Practice Questions (270)

Order Effects

Occur when the order in which the participants experience conditions in an experiment affects the results of the study

Attrition/Mortality

Occurs when participants choose not to complete a study

Participants respond to survey questions in any manner they feel is appropriate for the question

Open-Ended Response Scale

The dependent variable in a correlational study that is being predicted by the predictor variable

Outcome Variable

Random Assignment

Participants are randomly assigned to levels of the independent variable in an experiment to control for individual differences as an extraneous variable

Closed-Ended Response Scale

Participants respond to survey questions according to the response options provided by the researcher

A significance test used to determine if a linear relationship exists between two variables measured on interval or ratio scales

Pearson r Test

A sugar pill given to the control group in a drug study to allow all groups to believe that they are receiving a treatment

Placebo

A group of individuals a researcher seeks to learn about from a research study

Population

A Research question that asks if one behavior can be predicted from another behavior to allow predictions of future behavior

Predictive Research Question

The dependent variable in a correlational study that is used to predict the score on another variable

Predictor Variable

Double-Blind Design

Procedure used to control for experimenter bias by keeping the knowledge of the group assignments from both the participants and the researchers who interact with the participants

Single-Blind Design

Procedure used to hide the group assignment from the participants in a study to prevent their beliefs about the effectiveness of a treatment from affecting the results

Area of psychological research that involves the development, validation, and refinement of surveys and tests for measuring psychological constructs

Psychometrics

A sample drawn at random from the population such that subgroups are chosen in equal proportions to the population is called a _________ sample

QUOTA

nonnumerical participant responses

Qualitative Data

A type of research design where a comparison is made, as in an experiment, but no random assignment of participants to groups occurs

Quasi-Experiment

Variable that allows comparison of groups of participants without manipulation (i.e., no random assignment)

Quasi-Independent/Subject Variable

Sample chosen from the population such that available individuals are chosen with equivalent proportions of individuals for a specific characteristic in the population and sample

Quota Sample

Can occur when participants score higher or lower than their personal average—the next time they are tested, they are more likely to score near their personal average, making scores unreliable

Regression toward the Mean

The degree to which the results of a study can be replicated under similar conditions

Reliability

Intuition

Relying on common sense as a means of knowing about the world

Central Tendency

Representation of a typical score in a distribution

Applied Research

Research conducted with the goal of solving everyday problems

Basic Research

Research conducted with the goal of understanding fundamental processes of phenomena

Section of an APA-style article that presents a summary of the results and the statistical tests of the predictions

Results

A sample drawn from the population based on willingness of the individuals and equal proportions of subgroups to the population is called a ______ sample

STRATIFIED

The group of individuals chosen from the population to represent it in a research study

Sample

Internet Sample

Sample chosen from the population by recruiting on the Internet

Stratified Random Sample

Sample chosen from the population such that the proportion of individuals with a particular characteristic is equivalent in the population and the sample

Cluster Sample

Sample chosen randomly from clusters identified in the population

Probability Sample

Sample chosen such that individuals are chosen with a specific probability

Discussion

Section of an APA-style article that compares the results of a study to the predictions and the results of previous studies

Nuremberg Code

Set of ethical guidelines developed for research with human participants based on information gained during the Nuremberg trials after World War II

The p value is less than or equal to alpha in an inferential test, and the null hypothesis can be rejected

Significant Test

Statistical tests conducted to characterize an interaction effect when one is found in an ANOVA

Simple Effects Tests

Sample chosen randomly from the population such that each individual has an equal chance of being selected

Simple Random Sample

An experiment conducted with one or a few participants to better understand the behavior of those individuals

Small n Design

Interval Scale

A scale of data measurement that involves numerical responses that are equally spaced, but scores are not ratios of each other

Ordinal Scale

A scale of data measurement that involves ordered categorical responses

Distribution

A set of scores

Discrete Trials Design

A small-n design that involves a large number of trials completed by one or a few individuals and conducted to describe basic behaviors

A-B-A/Reversal Design

A small-n, baseline design where the baseline behavior is measured, followed by implementation of a treatment, followed by another baseline measure after the treatment has ended

Demand Characteristics

A source of bias that can occur in a study due to participants' changing their behavior based on their perception of the study and its purpose

Linear Regression

A statistical technique that determines the best fit line to a set of data to allow prediction of the score on one variable from the score on another variable

Abstract

A summary of an article that appears at the beginning of the article and in searchable databases of journal articles

Noninterrupted Time Series Design

A time series design where the "treatment" is implemented by the researcher

Pretest-Posttest Design

A type of research design (often a quasi-experiment) where behavior is measured both before and after a treatment or condition is implemented

Correlational Study

A type of research design that examines the relationships between multiple dependent variables, without manipulating any of the variables

Independent Variable

A variable in an experiment that is manipulated by the researcher such that the levels of the variable change across or within subjects in the experiment

Amount Variable

A variable that includes levels with a different amount of the treatment changing from level to level

Presence/Absence Variable

A variable that involves a manipulation with a level that involves the treatment and a level that does not involve the treatment

The difference between an interrupted time series design and an equivalent time series design is that the interrupted time series design includes a _______________ event, while a non-interrupted time series design includes a ________________ treatment. A. "naturally"-occurring/researcher-implemented B. non-psychological/psychological C. psychological/non-psychological D. researcher-implemented/"naturally"-occurring

A. "naturally"-occurring/researcher-implemented

A study found a large negative correlation between fidgeting and obesity. The correlation of fidgeting and obesity, partialing out amount of exercise, was almost zero. Which of the following statements is appropriate? A. Exercise mediates the relationship between fidgeting and obesity B. Fidgeting and obesity mediate the effects of exercise C. People who don't exercise should try fidgeting to lose weight

