politics that is based on examining fundamental and enduring questions.
interest group
An association of individuals that attempts to influence policy and legislation in a confined area of special interest, often through lobbying, campaign contributions, and bloc voting.
capitalism
An economic system in which individuals own the means of production and can legally amass unlimited personal wealth. Capitalist theory holds that governments should not impose any unnecessary restrictions on economic activity and that the laws of supply and demand can best regulate the economy. In a capitalist system, the private sector (mainly business and consumers), rather than government, makes most of the key decisions about production, employment, savings, investment, and the like. The opposite of a centrally planned economy such as existed in the Soviet Union under Stalin and Stalin's successors.
first past the post
An electoral system used in the United Kingdom and the United States in which legislative candidates run in single-member districts and the winner is decided by plurality vote; this system favors broad-based, entrenched political parties and tends toward a two-party configuration. Critics contend that it is undemocratic because it places a huge hurdle in the path of small or new parties and forces voters to decide between voting for a major party candidate near the center of the political spectrum and wasting their votes on a third-party candidate who cannot possibly win.
socialism
An ideology favoring collective and govern ment ownership over individual or private ownership.
laissez-faire capitalism
An ideology that views the marketplace, unfettered by state interference, as the best regulator of the economic life of a society.
citizen-leader
An individual who influences government decisively even though he or she holds no official government position.
Seabed Treaty
An international agreement that forbids the establishment of nuclear weapons on the ocean floor beyond the 12-mile territorial limit.
Antarctic Treaty
An international agreement that prohibits all military activity on the Antarctic continent and allows for inspection of all nations' facilities there. It also nullifies allterritorial claims to Antarctic land and pledges the signatories to peaceful cooperation in exploration and research.
Nonproliferation Treaty
An international agreement, drafted in 1968, not to aid nonnuclear nations in acquiring nuclear weapons; it was not signed by France, China, and other nations actively seeking to build these weapons.
Outer Space Treaty
An international agreement, signed by the United States and the former Soviet Union, that banned the introduction of military weapons into outer space, prohibited the extension of national sovereignty in space, and encouraged cooperation and sharing of information about space research.
International Monetary Fund (IMF)
An international organization established by the United Nations and composed of the governments of many nations that is designed to promote worldwide monetary cooperation, international trade, and economic stability. It also helps equalize balance of payments by allowing member countries to borrow from its fund.
special interest
An organization or association that exists to further private interests in the political arena; examples in the United States are the U.S. Chamber of Commerce or the National Association of Manufacturers (business), the AFL-CIO (labor), and the National Farmers Organization (NFO).
community
Any association of individuals who share a common identity based on geography, ethical values, religious beliefs, or ethnic origins.
political party
Any group of individuals who agree on some or all aspects of public policy and organize to place their members in control of the national government.
proportional representation (PR)
Any political structure under which seats in the legislature are allocated to each party based on the percentage of the popular vote each receives.
ideology
Any set of fixed, predictable ideas held by politicians and citizens on how to serve the public good.
utopia
Any visionary system embodying perfect political and social order.
war
Armed conflict between or among nation-states.
war by misperception
Armed conflict that results when two nations fail to perceive one another's true intentions accurately.
Supremacy Clause
Article VI, Section 2, of the Constitution, which declares that acts of Congress are "the Supreme law of the Land . . . binding on the Judges in every State."
country
As a political term, it refers loosely to a sovereign state and is roughly equivalent to "nation" or "nation-state"; country is often used as a term of endearment—for example, in the phrase "my country 'tis of thee, sweet land of liberty" in the patriotic song every U.S. child learns in elementary school; country has an emotional dimension not present in the word state.
Bastille
At the time of the French Revolution (1789), the Bastille was the infamous royal prison in Paris; the mass storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789, and the freeing of the prisoners constituted a direct attack against the monarchy and symbolized the end of an era in French history; the revolutionaries then used the guillotine against none other than the reigning Bourbon monarch, King Louis XVI, and his extravagant wife, Queen Marie Antoinette.
British Raj
British colonial rule on the Asian subcontinent from the eighteenth century to 1947, when India and Pakistan became independent.
soft money
Campaign contributions to U.S. national party committees that do not have to be reported to the Federal Election Commission as long as the funds are not used to benefit a particular candidate; the national committees funnel the funds to state parties, which generally operate under less stringent reporting requirements. Critics argue that soft money is a massive loop hole in the existing system of campaign finance regulation and that it amounts to a form of legalized corruption.
