Praxis All Subjects

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divisor

the number you divide BY -the 2nd number in a division problem when it is across for example, 3 is the divisor in 2 ÷ 3 -It is the number outside the bracket in long division

Where is the majority of the thermal energy at the Earth's surface stored?

the ocean

Two factors that cause matter to change its state:

temperature pressure

Neutrons

Uncharged atomic particles contained within the nucleus

Displacement

When something moves from one place to another

When a star collapses, what can it become?

brown dwarf white dwarf neutron star nova black hole

Messier was a scientist who _________

cataloged objects in space

strata

layers rock in the ground

Population Dynamics

A population changes over time and the factors that cause changes

Declarative Sentence

A sentence that makes a statement.

Ecosystem Stability

A stable ecosystem is perfectly efficient

Muscular System

enables movement through the contraction of muscles.

Kinetic Energy

energy in motion moving a skateboard, basketball passing through a hoop, person climbing a ladder, ball getting thrown into the air, water actively falling in waterfall

uncertainty can be reduced through

-development of knowledge within related fields and understanding of related factors -better/more observations -better explanatory models/experimental methods

Theodore Roosevelt

26th president from 1901-1909. He was known for: conservationism, trust-busting, Hepburn Act, safe food regulations, "Square Deal," Panama Canal, Great White Fleet, Nobel Peace Prize for negotiation of peace in Russo-Japanese War.

solving chemical equations

matter cannot be created or destroyed, so if an atom is on one side of the equation, it must be on the other C₃H₈ = 3 Carbon atoms, 8 Hydrogen atoms 5O₂ = 5 x 2 Oxygen atoms = 10 oxygen atoms 3CO₂ = 3 Carbon atoms, (3x2)=6 Oxygen atoms 4H₂O = (4x2)=8 Hydrogen atoms, 4 Oxygen atoms C₃H₈ + 5O₂ => 3CO₂ + 4H₂O (3 Carbon, 8 Hydrogen, 10 oxygen on each side)

Point

"A point is a non-dimensional location on a plane. A point is usually labeled with a capital letter of the alphabet. <img src=""pastefmrxti.png"" />"

Tropic of Cancer

A line of latitude about 23 degrees North of the equator.

Noun

A person, place, thing, or idea.

Opinion

A personal view, attitude, or appraisal.

Decomposition Reactions

A reactant is broken down in two or most products (A-> B+C); called analysis reactions

Chromosomes

Consist of genes, which are single units of genetic information

Single Pulley

Consists of a rope or line that is run round a wheel

Gamma Rays

Electromagnetic waves with the shortest wavelengths and highest frequencies

Coplanar

Coplanar describes two-dimensional figures that are on the same plane.

The Hottest Land

Ethiopia

trough

bottom of a wave

new moon

when moon is positioned between the earth and sun. The entire illuminated portion of the moon is on the side facing the sun, so the half that we cannot see. The half that we see is the side that is dark.

Samuel de Champlain

(1567 CE - 1635 CE) French explorer in Nova Scotia who established a settlement on the site of modern Quebec.

Four Types of Nitrogenous Bases

1. Adenine 2. Guanine 3. Cytosine 4. Thymine

Root Word

A word in its simplest form before any affixes are attached.

Ulysses S. Grant

An American general and the 18th President of the United States (1869-1877). He achieved international fame as the leading Union general in the American Civil War.

Cirrus

High-altitude clouds that are thin, feathery tufts of ice crystals. No precipitation. (Cirrostratus) (Cirrocumulus)

Atolls

Islands formed by coral reefs.

Inorganic Compounds

Lack carbon; mineral salts, metals and alloys, non-metallic compounds such as phosphorus, and metal complexes

Trophic Level

Link in a food chain or a level of nutrition

Gases

Molecules or atoms move almost independently of each other, are typically far apart, and do not form bonds

Northern Hemisphere

North of the equator.

Name the 5 Oceans

Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Southern, Arctic

Gravitational Force

Universal force that causes every object to exert a force on every other object

The Richter scale is used to measure ____________

earthquakes

waxing moon

moon getting bigger

rate of decay gets ___________ over time

slower

What we normally see as an object's *color* is *actually*....

the particular wavelength that was *not absorbed into the object* if an object looks white, it is either producing or rejecting all wavelengths (this is why stars look white in the night sky, they are producing all the wavelengths)

Indian Empire

(7600 BCE - 1858 CE) The subcontinent was seldom unified in terms of government until the British Empire controlled the area in the 19th and 20th centuries. In terms of culture, India has had persistent institutions and religions that have loosely united the people, such as the caste systems and guilds. These have regulated daily life more than any government.