A. Exercise mediates the relationship between fidgeting and obesity

Each participant experiences only one level of the independent variable

Between-Subjects Variable

According to APA guidelines, the Participants section is a subsection of the ____________ section. A. Results B. Reference C. Method D. Introduction

C. Method

A variable that cannot be truly manipulated by a researcher, like sex or age of the participant is called ______. A. an extraneous variable B. a dependent variable C. a quasi-independent variable D. a confounding variable

C. a quasi-independent variable

In an independent groups design, the F-ratio provides a test of the differences due to the treatment by comparing ____ and _____. A. between-group variance ... total variance B. between subject variance ... error effects C. between group variance ... within group variance D. between subject variance ... within subject variance

C. between group variance ... within group variance

Correlational studies are not well-suited for answering _________ research questions. A. predictive B. descriptive C. causal

C. causal

If a person drew a conclusion about some topic based on opinion and prior beliefs, a researcher would claim that such a conclusion was not scientific because it was not A. objective. B. intuitive. C. data driven. D. predicted.

C. data driven.

The enforceable rules of conduct associated with the ethical principles developed by the American Psychological Association are A. aspirational goals. B. principles of responsiblity C. ethical standards. D. ethico-legal principles.

C. ethical standards.

The research approach that involves changing the level, intensity, frequency, or duration of an independent variable uses the _____ method. A. case study B. correlational C. experimental D. observational

C. experimental

When psychologists such as yourself develop experiments, they will decide what they want to manipulate as part of their experimental procedure. This variable is referred to as the __ variable. A. confounding B. dependent C. independent D. extraneous

C. independent

Simple effects tests are used to describe A. main effects. B. non-significant results. C. interaction effects.

C. interaction effects

In Milgram's (1963) study of obedience, results showed that A. none of the participants were willing to shock the confederate. B. most participants quit the study before it concluded. C. most of the participants were willing to "shock" the confederate at the highest level. D. all of the participants were willing to "shock" the confederate at the highest level.

C. most of the participants were willing to "shock" the confederate at the highest level.

If psychologists want to study the interactions among children on the playground, the are likely to choose A. quasi-experiments. B. experiments. C. observational research. D. correlational research.

C. observational research.

The tendency for individuals who have extreme scores (high or low) on one measurement and to have less extreme scores on a second measurement is called A. instrumentation B. history C. regression to the mean D. maturation

C. regression to the mean

A variable that is measured or observed from an individual

Dependent/Response Variable

A research question that asks about the presence of behavior, how frequently it is exhibited, or whether there is a relationship between different behaviors

Descriptive Research Question

Measures that help us summarize data sets

Descriptive Statistics

Criterion-Related Validity

Determining the validity of the scores of a survey by examining the relationship between the survey scores and other established measures of the behavior of interest

The assumption that phenomena have identifiable causes

Determinism

Levels of the Independent Variable

Different situations or conditions that participants experience in an experiment because of the manipulation of the independent variable

The distribution of all possible sample means for all possible samples from a population

Distribution of Sample Means

Coercion

Forcing participants to participate in research without their consent

Empiricism

Gaining knowledge through systematic observation of the world

A confound that can occur in cross-sectional designs due to different experiences that different generations have

Generation/Cohort Effects

Sample chosen from the population such that available individuals are chosen

Haphazard/Volunteer Sample

A source of bias that can occur in a study due to participants changing their behavior because they are aware that they are being observed

Hawthorne Effect

Prediction regarding the results of a research study

Hypothesis

Data Driven Hypothesis

Hypothesis for a study that is based on the results of previous, related studiesv

Split-Half Reliability

Method of testing scores' internal consistency that indicates if the scores are similar on different sets of questions on a survey that address similar topics

Cronbach's Alpha (a)

Method of testing scores' internal consistency that indicates the average correlation between scores on all pairs of items on a survey

Deception

Misleading participants about the purpose or procedures of a research study

Maturation

Natural changes that occur to the participants during the course of a study that can result in bias

A data collection technique involving noninvasive observation of individuals in their natural environments

Naturalistic Observation

Groups compared in a study where participants are not randomly assigned

Nonequivalent Groups

Survey response scale that involves pictorial response categories for participants with low verbal skills (e.g., children)

Nonverbal Scale

Degrees of Freedom

Number of scores that can vary in the calculation of a statistic

Quantitative Data

Numerical data

Relying on what one observes as a means of knowing about the world

Observation

Informed Consent

Obtaining consent from participants for participation in research after the participants have been informed about the purpose, procedure, and risks of the research

Bias created in survey responses from respondents' desire to be viewed more favorably by others, typically resulting in over reporting of "positive" behaviors and underreporting of "negative" behaviors

Social Desirability Bias

Pretest-posttest design with two sets of nonequivalent groups, one set that takes the pretest and posttest and one set that takes only the posttest

Solomon Four-Group Design

Data collection technique where control is exerted over the conditions under which the behavior is observed

Systematic Observation

All studies, regardless of sampling technique are subject to sampling error. True False

TRUE

Main Effect

Test of the differences between all means for each level of an independent variable in an ANOVA

Indicates that the scores on a survey will be similar when participants complete the survey more than once

Test-Retest Reliability

The assumption that explanations of behavior can be tested and falsified through observation

Testability

Occur when participants are tested more than once in a study with early testing affecting later testing

Testing Effects

Interaction Effect

Tests the effect of one independent variable at each level of another independent variable in an ANOVA

Parsimony

The assumption that the simplest explanation of a phenomenon is most likely to be correct

Operational Definition

The definition of an abstract concept used by a researcher to measure or manipulate the concept in a research study

Sampling Error

The difference between the observations in a population and in the sample that represents that population in a study

Critical Region

The most extreme portion of a distribution of statistical values for the null hypothesis, determined by the alpha level (typically 5%)