Third World
Collectively, the developing nations of Asia, Africa, and Latin America, most of which were once European colonies; Third World nations tend to be poor and densely populated.
authority
Command of the obedience of society's members by a government.
democratic correlates
Conditions or correlates thought to relate positively to the creation and maintenance of democracy within a nation.
interstate war
Conflicts between sovereign states.
checks and balances
Constitutional tools that enable branches of government to resist any illegitimate expansion of power by other branches.
Kyoto Protocol
Countries that ratify this treaty, which went into effect in 2005, agree to cut emissions of carbon dioxide and five other greenhouse gases or to engage in emissions trading if they exceed a certain cap; the United States signed it under President Bill Clinton, but President George W. Bush renounced it shortly after taking office in 2001.
paradox of democratic peace
Democratic states are often militarily powerful, fight other states, engage in armed intervention, and sometimes commit acts of aggression, but they do not fight each other.
nationalism
Devotion to one's nation; a label sometimes applied to excessive patriotism.
recall
Direct voting to remove an elected official from office.
bicameralism
Division of the legislature into two houses.
Reign of Terror
During the French Revolution, the mass executions, ordered by Robespierre and his Committee of Public Safety, of those deemed to be public enemies, namely all who opposed the revolution or dared to dissent.
rehabilitation
Education, training, and social conditioning aimed at encouraging imprisoned criminals to become normal, productive members of society when they are released.
winner-takes-all
Electoral system in which the candidate receiving the most votes wins.
Declaration of the Rights of Man
Enacted by the French National Assembly in August 1789, this brief manifesto was intended as the preamble to a liberal-democratic constitution to be written later; it affirmed the sovereign authority of the nation but limited that authority by recognizing the right to individual life, property, and security.
nonstate actors
Entity other than nationstates, including multinational corporations, nongovern mental organizations, and international nongovernmental organizations, that plays a role in international politics.
transnational terrorism
Exists when terrorist groups in different countries cooperate or when a group's terrorist actions cross national boundaries.
ultranationalism
Extreme nationalism often associated with fascism; a militant right-wing orientation typically characterized by militarism, racial bigotry, and xenophobia.
justice
Fairness; the distribution of rewards and burdens in society in accordance with what is deserved.
National Assembly
Focal point of France's bicameral legislative branch that must approve all laws.
unconditional surrender
Giving an all-but vanquished enemy a stark choice between surrendering immediately (placing itself entirely at the mercy of the victor) or being utterly destroyed.
affirmative action
Giving preferential treatment to a socially or economically disadvantaged group in com pensation for opportunities denied by past discrimination.
entitlements
Government expenditures that provide benefits that are deeply ingrained in the fabric of American life and that Americans expect as a matter of right because they have made mandatory tax contributions to government-run retirement and health insurance funds.
authoritarian states
Governments in which all legitimate power rests in one person (dictatorship) or a small group of persons (oligarchy), individual rights are subordinate to the wishes of the state, and all means necessary are used to maintain political power.
political action committee (PAC)
Group organized to raise campaign funds in support of or in opposition to specific candidates.
overkill
Having a much larger nuclear arsenal than is (or would be) needed to wipe out an adversary completely.
Gleichschaltung
Hitler's technique of using Nazi-controlled associations, clubs, and organizations to coordinate his revolutionary activities.
deterrence theory
Holds that states acquire nuclear weapons mainly to deter the use of such weapons by other states; this idea spawned a whole new literature on war in the nuclear age in the second half of the twentieth century.
Tiananmen Square
In 1989, unarmed civilian workers and students marched in Tiananmen Square in Beijing to demand democratic freedom and government reforms. Army troops responded with force, killing 1,500 demonstrators and wounding another 10,000.
cohabitation
In France, the uneasy toleration of a divided executive.
barristers
In Great Britain, an attorney who can plead cases in court and be appointed to the bench.
solicitor
In Great Britain, an attorney who can prepare court cases and draw up contracts and other legal documents but cannot plead cases or become a judge.
common law
In Great Britain, laws derived from consistent precedents found in judges' rulings and decisions, as opposed to those enacted by Parliament. In the United States, the part of the common law that was in force at the time of the Revolution and not nullified by the Constitution or any subsequent statute.
law of pauperization
In Karl Marx's view, the rule that capitalism has a built-in tendency toward recession and unemployment, and thus workers inevitably become surplus labor.
rectification
In Maoist China, the elimination of all purported capitalist traits, such as materialism and individualism.
bourgeoisie
In Marxist ideology, the capitalist class.
classless society
In Marxist political theory, the ideal society in which wealth is equally distributed according to the principle "from each according to his ability, to each according to his needs."
proletarian
In Marxist theory, a member of the working class.
dictatorship of the proletariat
In Marxist theory, the political stage immediately following the workers' revolution, during which the Communist Party controls the state and defends it against a capitalist resurgence or counterrevolution; the dictatorship of the proletariat leads into pure communism and the classless society.