Hydrosphere

* All the water at and near the surface of the earth * 97% of which is in oceans

solve multi-step mathematical and real-world problems using multiplication of rational numbers MULTIPLYING FRACTIONS

*When we multiply fractions, we are saying "(fraction 1) OF (fraction 2)* (Ex: 1/2 * 2/3 means 1/2 OF 2/3) https://learnzillion.com/lesson_plans/7906 Just multiply across, then simplify

Six Major Biomes

1. desert 2. tropical rain forest 3. grassland 4. coniferous forest 5. deciduous forest 6. tundra

How much force/pressure does the atmosphere push down with?

14.7 psi (pounds per square inch)

War on Poverty

1965 - Johnson figured that since the Gross National Profit had risen, the country had lots of extra money "just lying around," so he'd use it to fight poverty. It started many small programs, Medicare, Head Start, and reorganized immigration to eliminate national origin quotas. It was put on hold during the Vietnam War.

How many Continents are there?

7 Continents: Europe, Africa, South America, North America, Asia, Oceania (Australia and Pacific Islands), and Antarctica.

Conical Projections

A map projection in which an area of the earth is projected onto a cone whose vertex is usually above one of the poles, then unrolled onto a flat surface.

Walt Whitman

American poet and transcendentalist who was famous for his beliefs on nature, as demonstrated in his book, "Leaves of Grass". He was therefore an important part for the buildup of American literature and breaking the traditional rhyme method in writing poetry.

Work

Amount of energy expended in accomplishing some goal

Inequality

An inequality is similar to an equation, but the two sides are NOT equal.

Global Warming

An increase in the average temperature of the earth's atmosphere (especially a sustained increase that causes climatic changes)

The Coldest Land

Antarctica

Electrons

Atomic particles that are negatively charged and orbit the nucleus; subatomic particles that orbit the nucleus at various levels commonly referred to as layers, shells, or clouds

Why does boiling water have a churning action?

Because of convection. Hot water is rising up and cooler surrounding water above it moves down to take its place

Mollusca

Bivalvia, gastropoda, cephalopoda, scaphopoda, amphineura, and monoplacophora

Veins

Blood vessels that carry blood (carbon dioxide and other wastes) back to the heart

Arteries

Blood vessels that carry blood (oxygen and other nutrients) away from the heart

Friction

Can cause change in motion In a vacuum, when the only force acting on objects is gravity, every object falls at the same rate, regardless of mass or shape.

Tip for Praxis problems with both fractions and decimals

Change all numbers to fractions or change all numbers to decimals before beginning your calculations.

Motion

Change in the location of an object, and is the result of an unbalanced net force acting on the object

Hormones

Chemical messengers, mostly those manufactured by the endocrine glands, that are produced in one tissue and affect another (pituitary gland)

Fringing Reefs

Develop near the shore throughout the tropics , require a hard surface for larvae to settle. Susceptible to damage by sedimentation and freshwater runoff.

Range

Difference between the highest and lowest numbers, which can be used to determine how spread out data is

Waves

Energy and can transfer energy when they interact with matter

Kinetic Energy

Energy of motion

Potential Energy

Energy that is stored and held in readiness

Natural Hazards

Environmental events such as floods, hurricanes, earthquakes, tornados, tsunami, mudslides, volcanic eruptions, and droughts.

Second Continental Congress

Established the Continental Army and chose George Washington as its commanding general. They allowed printing of money and created government offices.

Illustrative Essay

Explains a general statement through the use of specific examples. The writer starts with a topic sentence that is followed by one or more examples that clearly relate to and support the topic.

Collision Theory

For a chemical reaction to occur, atoms or molecules have to collide with each other with a certain amount of energy

American Federation of Labor

Founded by Samuel Gompers in 1886; It sought better wages, hours, working conditions. Skilled laborers, arose out of dissatisfaction with the Knights of Labor, rejected socialist and communist ideas. It was a non-violent approach.