Response Rate

The percentage of people out of the total number available who respond to a survey

Third-Variable Problem

The presence of extraneous factors in a study that affect the dependent variable and can decrease the internal validity of the study

Alpha Level

The probability level used by researchers to indicate the cutoff probability level (highest value) that allows them to reject the null hypothesis

Hypothesis for a study that is based on a theory about the behavior of interest

Theory Driven Hypothesis

Literature Review

a process of searching for and reviewing previous studies related to study being developed to add to the knowledge in an area and make appropriate predictions about the data

Cronbach's alpha is a measure of the __________ of scores for a survey.

internal consistency|reliability

9. Eric counted children's use of pronouns in a classroom. He found that tenth graders use the word "We" a lot, fifth graders use it rarely. He concluded that between fifth and tenth grade children acquire an understanding of social groups. What kind of study is this? What conclusions can be drawn based on this design?

quasi-experimental; classification variable is grade - not causal

__________ of participants to levels will allow random distribution of participant differences.

random assignment

When groups or organizations are chosen to sample from, this is known as a ________________ sample

response rate

The _________ is a sampling technique which involves choosing individuals from the population at random where each individual has an equal chance of being selected.

simple random

Which sample types obtain subjects based on demographics proportions that exist in the population?

stratified and quota

A developmental design where multiple samples of participants of different ages are tested once

Cross-Sectional Design

19. What effect do we not have here? X shaped graph x-axis (gender) y-axis (pol. party) (a) A main effect for party (b) A main effect for sex (c) An interaction of sex and party

(a) A main effect for party

7. Dr. Fillpot believes that homeopathic therapy can cure depression. He assigned 20 depressed patients at random, 10 each to a homeopathic treatment group and a no-treatment group. Later he assessed the mental health of each patient. He found that the patients in the homeopathic group were less depressed than the others. What's the biggest problem here? (a) Possible subject and experimenter bias (b) There was no control group (c) The sample size was too small

(a) Possible subject and experimenter bias

9. Frank would like to find out if one kind of music (rock, country, rap, etc) has more or less effect on exam performance if played while a student takes the exam. Different groups will hear different types of music. What would be the best matching variable to use if to increase the sensitivity of the experiment? (a) Students' GPA (b) Students' auditory sensitivity (c) Students' music preferences

(a) Students' GPA

5. In studies with a group of individuals being tested in a series of treatment conditions, factors such as history, instrumentation, and maturation threaten (a) internal validity. (b) external validity. (c) statistical validity. (d) internal, external, and statistical validity

(a) internal validity.

17. A research study comparing problem solving scores obtained under three different levels of temperature could be called a ___. (a) single-factor design (b) two-factor design (c) three-factor design (d) factorial design

(a) single-factor design

1. Dr. Williams tested the hypothesis that simple patterns are more attractive than complex ones. Subjects chose which of two patterns they liked better. He calculated the percentage of times they chose the simpler pattern. He tested the null hypothesis that the percentage is _____. (a) zero (b) 50% (c) 100% (d) more than 50%

(b) 50%

6. Dr. Wells wants to ask participants in her research about their attitudes towards abortion. She includes three questions about abortion in a list of 15 other questions about a variety of current topics. The main reason for including the other questions is to _____. (a) control for order effects (b) control participants' expectations (c) increase the reliability of her attitude measurement

(b) control participants' expectations

3. Ten patients are treated for anxiety using psycho-dynamic therapy (group 1). Another ten are treated using behavior therapy (group 2). A year later, five from group one are available for further testing, and all report feeling better. Eight from group two are available, and only six report feeling better. What's the biggest problem here? (a) Possible regression effects (b) Diffusion of treatment (c) Different attrition rates

(c) Different attrition rates

2. Twenty rats were assigned randomly to two groups. One group was fed a diet of regular rat chow, the other group was fed nothing but french fries. The first group lived significantly longer. The investigator concluded that french fries are bad for you. What's the major problem here? (a) Statistical validity (b) Internal validity (c) External validity

(c) External validity

8. Frank's project was designed to find out if listening to music makes people less responsive to unexpected stimuli. He used other students in his own section as the group exposed to music, and students in another section as a control group. What was the most serious problem with his experiment? (a) Use of an ad hoc sample (b) Failure to use random selection (c) Failure to use random assignment

(c) Failure to use random assignment

11. For which of the following designs should you be most concerned with order effects? (a) Independent groups (b) Matched subjects (c) Repeated measures (d) Ex post facto design

(c) Repeated measures

18. Oscar compared two methods of studying, to find out if using imagery leads to improved memory for words. For one group the delay prior to testing was one day. For a second group the delay was one week. The results were: < shape graph x-axis (1day/1week) y-axis (imagery/no-imagery) What effects did Oscar find in his analysis? (a) An interaction only (b) Two main effects only (c) Two main effects and an interaction

(c) Two main effects and an interaction

10. In an independent groups design, the F-ratio provides a test of the differences due to the treatment by comparing ____ and _____. (a) between subject variance ... within subject variance (b) between subject variance ... error effects (c) between group variance ... within group variance (d) between-group variance ... total variance

(c) between group variance ... within group variance

4. The tendency for individuals who have extreme scores (high or low) on one measurement and to have less extreme scores on a second measurement is called (a) history (b) maturation (c) regression to the mean (d) instrumentation

(c) regression to the mean

13. In an experiment on the effects of running on stress levels, one group of participants is tested after running on a treadmill for 30 minutes. A week later, the same group of participants is tested after resting on a bed for 30 minutes. This is an example of a ___ design. (a) single-subjects (b) between-subjects (c) within-subjects (d) matched groups

(c) within-subjects

14. In a within-subjects design, individual differences (participant variables) are a problem because (a) They can become confounding variables. (b) They can increase the variability. (c) They can become confounding variables and they can increase the variability. (d) Individual differences are not a problem in a within-subjects design.