Gestapo
In Nazi Germany, the secret state police, Hitler's instrument for spreading mass terror among Jews and political opponents.
initiative
In U.S. government, a vote by which citizens directly repeal an action of the legislature.
keeper of the balance
In a balance-of-power system, the nation-state that functions as an arbiter in disputes, taking sides to preserve the political equilibrium.
coalition
In a multiparty parliamentary system, the political situation in which no single party has a majority and the largest party allies itself loosely with other, smaller parties to control a majority of the legislative seats.
dual executive
In a parliamentary system, the division of the functions of head of state and chief executive officer between two persons; the prime minister serves as chief executive, and some other elected (or royal) figure serves as ceremonial head of state.
party discipline
In a parliamentary system, the tendency of legislators to vote consistently as a bloc with fellow party members in support of the party's platform.
order
In a political context, refers to an existing or desired arrangement of institutions based on certain principles, such as liberty, equality, prosperity, and security. Also often associated with the rule of law (as in the phrase "law and order") and with conservative values such as stability, obedience, and respect for legitimate authority.
deterrence
In criminal justice theory, punishing a criminal for the purpose of discouraging others from committing a similar crime. In international relations, the theory that aggressive wars can be prevented if potential victims maintain a military force sufficient to inflict unacceptable punishment on any possible aggressor.
brinkmanship
In diplomacy, the deliberate use of military threats to create a crisis atmosphere; the calculated effort to take a tense bilateral relationship to the brink of war in order to achieve a political objective (for example, deterring a common enemy from carrying out an act of aggression against an ally).
terms of trade
In international economics, the valuation (or price) of the products (commodities, manufactures, services) that countries buy on the world market relative to the valuation of the products they sell; the structure of prices for different kinds of goods and services in international trade—for example, if manufactures are generally high-priced relative to minerals and agricultural products, then the terms of trade are unfavorable for countries that produce only farm commodities or raw materials.
unipolar system
In international relations theory, the existence of a single invincible superpower; the inter national system said to have existed after the collapse of the Soviet Union left the United States as the sole remaining (and thus unrivalled) military and economic superpower on the world stage.
collective security
In international relations, the aim of an agreement among several nations to establish a single powerful bloc that will be turned on any nation that commits an act of aggression; because no single nation could ever overpower the collective force, aggression would be futile.
state
In its sovereign form, an independent political-administrative unit that successfully claims the allegiance of a given population, exercises a monopoly on the legitimate use of coercive force, and controls the territory inhabited by its citizens or subjects; in its other common form, a state is the major political-administrative subdivision of a federal system and, as such, is not sovereign but rather depends on the central authority (sometimes called the "national government") for resource allocations (tax transfers and grants), defense (military protection and emergency relief), and regulation of economic relations with other federal subdivisions (non-sovereign states) and external entities (sovereign states).
exclusionary rule
In judicial proceedings, the rule that evidence obtained in violation of constitutional guidelines cannot be used in court against the accused.
Hare plan
In parliamentary democracies, an electoral procedure whereby candidates compete for a set number of seats and those who receive a certain quota of votes are elected. Voters vote only once and indicate both a first and a second choice.
no-confidence vote
In parliamentary governments, a legislative vote that the sitting government must win to remain in power.
public interest
In political parlance, policies aimed at the general good or society as a whole; in contrast to private interest or special interest, which involve laws or policies favoring individuals or groups.
elitist theories of democracy
In political thought, the theory that a small clique of individuals (a "power elite") at the highest levels of government, industry, and other institutions actually exercise political power for their own interests; according to elitist theories, ordinary citizens have almost no real influence on governmental policy.
interdependence
In political thought, the theory that no nation can afford to isolate itself completely from the political, economic, and cultural activities of other nations and that as a result, a growing body of international organizations whose interests transcend national concerns has arisen.