Suffixes

Letters added at the end of a base word that alters the meaning

Territoriality

Members of a species protecting areas from other members of their species and from other species; claim specific areas of their own

Cnidaria

Members of this phylum are hydrozoa, jellyfish and obelia; radial symmetry, sac-like bodies, and a polyp or medusa body plan

Annelida

Oligochaeta, polychaeta, and hirudinea

Weak Acid

One that does not donate all of its protons or disassociate completely

Order of Operations

PREMDAS 1. Simplify inside parentheses/brackets/etc. 2. Simplify any expressions with roots 3. Simplify any expressions with exponents 3. Perform multiplication / division from left to right 4. Perform addition / subtraction from left to right PREMDAS or Please really excuse my dear Aunt Sally

Phenotype

Physical, visual manifestation of genes

Railroad Expansion

Played a major role in the industrialization of the United States and the occupancy and upbringing of new settlements West.

Erosion

Processes by which rock, sand, and soil are broken down and carried away (i.e. weathering, glaciation)

Chemical Properties

Qualities of a substance which can't be determined by simply looking at the substance and must be determined through chemical reactions

Vectors

Quantities with both magnitude and direction, while scalars have only magnitude; include displacement, velocity, acceleration, momentum, and force

Texture

Size, shape, and grains of sedimentary rock; used to determine how a particular sedimentary rock was created

Panfilo de Narvaez

Spanish explorer who landed in Florida in 1528 and claimed Florida for Spain. In Florida, he looked for the Seven Cities of Gold, but was ambushed by Native Americans.

Altruism

Species or individual in a community exhibits behaviors that benefit another individual at a cost to itself; doesn't have to be a conscious sacrifice

James Watson and Francis Crick

Structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), which has a double helix shape; DNA contains the code for genetic information

Book Series

Sweet Valley High, Bluford High, Nancy Drew, Hardy Boys, and The Little House on the Prairie

Silver

Symbol: Ag Atomic Mass: 107.9 Atomic Number: 47

Pyrrhic Meter

Two consecutive syllables that are equally unstressed.

Polymorph

Two minerals with the same chemical composition, but a different crystal structure

Mixture

Two or more different substances that are mixed together, but not combined chemically

Western Hemisphere

West of the Prime Meridian

Synonyms

Words that have the same meaning

assembly line

a manufacturing method in which a product is put together as it moves along a belt, henry Ford created it for his cars

Black _______ all visible wavelengths, that is why it is hotter to stand on/wear in the sun than other colors.

absorbs

matter

anything that has mass and takes up space

asteroids

chunks of rock that orbit in a belt around the solar system called the ~ belt

comets

chunks of rocks *and ice* that are orbiting around the sun. tail you see on comets is ice breaking away and melting and trailing behind ~

fusion

creates power and energy by *bonding* atoms together (think: fuse)

fission

creates power and energy by *splitting* atoms apart (think fissure=split or crack)

When translating word problems, the word "percent" means _________.

divided by 100

major phases of water cycle

evaporation condensation precipitation infiltration/run-off

chemical properties

ex: chemical gas wants to behave in the same way as another chemical gas

distance between nucleus and electrons

if at baseball stadium, and nucleus was a basketball at home plate, electron would be a grain of sand at the outside edge of the parking lot

Law of Conservation of Matter

matter cannot be created or destroyed, simply changes forms (Law of Conservation of Energy= same thing but with energy)

agitation

molecular motion stirring, churning, mixing up

nonrenewable energy sources

oil, coal and natural gas

Boyle's Law

one of the *gas laws (does not apply to liquids or solids)* Volume and pressure *of gases*are negatively proportional. As pressure on gas goes up, volume of gas goes down As pressure on gas goes down, volume of gas goes up Ex: Ballon in pool: bigger at surface than under the water because there is pressure under the water

system

organized group of related objects/components that form a whole -weather ~s -organ ~s

brackish

partly salt water, partly fresh water

fulcrum

point at which lever rotates

Counting Numbers

same thing as natural numbers whole numbers 1 and up **DOES NOT INCLUDE 0**

seafloor spreading

slowly, over time, seafloor is moving slowly apart, breaking apart between tectonic plates as breaks apart, lava comes out, hits cool water, hardens then breaks apart again and more lava comes out and it happens again, which pushes plates further apart