(d) Individual differences are not a problem in a within-subjects design.

12. Suppose you use a randomized pretest-posttest control-group design to evaluate a treatment for depression. Why would regression effects usually NOT be a problem (a) It's not a repeated measures design (b) Regression effects are random error (c) There would be no regression to the mean (d) Randomization equates any regression effects

(d) Randomization equates any regression effects

15. The disadvantage to counterbalancing in a within-subjects design is _____ (a) less power than with simple randomizing (b) it's hard to find a matching variable (c) order effects are not properly controlled (d) too many groups may be needed

(d) too many groups may be needed

1. Charlie is studying social adjustment in young children. Which is the least like an operational definition of social adjustment? (a) A child's understanding of other children's feelings (b) Teachers' ratings of a child's social adjustment (c) A child's score on a test of social adjustment

1. A (operational def's must be specific)

2. Fiona studied recreational runners, and found a correlation of 0.5 between number of injuries and time spent stretching. Which of the following conclusions is appropriate? (a) Stretching prevents injuries (b) Stretching makes injuries worse (c) Having an injury makes people want to stretch more (d) Stretching can predict one quarter of the variance in running injuries

2. D (other statements imply causality or are incorrect)

3. A study found a large negative correlation between fidgeting and obesity. The correlation of fidgeting and obesity, partialing out amount of exercise, was almost zero. Which of the following statements is appropriate? (a) Exercise mediates the relationship between fidgeting and obesity (b) Fidgeting and obesity mediate the effects of exercise (c) People who don't exercise should try fidgeting to lose weight

3. A (correct interpretation of mediation for these variables)

4. Dr. McKenzie surveyed alcohol use on campus and found that students with lower GPAs engage in more binge drinking than students with higher GPAs. Which (if any) of the following conclusions is reasonable? (a) Excessive binge drinking contributes to poorer academic performance (b) Binge drinking is a common reaction to poor academic performance (c) Both are OK (d) Neither is OK

4. D (causality implied in A and B)

5. Dr. McKenzie surveyed alcohol use on campus and found that students with lower GPAs engage in more binge drinking than students with higher GPAs. Which (if any) of the following conclusions is reasonable? (a) Better academic counseling would be an effective way to reduce binge drinking (b) The students most likely to engage in binge drinking are those doing poorly in school (c) Both are OK (d) Neither is OK

5. B (prediction is ok, not causal)

Casual Research Question

A Research Question that asks what causes specific behaviors to occur

Experiment

A Type of research design that involves manipulation of an independent variable, allowing control of extraneous variables that could affect the results

Counterbalance

A control used in within-subjects experiments where different participants are assigned in equal numbers to the different orders of the conditions

Archival Data

A data collection technique that involves analysis of preexisting data

Longitudinal Design

A developmental design where a single sample of participants is followed over time and tested at different ages

Cohort-Sequential Design

A developmental design where multiple samples of participants of different ages are followed over time and tested at different ages

Internal Consistency

A form of reliability that tests relationships between scores on different items of a survey

Scatterplot

A graph showing the relationship between two dependent variables for a group of individuals

Interrater Reliability

A measure of the degree to which different observers' rate behaviors in similar ways

Descriptive Hypothesis

A prediction about the results of a study that describes the behavior or the relationship between behaviors

Peer Review

A process that takes place prior to publication of an article in many journals where experts make suggestions for improving an article and make recommendations about whether an article should be published in a journal

Negative Relationship

A relationship between variables characterized by an increase in one variable that occurs with a decrease in the other variable

Positive Relationship

A relationship between variables characterized by an increase in one variable that occurs with an increase in the other variable

Time Series Design

A research design where patterns of scores over time are compared from before a treatment is implemented and after a treatment is implemented

Descriptive Research Question

A research question that asks about the presence of behavior, how frequently it is exhibited, or whether there is a relationship between different behaviors

Survey Research

A research study that uses the survey observational technique to measure behavior

Nonresponse Error

A sampling error that occurs when individuals chosen for the sample do not respond to the survey, biasing the sample

Coverage Error

A sampling error that occurs when the sample chosen to complete a survey does not provide a good representation of the population

Nominal Scale

A scale of data measurement that involves nonordered categorical responses

On the U.S. census form, people identify their racial/ethnic status by selecting from among options provided on the form. This type of question is A. a closed-ended question. B. an open-ended question. C. a ratio question. D. a Likert question.

A. a closed-ended question.

Adherence to ethical guidelines in psychological studies with humans is currently monitored by A. a review board at each institution where research is conducted (IRB). B. a committee that is part of the federal government. C. a group of judges. D. just the researchers themselves.

A. a review board at each institution where research is conducted (IRB).

A theory is A. an explanation of a phenonema. B. cannot be tested with the scientific method. C. the same as a prediction. D. all of the above.

A. an explanation of phenonema

In an independent groups design, the F-ratio provides a test of the differences due to the treatment by comparing ____ and _____. A. between group variance ... within group variance B. between subject variance ... error effects C. between-group variance ... total variance D. between subject variance ... within subject variance

A. between group variance ... within group variance

A developmental psychologist compares standardized math test scores for 2nd, 5th, and 10th graders. The subjects are all tested at the same time; thus, different groups of subjects are tested, each group at a different age. This study utilizes a(n) ___________ design. A. cross-sectional B. cohort-sequential C. longitudinal D. experimental

A. cross-sectional

A researcher who wants to know if elderly people are more health conscious than younger people could study a group of elderly people and a group of young people to assess any differences. Such an approach would involve a A. cross-sectional design. B. cohort-sequential design. C. multiple baseline design. D. longitudinal design.