G33
In political thought, the theory that the gradual transfer of economic and social functions to international cooperative agencies (for example, specialized UN agencies, such as UNESCO) will eventually lead to a transfer of actual authority and integration of political activities on the international level.
functionalism
In political thought, the theory that the gradual transfer of economic and social functions to international cooperative agencies (for example, specialized UN agencies, such as UNESCO) will eventually lead to a transfer of actual authority and integration of political activities on the international level.
euro area
In the EU, the euro area zone refers to the 12 member states that have adopted the euro, including Germany, France, and Italy, but not the United Kingdom.
qualified majority voting (QMV)
In the European Union a form of voting in the European Council and Council of Ministers in which no member state has a veto but passage of a measure is based on an elaborate formula that involves a triple majority, including more than 70 percent of the votes cast.
co-decision
In the European Union, a method of legislation and rule-making that involves both the European Council (heads of government) and the European Parliament.
Emission Trading Scheme (ETS)
In the European Union, part of an antipollution drive aimed at significantly reducing Europe's "carbon footprint" by 2020 by assigning carbonemission allowances to industries and factories and creating a carbon exchange, or a market where "clean" companies (ones that do not use their full allowances) can sell the "credits" they accumulate by not polluting to "dirty" companies (ones that exceed their allowances).
Question Time
In the United Kingdom, the times set aside Monday through Thursday every week for Her Majesty's Loyal Opposition (the party out of power) to criticize and scrutinize the actions and decisions of the government (the party in power); twice each week, the prime minister must answer hostile questions fired at him or her by the opposition.
parliamentary sovereignty
In the United Kingdom, the unwritten constitutional principle that makes the British parliament the supreme lawmaking body; laws passed by Parliament are not subject to judicial review and cannot be rejected by the Crown.
neoconservative
In the United States, a term associated with the ideology of top advisors and Cabinet members during the presidency of George W. Bush; neoconservatives advocate a strong national defense, decisive military action in the face of threats or provocations, pro-Israeli policy in the Middle East, and a minimum of government interference in the economy. In general, neoconservatives are opposed to federal regulation of business and banking.
federal budget deficit
In the United States, the difference between federal revenues and federal expenditures in a given year; the national debt is the cumulative sum of budget deficits over many years.
Marxism-Leninism
In the history of the Russian Revolution, Lenin's anticapitalist rationale for the overthrow of the czar (absolute monarch) and the establishment of a new political order based on communist principles set forth in the writings of Karl Marx.
accidental war
In the modern age, the unintentional launching of a nuclear attack because of a mistake or miscalculation.
ordinary politician
Individual who concentrates on getting reelected.
utopian socialist
Individuals who believed that public ownership of property could be effectively accomplished and could solve most important political problems.
international nongovernmental organizations (INGO)
International organization made up of private individuals and groups.
concurrent majority
John Calhoun's theory of democracy, which holds that the main function of government is to mediate between and among the different economic, social, and sectional interests in U.S. society.
right to revolution
John Locke's theory that when governmental actions undermine the essential rights of life, liberty, and property, citizens have a right to revolt and replace the government with one that will rule correctly.
concurrent powers
Joint federal and state control.
dialectic
Karl Marx's theory of historical progression, according to which economic classes struggle with one another, producing an evolving series of economic systems that will lead, ultimately, to a classless society.
dialectical materialism
Karl Marx's theory of historical progression, according to which economic classes struggle with one another, producing an evolving series of economic systems that will lead, ultimately, to a classless society.
political apathy
Lack of interest in political participation.
Solon
Lawmaker who successfully reconciles the functions of delegate and trustee; Solon was the great law-giver of ancient Athens, birthplace of western civilization's first democracy.
glasnost
Literally "openness"; this term refers to Mikhail Gorbachev's curtailment of censorship and encouragement of political discussion and dissent within the former Soviet Union.
Great Leap Forward
Mao Zedong's attempt, in the late 1950s and early 1960s, to transform and modernize China's economic structure through mass mobilization of the entire population into self-sufficient communes in which everything was done in groups.
gulag archipelago
Metaphorical name for the network of slave labor camps established in the former Soviet Union by Joseph Stalin and maintained by his secret police to which nonconformists and politically undesirable persons were sent.
list system
Method of proportional representation by which candidates are ranked on the ballot by their party and are chosen according to rank.
counterterrorism
Methods used to combat terrorism.
democratization
Mikhail Gorbachev's policy of encouraging democratic reforms within the former Soviet Union, including increased electoral competition within the Communist party.