If change number of neutrons in an atom, what will happen?

the atom will be an isotope (name for atom with different number of neutrons than its normal amount) charge of atom will not change mass of atom WILL change because each neutron weighs 1 AMU (atomic mass unit)

Egyptians

the first true developers of a solar calendar, the decimal system, and made significant contributions to the development of religion, geometry, and astronomy

topography

the shape of the land

Where would the least massive elements on period table be?

top left because atomic number and mass increase as you move left to right and top to bottom

Radiation

transfer of heat in *high intensity reactions* through gasses or empty space by electromagnetic wave ex: energy of the sun (giant nuclear fusion reaction) radiating heat & electromagnetic energy outward

evaporation

water in ocean gets heated up by sun and evaporates particles rise up ocean contributes to about 80% of water vapor in the air

passive margin

no tectonic activity along the edges, like Laurentia in the Cambrian period

*Biosphere*

portion of the Earth in which living things live, includes all three of the other "spheres" (land, air, water)

Optical properties of light

reflection: light returns after bouncing off an object refraction: light bends while passing from one medium (solid, liquid, gas) into another

Control group

resembles experimental group in every way but on which hypothesis is not tested

Why are gasses less dense than liquids?

substances spread out (become less dense) as they get hotter, the hotter a substance is, the faster the molecules/atoms move inside it. As molecules move more quickly, spread out to avoid bumping into each other

transform plate boundaries

tectonic plates sliding past each other

Binomial

"A binomial is an algebraic expression with exactly 2 terms Example:  3x - 2y"

Reflex Angle

"A reflex angle is an angle measured in a clockwise direction as opposed to the normal counter-clockwise direction. <img src=""pastehdxi8l.png"" />"

economics

the branch of knowledge concerned with the production, consumption, and transfer of wealth

Ionosphere

* An electrified region w/ large amounts of ions and electrons * btw thermospher and mesophere * Aurora Borealis

What causes waves to have higher frequency?

-*faster speed* (faster waves means they hit point A more often) -*shorter wavelength* (less distance between waves, means waves hit point A more often)

Nucleolus

-Located inside the Nucleus - Stores RNA (genetic material) -Produces the Ribosomes **Found in both plant & animal cells

North and South Poles

the points farthest north and south on the Earth along its axis

When translating word problems, the word "what" means __________.

the unknown - use a variable such as x, y, or n

The Root System

Component of the plant that is underground, and includes roots, tubers, and rhizomes

Sherman Anti-Trust Act

First federal action against monopolies. It was signed into law by Harrison and was extensively used by Theodore Roosevelt for trust-busting. Intended to prevent the creation of monopolies by making it illegal to establish trusts that interfered with free trade, However, it was initially misused against labor unions

Periodic Table

Groups elements with similar chemical properties together; based on atomic structure

Mass

Measure of the amount of substance in an object

Echinodermata

Radial symmetry, marine organisms, and water vascular system

Superacids

Those that are stronger than 100% sulfuric acid

Negative and Positive Addition/Subtraction

+ plus - = - - plus - = -

What is the largest source of pollution on Earth?

Coal because it is cheap and widely used to produce electricity, but it burns dirty

Igneous Rock

Formed from magma, which is molten material originating from beneath the Earth's surface

Immune System

Includes the lymphatic system, lymph nodes, lymph vessels, thymus, and spleen; fluid is moved throughout the body by lymph vessels to provide protection against disease

The Wettest Land

India

Juvenile Fiction Authors

Judy Blume and S.E. Hinton

Canopy Interception

Precipitation lands on plant foliage instead of falling to the ground and evaporating

Predation

Predator that feeds on another organism, which results in its death

Geomorphology

The study of Earth's land forms and the processes that have formed them.

General Graphic Organizers

These can include KWL charts or weekly planners.

Would an object in motion continue going in space? At what speed?

Yes, and at the same speed! Ex: there is a glove that an astronaut lost in space that has been orbiting the Earth ever since

What are the three "special right triangles"?

"<div style=""font-size:1.3em; font-family:cambria; font-style:italic;"">30° - 60° - 90° 45° - 45° - 90° 3n° - 4n°  -5n°</div>"

The ratios of side lengths in a 45-45-90 triangle are ______.