A. cross-sectional design.

You could create a stratified random sample by A. dividing the population into subgroups and randomly selecting from each subgroup. B. randomly selecting participants from the names of everybody in your population. C. creating clusters of people in the population and selecting everybody from randomly chosen clusters. D. using chain-referral sampling.

A. dividing the population into subgroups and randomly selecting from each subgroup.

The results section of an APA style report will contain A. information about the statistical tests used to analyze the data. B. a statement about the research hypotheses. C. the number and types of participants. D. an integration of the data with theory.

A. information about the statistical tests used to analyze the data.

When different observers of behavior record the behavior in a similar way, the measure is said to have good A. inter-rater reliability. B. parsimony. C. construct validity. D. test-retest validity.

A. inter-rater reliability

In studies with a group of individuals being tested in a series of treatment conditions, factors such as history, instrumentation, and maturation primarily threaten A. internal validity. B. external validity. C. statistical validity.

A. internal validity.

Suppose you have conducted an analysis of variance in a design with multiple gruops and obtaiend evidence of a significant difference among means. If you decided to investigate which means differed significantly, you would use what test(s)? A. post-hoc tests. B. regression. C. correlation. D. multiple t-tests.

A. post-hoc tests.

Bell et al. (2000) found that people who are more phsycically fit suffer athletic injuries less often than people who are less fit. This threat to internal validity that keeps us from concluding that fitness is a causal variable is A. selection. B. history. C. regression to the mean. D. maturation.

A. selection.

A research study comparing problem solving scores obtained under three different levels of temperature could be called a ___. A. single-factor design B. two-factor design C. three-factor design D. factorial design

A. single-factor design

In a factorial design, there is/are at least ______ independent variable(s). A. two B. four C. one D. three

A. two

Construct validity refers to how well A. your operational definitions relate to the underlying concepts you are trying to measure. B. your measurements correlate with one another. C. your statistical tests help you answer your research questionss. D. your manipulation results in a change in the outcome.

A. your operational definitions relate to the underlying concepts you are trying to measure.

A small-n design that involves baseline measurements of behavior as compared with measures of behavior during the implementation of a treatment

Baseline Design

Post Hoc Tests

Additional significance tests conducted to determine which means are significantly different for a main effect

Content Analysis

An archival data collection technique that involves analysis of the content of an individual's spoken or written record

Field Experiment

An experiment conducted in the participants' natural environment

Theory

An explanation of behavior that can be tested through research studies

Bivalent Independent Variable

An independent variable with two levels—a design is considered bivalent if it contains only one bivalent independent variable

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

Analysis of variance test used for designs with three or more sample means

Sphericity Assumption

Assumption of the repeated measures (within-subjects) ANOVA that pairs of scores in the population have equal variance

Relying on a knowledgeable person or group as a means of knowing about the world

Authority

The difference between an interrupted time series design and an equivalent time series design is that the interrupted time series design includes a _______________ event, while a non-interrupted time series design includes a ________________ treatment. A. non-psychological/psychological B. "naturally"-occurring/researcher-implemented C. psychological/non-psychological D. researcher-implemented/"naturally"-occurring

B. "naturally"-occurring/researcher-implemented

Budson et al. (2001) compared healthy adults and Alzheimer's patients regarding their memory. The people in the study were tested on their memory for nonsense shapes of three types: shapes they had seen, shapes they had not seen, and shapes that were similar to ones they had seen. Suppose you wanted to have 10 participants in each condition. How many participants would you need total? A. 10 B. 20 C. 30 D. 40 E. 50 F. 60

B. 20

Ten patients are treated for anxiety using psycho-dynamic therapy (group 1). Another ten are treated using behavior therapy (group 2). A year later, five from group one are available for further testing, and all report feeling better. Eight from group two are available, and only six report feeling better. What's the biggest problem here? A. Diffusion of treatment B. Different attrition rates C. Possible regression effects

B. Different attrition rates

In a within-subjects design, individual differences are a problem because A. They can become confounding variables and they can increase the variability. B. Individual differences are not a problem in a within-subjects design. C. They can become confounding variables. D. They can increase the variability.

B. Individual differences are not a problem in a within-subjects design.

For which of the following designs should you be most concerned with order effects? A. Matched subjects B. Repeated measures C. Independent groups D. Ex post facto design

B. Repeated measures

Orangejello would like to find out if one kind of music (rock, country, rap, etc) has more or less effect on exam performance if played while a student takes the exam. Different groups will hear different types of music. What would be the best matching variable to use if to increase the sensitivity of the experiment? A. Students' auditory sensitivity B. Students' GPA C. Students' music preferences

B. Students' GPA

Goldenberg et al. (1999) discovered that highly neurotic people tend to associate sex with death. When they compared high and low neurotic people, they were using A. a time series design. B. a quasi-experimental variable. C. a within-subjects design. D. a cross-sectional design.

B. a quasi-experimental variable.

An experiment was conducted to test the hypothesis that exercise affects memory in the elderly. Subjects aged 60 and older were recruited for the study. All of the subjects were presented with the same study list. Then half of the subjects were asked to walk on a treadmill for 20 min, while the other half of the subjects were asked to complete Sudoku puzzles for 20 min. Then all subjects were given a recognition test for the items in the study list. The treadmill exercise group scored significantly lower on the recognition test than the Sudoku puzzle group. The independent variable in this study is _________, and the dependent variable is __________. A. 20 min; the study list B. activity group; memory C. memory; activity group D. the study list; 20 min

B. activity group; memory

Looking up records of behaviors that have already occurred uses the __________ observation technique. A. survey B. archival C. systematic D. naturalistic

B. archival

An independent variable A. is never a manipulated variable. B. can have any number of levels. C. has at most two levels. D. is a subject variable.