Moghuls
Muslim invaders who created a dynastic empire on the Asian subcontinent; the greatest Moghul rulers were Babur (1526-1530), Akbar (1556-1605), Shah Jahan (1628-1658), and Aurangzeb (1658-1707); Shah Jahan was the architect of the Taj Mahal.
Balfour Declaration
Named for the British foreign secretary who, in 1947, declared that the United Kingdom favored "the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people" and pledged to "facilitate the achievement of this object, it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of the existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine or the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country."
low-intensity conflict
Occurs when one state finances, sponsors, or promotes the sporadic and prolonged use of violence in a rival country.
Nazism
Officially called National Socialism, Nazism is a form of fascism based on extreme nationalism, militarism, and racism; the ideology associated with Adolf Hitler and the Holocaust.
Duma
Officially called the State Duma, it is the lower house of the Federal Assembly, Russia's national legislature, reestablished in the 1993 constitution, after having been abolished in 1917. It comprises 450 members, half of whom are elected from nationwide party lists, with the other half elected from single-member constituencies.
nation
Often interchangeable with state or country; in common usage, this term actually denotes a specific people with a distinct language and culture or a major ethnic group— for example, the French, Dutch, Chinese, and Japanese people each constitute a nation as well as a state, hence the term nation-state; not all nations are fortunate enough to have a state of their own—modern examples include the Kurds (Turkey, Iraq, and Iran), Palestinians (West Bank and Gaza, Lebanon, Jordan), Pashtuns (Afghanistan), and Uighurs and Tibetans (China).
royalist
One who favors absolutism or rule by an all-powerful monarch.
monarchist
One who supports the idea of absolute rule based on divine right or any other principle of hereditary rule; most often associated with pre-modern times, when kings ruled over feudal systems and land ownership was a matter of aristocratic entitlement.
one-party dominant
One-party dominant systems are different from authoritarian one-party systems in that they hold regular elections, allow open criticism of the government, and do not outlaw other parties; until recently, Japan operated as a one-party dominant system, as did Mexico; South Africa is one current example.
Balanced Budget Act of 1997
Passed by Congress in 1997, this historic measure mandated a balanced federal budget by 2001 but was ironically undone in that very year by the events of 9/11.
stateless nation
People (or nations) who are scattered over the territory of several states or dispersed widely and who have no autonomous, independent, or sovereign governing body of their own; examples of stateless nations include the Kurds, Palestinians, and Tibetans
kin-country syndrome
Phenomenon wherein countries whose peoples and leaders are culturally tied to one another take similar positions.
terrorism
Political activity that relies on violence or the threat of violence to achieve its ends.
Truman Doctrine
President Harry Truman's pledge of U.S. support for any free people threatened with revolution by an internal armed minority or an outside aggressor.
national security
Protection of a country from external and internal enemies.
arms race
Reciprocal military buildups between rival states; a process that tends to accelerate research, technology, and development in weapons systems and, according to some experts, is a potential cause of war.
tracking poll
Repeated sampling of voters to assess shifts in attitudes or behavior over time.
second strike
Retaliation in kind against a nuclear attack(er); this capability paradoxically minimizes the likelihood that a nuclear confrontation will lead to an actual nuclear exchange.
Federal Assembly
Russia's national legislature, a bicameral parliament, established under the 1993 constitution, comprising a lower chamber (State Duma) and an upper chamber (Federation Council).
divided executive
Situation in French government in which the president and the prime minister differ in political party or outlook.
cells
Small, tightly knit organizational units at the grassroots level of V. I. Lenin's Bolshevik party.
demagogue
Someone who uses his or her leadership skills to gain public office through appeals to popular fears and prejudices and then abuses that power for personal gain.
multinational state
Sovereign state that contains two or more (sometimes many more) major ethno-linguistic groups (or nations) in the territories it controls; notable examples include India, Nigeria, Russia, China, as well as the former Yugoslavia.
massive retaliation
Strategic military doctrine based on a plausible standing threat of nuclear reprisal employed by the United States in the 1950s during the short-lived era of the U.S. nuclear monopoly; according to this doctrine, if the Soviet Union attacked U.S. allies with conventional military forces, the United States would retaliate with nuclear weapons.
submarine-launched ballistic missile (SLBM)
Strategic missiles with multiple nuclear warheads launched from submarines that prowl the ocean depths and that cannot be easily detected or destroyed by a preemptive attack.
perestroika
Term given to Mikhail Gorbachev's various attempts to restructure the Soviet economy while not completely sacrificing its socialist character.