"<img src=""pastedi_qox.jpg"" />"

Experiments

"An experiment is an attempt to prove or disprove an hypothesis. For the experiment to be valid, it must be repeatable and verifiable. This term will probably not appear on the Praxis test but is included here for completeness of mathematical topics."

Fundamental Counting Principle

"The Fundamental Counting Principle: If there are m ways for one event to occur and n ways for another event to occur, there are m x n ways for both to occur. These events (in a sample space) are listed using a tree diagram or a table. <img src=""pastek07rva.png"" />"

Temperature

"There are two scales used to measure temperature. The majority of the world uses the Celsius scale (formerly called Centigrade). In the United States, we commonly use the Fahrenheit scale. Water freezes at 0°C and at 32°F Water boils at 100°C and at 212°F To convert temperatures between the two scales: <img src=""pastec0ifzm.png"" /> <img src=""pastew9c1i3.png"" /> "

Indirect Object

Comes before the direct object. Tells to whom, for whom the action of the verb is done. (Claire threw JOSEPH the ball.)

Speciation

Evolution of a new biological species

Bathos

Excessive or trivial sentimentality producing a laughable effect.

Mountains

Formed by two continental plates colliding and forcing each other upwards.

The Largest Island

Greenland

Speed

How fast or slow a wave travels

The process by which sediments are *compacted and cemented into sedimentary rock* is known as what?

Lithification

Theory of Plate Tectonics

Lithosphere, the solid portion of the mantle and Earth's crust, consists of major and minor plates; plates are on top of and move with viscous upper mantle, which is heated because of the convection cycle that occurs in the interior of the Earth

Altostratus

Middle level (6500 - 20,000 ft), gray sheet, thinner layer allows sun to appear as through ground glass. Precipitation: rain or snow. (Altocumulus) (Nimbotratus)

Comprehension

The process of understanding speech or writing.

Convergent Evolution

Two species that start out fairly different, but evolve to share many similar traits

Anapestic Meter

Two unstressed syllables followed by a stressed syllable.

Waxing

Two weeks during which the moon goes from a new moon to a full moon

factors that can help us date sedimentary rock beds

fossils discontinuities (fault shift AFTER deposition) weathering depth fault shifts

rock cycle

magma → igneous → sediment → sedimentary → metamorphic

Aurora Borealis is caused by the Earth's ______________

magnetic field the Earth's magnetic field catches ions and particles (which are both magnetic) coming into Earth's atmosphere and brings them down at the Earth's poles. The glowing lights are caused by charged particles (ions) coming down at the North Pole.

Why do stars look white and the sky look black in the night sky?

stars are producing all the visible wavelengths night sky is absorbing all the visible wavelengths

circumference

the distance around the outside of a circle C = (π)d = 2(π)r

How does *wind* energy work?

wind spins blades on windmill, which turns/powers a generator

Cell Membrane

-The outer boundary of the cell that surrounds the cytoplasm -regulates what enters and exits the cell-protects and supports the cell **Found in both plant & animal cells

Popular Sovereignty

A belief that ultimate power resides in the people.

Polonium

Symbol: Po Atomic Mass: Atomic Number: 84

Radium

Symbol: Ra Atomic Mass: Atomic Number: 88

Rubidium

Symbol: Rb Atomic Mass: 85.47 Atomic Number: 37

Rocks

A naturally formed aggregate, or mixture, of minerals; have varied chemical compositions

Rutherfordium

Symbol: Rf Atomic Mass: Atomic Number: 104

Graphic Organizer

A tool that helps to organize ideas and can be used to visually illustrate ideas

Equator

An imaginary circle around the middle of the earth, halfway between the North Pole and the South Pole

If it was noon, could you see a full moon overhead in the sky? Why or why not?

No, because the lit part of the moon is facing the Sun and at that time the Sun is overhead, so we would be looking at the back (dark side) of the moon at noon

Hassium

Symbol: Hs Atomic Mass: Atomic Number: 108

Meitnerium

Symbol: Mt Atomic Mass: Atomic Number: 109

Nihonium

Symbol: Nh Atomic Mass: Atomic Number: 113

Tin

Symbol: Sn Atomic Mass: 118.7 Atomic Number: 50

Scale

The size of a map expressed as a ratio of the actually size of the land.

Are "nonrenewable" energy sources truly nonrenewable?