B. can have any number of levels.

Suppose a psychologist developed a test to measure intelligence, but this test was poorly developed and really only measured how well people perform on standardized tests (in other words, it doesn't actually measure intelligence). This test would lack A. parsimony. B. construct validity. C. inter-rater reliability. D. test-retest validity.

B. construct validity.

If you conducted research that relied on students from introductory psychology classes who volunteered to particpate, you would be using a A. quota sample. B. convenience sample C. stratified sample. D. systematic sample.

B. convenience sample

If you conducted research that relied on students from introductory psychology classes who volunteered to particpate, you would be using a A. stratified sample. B. convenience sample C. quota sample. D. systematic sample.

B. convenience sample

A clinician might want to know whether a psychological inventory would predict future levels of depression in clients. Those future levels of depression would consititute a A. manipulated variable. B. criterion variable. C. confirmatory varible. D. predictor variable.

B. criterion variable.

When a researcher manipulates the environment to see if changes affect participants' behaviors, the behaviors that are measured for change are considered A. extraneous variables. B. dependent variables. C. manipulated variables. D. factorial variables.

B. dependent variables.

In a double blind study, an experimenter cannot influence participants' behaviors differently across groups. As such, we should expect that there will be little A. placebo effect. B. experimenter bias. C. Hawthorne effect. D. external invalidity.

B. experimenter bias

When the effect of one independent variable depends on the levels of another independent variable, this is called a(n) A. ANOVA. B. interaction effect. C. main effect. D. dependent variable.

B. interaction effect.

If we want to conclude that a given variable has a causal relation with a second variable, we have to be able to rule out other possible causal variables. The specific principle of causation involved here is that we need to estabish___. A. covariation B. internal validity C. temporal precedence D. random assignment to groups

B. internal validity internal validity is about the causal link. while all 3: temporal precedence, internal validity and covariation are all necessary for causation, this specific concern is internal validity.

For the table of condition means below, which effects appear to be present? IV A Level 1 IV A Level 2 IV B Level 1 50 50 IV B Level 2 75 75 A. main effect of IV A only. B. main effect of IV B only. C. interaction effect only. D. all of the above effects appear to be present.

B. main effect of IV B only.

An experiment was conducted to test the hypothesis that exercise affects memory in the elderly. Subjects aged 60 and older were recruited for the study. All of the subjects were presented with the same study list. Then half of the subjects were asked to walk on a treadmill for 20 min, while the other half of the subjects were asked to complete Sudoku puzzles for 20 min. Then all subjects were given a recognition test for the items in the study list. The treadmill exercise group scored significantly lower on the recognition test than the Sudoku puzzle group. What scale of measurement is the independent variable? A. ordinal B. nominal C. ratio D. interval

B. nominal

People in a grocery store are asked to sample three types of energy drinks and then indicate which one they liked best and which they liked least (i.e., they rank ordered the drinks). The dependent variable in this study is measured on a __________ scale. A. nominal B. ordinal C. interval D. ratio

B. ordinal

The difference between nominal and ordinal measurement scales is that A. nominal scales have numerical response categories and ordinal scales do not. B. responses on ordinal scales can be rank ordered and responses on nominal scales cannot be rank ordered. C. nominal scales include zero as the lowest possible score and ordinal scales do not. D. both (a) and (b).

B. responses on ordinal scales can be rank ordered and responses on nominal scales cannot be rank ordered.

Construct validity refers to how well A. your measurements correlate with one another. B. your operational definitions relate to the underlying concepts you are trying to measure. C. your statistical tests help you answer your research questionss. D. your manipulation results in a change in the outcome.

B. your operational definitions relate to the underlying concepts you are trying to measure.

Construct validity refers to how well A. your statistical tests help you answer your research questionss. B. your operational definitions relate to the underlying concepts you are trying to measure. C. your measurements correlate with one another. D. your manipulation results in a change in the outcome.

B. your operational definitions relate to the underlying concepts you are trying to measure.

When considering the ethics of survey research, an investigator should A. ensure that all responses are anonymous and confidential. B. let respondents know from the very beginning that once they begin their participation, they need to continue with the project. C. remember that if the researcher makes a big point of assuring confidentiality and anonymity, it may needlessly arouse suspicious among resondents. D. avoid asking questions of a sensitive nature.

C. remember that if the researcher makes a big point of assuring confidentiality and anonymity, it may needlessly arouse suspicious among resondents.

Which of the following sampling techniques is likely to create the largest amount of sampling error? A. stratified random sample B. simple random sample C. volunteer sample D. none of the above (all are equivalent in terms of sampling error)

C. volunteer sample

In study on the effects of running on stress levels, one group of participants is tested after running on a treadmill for 30 minutes. A week later, the same group of participants is tested after resting on a bed for 30 minutes. This is an example of a ___ design. A. between-subjects B. single-subjects C. within-subjects D. matched groups

C. within-subjects

Another name for a repeated measures design is a A. between-groups design. B. cross-sectional design. C. within-subjects design. D. nonequivalent groups design.

C. within-subjects design.

Occur when participants' experience in one condition affects their behavior in another condition of a study

Carryover Effects

A research design that involves intensive study of particular individuals and their behaviors

Case study

A prediction about the results of a study that includes the causes of behavior

Casual Hypothesis

A significance test used to determine if a relationship exists between two variables measured on nominal or ordinal scales

Chi-Square Test

A person who is part of a research study but acts as though he or she is not, to deceive the participant about the study's purpose

Confederate

A range of values that the populations mean likely falls into with a specific level of certainty

Confidence Interval

Seeking only evidence that supports our beliefs and ignoring evidence that contradicts those beliefs

Confirmation Bias

An extraneous factor present in a study that may affect the results

Confounding Variable

A form provided to the participants at the beginning of a research study to obtain their consent for the study and explain the study's purpose and risks, and the participants' rights as participants

Consent Form

Indicates that a survey measures the behavior it is designed to measure

Construct Validity

The group of participants in an experiment that do not experience the treatment level of the independent variable

Control Group

Sample chosen such that the probability of an individual being chosen cannot be determined

Convenience/Purposive Sample

3. Topic: SAT scores and the different majors at the university. What is a possible hypothesis? What are possible archival databases that could be used?