developing countries
Term used loosely to denote countries that have not achieved levels of economic pros perity and political stability found in North America, Western Europe, Australia, New Zealand, and parts of Asia (particularly Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, and Singapore); in general, a country where the ratio of population to land, jobs, and other factors (private capital, infrastructure, education, etc.) is unfavorable and where political stability, public services, and individual safety are lacking. Developing countries are found mainly in Africa, Asia, the Middle East, and Latin America and are characterized by high levels of unemployment, widespread poverty and malnutrition, highly restricted access to education and medical care, official corruption, and social inequality.
poorest developing countries (PDCs)
The 20 or so countries with the lowest per capita income in the world; all are located in sub-Saharan Africa with the exceptions of Afghanistan and Nepal.
Revolutionary War
The American War of Independence (1775-1783); see American Revolution.
Kuomintang
The Chinese Nationalist Party, led by Chiang Kai-shek, defeated by Mao Zedong in 1949.
selective service
The Selective Service System was the official name of the military draft in the United States prior to 1972, when an all volunteer army replaced it.
apartheid system
The South African system designed to perpetuate racial domination by whites prior to the advent of black majority rule there in the early 1990s.
war powers
The U.S. Constitution gives the Congress the power to raise and support armies, to provide and maintain a navy, to make rules regulating the armed forces, and to declare war; it makes the president the commander in chief of the armed forces.
Supreme Court
The U.S. federal court of last resort, settling cases that raise particularly troublesome questions of legal interpretation or constitutional principle.
gross national debt (GND)
The U.S. federal government's accumulated deficits stood at $8.8 trillion in the spring of 2007, or just under 63 percent of gross national product.
political efficacy
The ability to participate meaning fully in political activities, usually because of one's education, social background, and sense of self-esteem.
national interest
The aims of policies that help a nation maintain or increase its power and prestige.
subversion
The attempt to undermine a government, often using outside assistance.
coup d'etat
The attempted seizure of governmental power by an alternate power group (often the military) that seeks to gain control of vital government institutions without any fundamental alteration in the form of government or society.
gradualism
The belief that major changes in society should take place slowly, through reform, rather than suddenly, through revolution.
collectivism
The belief that the public good is best served by common (as opposed to individual) ownership of a political community's means of production and distribution.
Loyal Opposition
The belief, which originated in England, that the out-of-power party has a responsibility to formulate alternative policies and programs; such a party is sometimes called the loyal opposition.
international law
The body of customs, treaties, and generally accepted rules that regulate the rights and obligations of nations when dealing with one another.
bipolar system
The breakdown of the traditional European balance-of-power system into two rival factions headed by the United States and the former Soviet Union, each with overwhelming economic and military superiority and each unalterably opposed to the politics and ideology of the other.
power
The capacity to influence or control the behavior of persons and institutions, whether by persuasion or coercion.
behavioral engineering
The carefully programmed use of rewards and punishments to instill desired patterns of behavior in an individual or an animal.
human nature
The characteristics that human beings have in common and that infl uence how they react to their surroundings and fellow humans.
rule of law
The concept that the power and discretion of government and its officials ought to be restrained by a supreme set of neutral rules that prevent arbitrary and unfair action by government; also called constitutionalism.
state of nature
The condition of human beings before the creation of a social code of behavior and collective techniques to control normal human impulses.
Weimar Republic
The constitutional democracy founded in Germany at the end of World War I by a constitutional convention convened in 1919 at the city of Weimar; associated with a period of political and economic turmoil, it ended when Hitler came to power in 1933.
district courts
The court in which most U.S. federal cases originate.
state building
The creation of political institutions capable of exercising authority and allocating resources effectively within a nation.
equal protection
The doctrine enshrined in the Fourteenth Amendment that holds that the prohibitions placed on the federal government and the protections afforded American citizens under the Bill of Rights also apply to the states.
Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI)
The dominant political party in Mexico from 1929 to the present. The PRI had never lost an election until 2000, when Vicente Fox of the National Action Party won the presidency.
European Union (EU)
The economic association of European nations; formerly known as the Common Market or European Economic Community.
purges
The elimination of all rivals to power through mass arrests, imprisonment, exile, and murder, often directed at former associates and their followers who have (or are imagined to have) enough influence to be a threat to the ruling elite.
iron law of oligarchy
The elitist theory that because of the administrative necessities involved in managing any large organization, access to and control of information and communication become concentrated in a few bureaucrats, who then wield true power in the organization.