Could hypothesize that more majors that are science-oriented draw students with higher gpa's for example. You might be able to use data from the admissions office to look at students GPA and declared major. Perhaps student advising has this kind of data. Any reasonable answer that indicates that you are using some other source for data and not asking students to provide that data (as in a survey).

Which of the following is an ethical guideline that must be followed when research with human participants is conducted? A. All data must be collected anonymously (no identifying information is gathered). B. The study must be designed to minimize harm to the participant. C. The benefit of the research must outweigh the risks. D. (b) and (c) only E. all of the above

D. (b) and (c) only

______ research investigates fundamental aspects of behavior, whereas _______ research investigates solutions for real-world problems. A. Applied; basic B. External; internal C. Internal; external D. Basic; applied

D. Basic; applied

Fiona studied recreational runners, and found a correlation of 0.5 between number of injuries and time spent stretching. Which of the following conclusions is appropriate? A. Stretching prevents injuries B. Stretching makes injuries worse C. Having an injury makes people want to stretch more D. Stretching can predict one quarter of the variance in running injuries

D. Stretching can predict one quarter of the variance in running injuries

Why are testing effects, history effects, and instrumentation effects usually not a concern when you use a randomized pretest-posttest design ? A. You don't test subjects more than once B. They can be eliminated statistically C. There's no opportunity for them to occur D. The effects should be the same for all groups

D. The effects should be the same for all groups

If your research design involved collecting data on several different occasions before you applied your experimental treatment, followed by a series of additional measureents, you would be using A. a correlational design. B. a one-group pretest-posttest design. C. a nonequivalent group control design. D. a noninterrupted time series design

D. a noninterrupted time series design

A quasi-independent variable is the same as A. a dependent variable. B. an independent variable. C. a confounding variable. D. a subject variable.

D. a subject variable

A group of psychologists studying humor reaction studied participants' enjoyment of jokes by recording how many times the participants grinned, smiled, and laughed. These measurements of grinning, smiling and laughing to represent enjoyment involve A. correlational research. B. manipulated variables. C. main effects of humor enjoyment. D. an operational definition of laughter.

D. an operational definition of laughter.

Measuring intelligence using the score on an IQ test is an example of A. reliability. B. an independent variable. C. maturation. D. an operational definition.

D. an operational definition.

Which of the following would be a violation of ethical guidelines for conducting research with animal subjects? A. use of monkeys B. use of untrained personnel C. release of the animals into the wild at the completion of the study D. both (b) and (c) E. all of the above

D. both (b) and (c)

Time-series designs are pretest-posttest designs that A. include groups that do not take the pretest. B. include a randomly assigned control group. C. include groups that do not take the posttest. D. compare a pattern of scores over time before and after the treatment.

D. compare a pattern of scores over time before and after the treatment.

The empiricism canon of the scientific method states that new knowledge is gained from A. intuition. B. authority figures. C. logic. D. observations.

D. observations.

Because psychology involves trying to undertand complex and abstract concepts resarchers need to develop ___ in order to make useful measurements of those concepts. A. hypothetical constructs B. independent variables C. literature searches D. operational definitions

D. operational definitions

Because psychology involves trying to undertand complex and abstract concepts resarchers need to develop ___ in order to make useful measurements of those concepts. A. literature searches B. independent variables C. hypothetical constructs D. operational definitions

D. operational definitions

Budson et al. (2001) compared healthy adults and Alzheimer's patients regarding their memory. The people in the study were tested on their memory for nonsense shapes of three types: shapes they had seen, shapes they had not seen, and shapes that were similar to ones they had seen. This design involved A. multiple t-tests. B. a single-factor design. C. five conditions. D. repeated measures.

D. repeated measures.

One reason that Freud's theories of personality have not been more influential in the field of psychology is that A. the theories are too unusual. B. the theories do not specify causes for behavior. C. the theories are not the simplest explanations for behavior. D. the theories are difficult to falsify.

D. the theories are difficult to falsify.

The disadvantage to counterbalancing in a within-subjects design is _____ A. order effects are not properly controlled B. it's hard to find a matching variable C. less power than with simple random order D. too many groups may be needed

D. too many groups may be needed

2. Identify the incorrect words in this statement and explain why it is incorrect: A psychologist was interested in studying the effects of the dependent variable of caffeine on hours of sleep, and he used an interval scale to measure sleep.

DV should be IV, hours of sleep should be ratio

Discussing the purpose and benefits of a research study with participants, often done at the end of the study

Debriefing

Using general information to make a specific prediction

Deductive Reasoning

A source of bias that can occur in a study due to participants changing their behavior based on their perception of the study and its purpose

Demand Characteristics

Budson et al. (2001) compared healthy adults and Alzheimer's patients regarding their memory. The people in the study were tested on their memory for nonsense shapes of three types: shapes they had seen, shapes they had not seen, and shapes that were similar to ones they had seen. How many factors were considered in this experiment? A. 1 B. 6 C. 5 D. 3 E. 2 F. 4

E. 2

Which of the following might be a reason a researcher would use a quasi-experiment? A. Quasi-experiments are more internally valid than experiments. B. Some independent variables cannot be manipulated due to ethical concerns. C. Age is their variable of interest. D. Both (a) and (b). E. Both (b) and (c).

E. Both (b) and (c). B. Some independent variables cannot be manipulated due to ethical concerns. C. Age is their variable of interest.