Meiji Restoration
The end of Japan's feudal era, in 1868, when a small group of powerful individuals crowned a symbolic emperor, embarked on an economic modernization program, and established a modern governmental bureaucracy.
legitimacy
The exercise of political power in a community in a way that is voluntarily accepted by the members of that community.
nomenklatura
The former Soviet Communist Party's system of controlling all important administrative appointments, thereby ensuring the support and loyalty of those who managed day-to-day affairs.
containment
The global status quo policy followed by the United States after World War II; the term stems from the U.S. policy of containing attempts by the Soviet Union to extend its sphere of control to other states as it had done in Eastern Europe. NATO, the Marshall Plan, and the Korean and Vietnam wars grew out of this policy.
moral relativism
The idea that all moral judgments are inherently subjective and therefore not valid for anybody but oneself; the belief that no single opinion on morality is any better than another.
low-information rationality
The idea that voters can make sensible choices (for example, casting their ballot wisely) even though they lack knowledge and sophistication about public policy, candidates, and current events.
ethnocentric bias
The inability of nations to be reasonably objective when judging their own acts because of ideology or nationalism.
incarceration
The isolation of criminals in an effort to protect society and to prevent lawbreakers from committing more crimes.
simple majority
The largest bloc of voters in an election.
legitimate authority
The legal and moral right of a government to rule over a specific population and con trol a specific territory; the term legitimacy usually implies a widely recognized claim of governmental authority and voluntary acceptance on the part of the population(s) directly affected.
prior restraint
The legal doctrine that the government does not have the power to restrain the media from publication, except in cases of dire national emergency.
Estates-General
The legislature of France before 1789 in which each of the three estates (clergy, nobility, and commoners) was represented.
Bundestag
The lower house in the German federal system; most legislative activity occurs in this house.
Lok Sabha
The lower house of India's Federal Parliament; the directly elected House of the People; in India, as in the United Kingdom and other parliamentary systems, governments are formed by the majority party (or a coalition of parties) in the lower house following national elections (see also Rajya Sabha).
National Action Party (PAN)
The main opposition party in Mexico; the PAN's candidate, Vicente Fox, was elected president in 2000.
salami tactics
The methods used by Vladimir Lenin to divide his opponents into small groups that could be turned against one another and easily overwhelmed.
political culture
The moral values, beliefs, and myths people live by and are willing to die for.
Zionism
The movement whose genesis was in the reestablishment, and now the support of, the Jewish national state of Israel.
multiple independently targeted reentry vehicle (MIRV)
The name given to intercontinental missiles containing many nuclear warheads that can be individ ually programmed to split off from the nose cone of the rocket upon reentry into the earth's atmosphere and hit different specific targets with a high degree of accuracy.
limited war
The opposite of all-out war, particularly all-out nuclear warfare.
separation of powers
The organization of government into distinct areas of legislative, executive, and judicial functions, each responsible to different constituencies and possessing its own powers and responsibilities; the system of dividing the governmental powers among three branches and giving each branch a unique role to play while making all three interdependent.
government
The persons and institutions that make and enforce rules or laws for the larger community.
political realism
The philosophy that power is the key variable in all political relationships and should be used pragmatically and prudently to advance the national interest; policies are judged good or bad on the basis of their effect on national interests, not on their level of morality.
neutrality
The policy of giving the very highest priority to staying out of war by adopting a nonthreatening posture toward neighboring states, maintaining a strictly defensive military capability, and refusing to take sides in conflicts; Finland, Sweden, and Switzerland are among the countries that have pursued a policy of neutrality most successfully.
colonialism
The policy of seeking to dominate the economic or political affairs of underdeveloped areas or weaker countries (see also imperialism).
Marxism
The political philosophy of Karl Marx (1818-1883), who theorized that the future belonged to the industrial underclass ("proletariat") and that a "classless society" would eventually replace one based on social distinctions (classes) tied to property ownership. During the Cold War (1947-1991), the term was often mistakenly applied to everyone who embraced the ideology or sympathized with the policies of the Soviet Union or the People's Republic of China against the West.
tyranny of the majority
The political situation in which a dominant group uses its control of the government to abuse the rights of minority groups.
judicial review
The power of a court to declare acts by the government unconstitutional and hence void.
ethnic cleansing
The practice of clearing all Muslims out of towns and villages in Bosnia by violent means; the term has also been used to characterize genocidal assaults on minority populations in other parts of the world, including the Darfur region of Sudan.
reasons of state
The pragmatic basis for foreign policy that places the national interest above moral considera tions or idealistic motives; also raison d'état.
majority rule
The principle that any candidate or program that receives at least half of all votes plus one prevails.
nation building
The process by which inhabitants of a given territory—irrespective of ethnic, religious, or lin guistic differences—come to identify with symbols and institutions of their nation-state.
political socialization
The process by which members of a community are taught the basic values of their society and are thus prepared for the duties of citizenship.
globalization
The process by which values, attitudes, preferences, and products associated with the most technologically advanced democracies are being spread around the world via mass media and trade.
civic education
The process of inculcating in potential citizens the fundamental values and beliefs of the established order.
retribution
The punishment of criminals on the ground that they have done wrong and deserve to suffer.
citizenship
The right and the obligation to participate constructively in the ongoing enterprise of self-government.
national self-determination
The right of a nation to choose its own government.
rational choice
The role of reason over emotion in human behavior. Political behavior, in this view, follows logical and even predictable patterns so long as we understand the key role of self-interest.
eugenics
The science of controlling the hereditary traits in a species, usually by selective mating, in an attempt to improve the species.
public good
The shared beliefs of a political community as to what goals government ought to attain (for example, to achieve the fullest possible measure of security, prosperity, equality, liberty, or justice for all citizens).
partiinost
The spirit of sacrifice, enthusiasm, and unquestioning devotion required of Communist Party members.
guerrilla warfare
The tactics used by loosely organized military forces grouped into small, mobile squads that carry out acts of terrorism and sabotage, then melt back into the civilian population.
collectivization
The takeover of all lands and other means of production by the state.
mutual deterrence
The theory that aggressive wars can be prevented if potential victims maintain a military force sufficient to inflict unacceptable punishment on any possible aggressor.
trustee theory of representation
The theory that elected officials should be leaders, making informed choices in the interest of their constituencies.
collective memory
The things we learn about in grade school—what we come to "know" about our leaders, about crises we have survived as a nation, and about wars we have fought.
Doha Round
The trade negotiations within the framework of the World Trade Organization (WTO), formerly the General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs (GATT).
Knesset
The unicameral Israeli parliament.
Bundesrat
The upper house in the German federal system; its members, who are appointed directly by the Länder (states), exercise mostly informal influence in the legislative process.
Rajya Sabha
The upper house of India's Federal Parliament; the indirectly elected Council of States (see also Lok Sabha).
propaganda
The use of mass media to createwhatever impression is desired among the general population and to influence thoughts and activities toward desired ends.
mass media
The vehicles of mass communication, such as television, radio, fIlm, books, magazines, and newspapers.
methodology
The way scientists and scholars set about exploring, explaining, proving, or disproving proposi tions in different academic disciplines. The precise methods vary according to the discipline and the object, event, process, or phenomenon under investigation.
commercial republic
This concept, found in the Federalist Papers, is most closely identified with Alexander Hamilton, who championed the idea of a democracy based on economic vitality, capitalistic principles, and private enterprise free of undue state regulation.
brokered democracy
This theory holds that the interests of major groups cannot be steamrolled by the majority without jeopardizing democracy and that legislators and decision makers should act as brokers in writing laws and devising policies that are acceptable to all major groups in society.
autocracy
Unchecked political power exercised by a single ruler.
power of the purse
Under the U.S. Constitution, the provision that gives the Congress the exclusive right to impose taxes and the final word on government spending.
dual federalism
Under this system, which prevailed in the United States between 1835 and 1860, the power of the national government was limited to enumerated powers; during this period, the Southern states claimed sovereign powers.
straw poll
Unscientific survey; simple, inexpensive poll open to all sorts of manipulation and misuse.
state terrorism
Usually violent methods used by a government's own security forces to intimidate and coerce its own people.
war crime
Violation of generally accepted rules of war as established in the Geneva Conventions on the conduct of war. The Geneva Conventions call for the humanitarian treatment of civilians and prisoners of war, and respect for human life and dignity; crimes against humanity, such as genocide and ethnic cleansing, are also war crimes.
reverse discrimination
When affirmative action aimed at giving historically disadvantaged groups greater access to jobs, housing, and educational opportunities becomes an obstacle to members of the majority; an unintended consequence of giving preferences to minorities and victims of gender discrimination.
nuclear monopoly
When only one side in an adversarial relationship possesses a credible nuclear capability; the United States enjoyed a nuclear monopoly for roughly a decade after World War II.
philosopher-kings
Wise philosopher who governs Plato's ideal city in The Republic.