Which of the following is a source of bias in survey data? A. nonresponse error B. coverage error C. social desirability bias D. testing effects E. all of the above

E. all of the above

Which of the following is NOT an appropriate way to handle order effects? A. random order B. Latin square design C. counterbalancing D. switching to a between subjects design E. increasing sample size

E. increasing sample size

History Effect

Events that occur during the course of a study to all participants or to individual participants that can result in bias

The group of participants in an experiment that experience the treatment level of the independent variable

Experimental Group

A source of bias in a study created when a researcher treats groups differently (often unknowingly) based on knowledge of the hypothesis

Experimenter Bias

The degree to which the results of a study apply to individuals and realistic behaviors outside the study

External Validity

Budson et al. (2001) compared healthy adults and Alzheimer's patients regarding their memory. The people in the study were tested on their memory for nonsense shapes of three types: shapes they had seen, shapes they had not seen, and shapes that were similar to ones they had seen. This study involved ____ conditions. A. 1 B. 2 C. 4 D. 5 E. 3 F. 6

F. 6

On the surface, a study or scale appears to be intuitively valid

Face Validity

An experiment or quasi-experiment that includes more than one independent variable

Factorial Design

Committee of knowledgeable individuals that oversees the ethics of research with nonhuman animal subjects at an institution

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)

A committee of knowledgeable individuals who oversee the ethics of research with human participants conducted at an institution

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

The degree to which a study provides causal information about behavior

Internal Validity

A time series design where the "treatment" is an independent event, such as a historical event

Interrupted Time Series Design

A data collection technique that involves direct questioning of individuals about their behaviors and attitudes

Interviews

A section of an APA-style article that introduces the topic of the study, reviews relevant background studies, and presents predictions for the data

Introduction

Confidentiality

It is the researcher's responsibility to protect the participants' identity and right to privacy (including participant responses) during and after the research study

Partial counterbalancing technique where the number of orders of conditions used is equal to the number of conditions in the study

Latin Square

A scale of responses that measures a participant's agreement or disagreement with different types of statements, often with a rating from 1 to 5 or 1 to 7

Likert Scale

8. Suppose you conducted a study and you found a correlation of r = .10. This correlation is far lower than what you expected to find. Describe what could have caused this small correlation.

Low correlation could be any number of problems pointed out in text (things that affect a correlation); multiple populations, range restriction, non-linear relationship BUT NOT outliers, as that usually increases a correlation coefficient

A between-subjects experiment that involves sets of participants matched on a specific characteristic with each member of the set randomly assigned to a different level of the independent variable

Matched Design

Baseline Measurement

Measurement of behavior without a treatment used as a comparison

Reaction Time

Measurement of the length of time to complete a task

Section of an APA-style article that describes the participants, design, stimuli, apparatus, and procedure used in the study

Method

Deduction

Using logical reasoning and current knowledge as a means of knowing about the world

Inductive Reasoning

Using specific information to make a more general prediction

An attribute that can vary across individuals

Variable

Within-Subjects

Variable each participant experiences all levels of the variable

Risk-Benefit Analysis

Weighing the risks against the benefits of a research study to ensure that the benefits outweigh the risks

6. Can you identify problems with the following items and correct them? a. Do you believe that all students must complete two semesters of English composition, regardless of their writing skills? b. How often do you get drunk?

a. leading question (must); b. vague

1. Hypothesis: Students do better in class if they study with other people than if they study alone c. What kinds of variables are these (discrete vs. continuous, and scales of measurement)

c. IV: discrete, nominal; DV: continuous, depends (letter grade could be ordinal, number correct, ratio)

A ________ design is a developmental design that combines elements of the longitudinal and cross-sectional designs by treating age as both a between-subjects and within-subjects factor.

cohort-sequential

4. What kind of sampling strategy is used on ratemyprofessors.com? What are the implications of this sampling strategy? How can this sampling method be improved upon?

convenience sampling (non-probability sampling); implications are that there may be a response bias, basically not representative of students overall; to be improved there could be some form of probability sampling implemented (e.g. simple random sampling - obtaining roster of students for each class, and emailing sample of students to participate in the study, offering incentive)

7. Design a study to examine bullying behavior. What kind of study is this? What kind of data would you collect? How could you reduce errors in your data collection?

could use a naturalistic observation study in playgrounds.

1. Hypothesis: Students do better in class if they study with other people than if they study alone d. What kind of research methodology is this?

d. Experiment (may be quasi-experiment if you didn't randomly assign people to conditions rather they just formed groups or not)

Correlational studies can answer _______ or ______ research questions.

descriptive|predictive

Longitudinal designs allow researchers to examine age effects quickly by testing subjects at different ages all at once. True False

false

Researchers must fully inform participants about all aspects of a study before consent is given for participation. True False

false

Sampling error is greater when a sample is more variable (t/f)

false, the more variable a sample is, the less sampling error

Significance test used to compare means

t Test

10. Why does correlation not equal causation? Come up with an example of 2 (or more) variables that are correlated and a correct interpretation of that relationship. Now try to state the relationship incorrectly by implying causality but do not use the word 'cause.'

third variable problem, directionality problem. Any reasonable example is good (we talked about several in class). We also went through an example of incorrectly stating the hypotheses in class. Anything implying causality - "leads to" "we should provide" "violence should be limited"

All experiments contain at least one independent variable. True False

true

5. Recall that I mentioned that we are not perfect observers and that there are some errors that we are prone to make (law of small numbers, illusory correlations, etc.) Describe how some of these errors might have contributed to this (incorrect, or at least debatable) conclusion: Flying in an airplane is more dangerous than driving in a car.

you should understand the concepts law of large numbers and illusory correlations, confirmation bias - we might hear more about plane crashes in the media than car crashes and draw the conclusion that it is more dangerous, when the opposite is true