They are nonrenewable on a human time-scale, but over millions of years they could be renewed

Thematic Maps

They use a base or topographic map as the foundation showing data based on a theme, such as population density, wildlife distribution, economic trends, etc.

Organic Molecules

Those that were produced biologically by a "life process" or "vital force"; organized into functional groups based on their specific atoms, which helps determine how they will react chemically

Kekule Diagrams

Two-dimensional representations of chemical compounds; covalent bonds are shown as lines between elements

Evaporation

Water in a liquid state changes to a gas

Sublimation

Water in a solid state changes to water vapor without going through a liquid phase

Experimental group

group on which hypothesis is tested

What are the parts of a multiplication problem?

factors; partial product; product

fossil record

history of life as documented by fossils, the remains or imprints of the organisms from earlier geological periods preserved in sedimentary rock

galaxy

huge clusters of billions of stars our ~ is called the milky way

waning moon

moon getting smaller

When the Sun and Moon are pulling at _______________ _______________, we get less extreme tides called neap tides.

perpendicular angles

Reproductive System

the production of offspring through sexual reproduction testes, scrotum, penis, vas deferens, prostate

Words that Signal Multiplication

"• multiply • multiplied by • product • times • of • twice <img src=""pasteanxscw.jpg"" />"

Words that Signal Subtraction

"• subtract • subtracted from • minus • difference • take away • less than • decreased by <img src=""pasteanxscw.jpg"" /> "

10 Largest Seas

1) Mediterranean Sea, Atlantic Ocean 2) Caribbean Sea, Atlantic Ocean 3) South China Sea, Pacific Ocean 4) Bering Sea, Pacific Ocean 5) Gulf of Mexico,Atlantic Ocean 6) Sea of Okhotsk, Pacific Ocean 7) East China Sea, Pacific Ocean 8) Hudson Bay, Arctic Ocean 9) Sea of Japan, Pacific Ocean 10) Andaman Sea, Indian Ocean

Bleeding Kansas

A sequence of violent events involving abolitionists and pro-Slavery elements that took place in Kansas-Nebraska Territory. The dispute further strained the relations of the North and South, making civil war imminent.

Monroe Doctrine

A statement of foreign policy which proclaimed that Europe should not interfere in affairs within the United States or in the development of other countries in the Western Hemisphere.

Helping Verbs

A verb that helps the main verb express action or show time. Example: I was playing ( "was" is the Helping Verb)

Flat Characters

Characters who are simple and one dimensional.

The 13th Amendment

The first of the three Reconstruction Amendments adopted after the American Civil War. This amendment officially prohibited slavery and involuntary servitude, except as punishment for a crime.

Jovian planets

The four outer planets (not including Pluto) (Jupiter, Uranus, Saturn, Neptune) They are large gas balls like Jupiter

Terrestrial Planets

The four planets closest to the sun (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars) Named this because they're made mostly of rock, like the Earth.

Prior Knowledge

The knowledge you already have about a topic before you read a text.

Relative Clause Fragments

These often start with who, whose, which, or that. An example is: "Who is always available to the students." This is a fragment because the "who" is not identified.

The Outer Planets

They all have rings, gaseous surfaces and are all bigger than Earth.

Official website where you can find more information about the Praxis tests

"<a href=""www.ets.org/praxis/"">www.ets.org/praxis/</a>"

Symbol for "therefore"?

"<div style=""font-size: 2.0em; font-family:cambria;"">∴</div> Three dots in a triangle"

Number Cubed

"A number cubed is the same as the number times itself times itself again. The exponent of 3 is often called cubed because the volume of a cube is the side times itself times itself.<div> </div><div style=""font-style:italic; font-size: 1.3em; font-family:cambria;"">n3 = n cubed = n × n × n</div>"

Obtuse Angle

"An obtuse angle is an angle that measures between 90°-180°     <img src=""pastehdxi8l.png"" />"

The equation y = ax² + bx + c makes what shape when it is graphed?

"a parabola: <img src=""pastelupk8k.png"" />"

Rafael Sanzio da Urbino

(1483 CE - 1520 CE) An Italian "frescos" painter and sculptor. He was known as the best pure painter of the Renaissance. He created the "School of Athens" and "Madonna" at the Vatican.

Martin Luther

(1483 CE - 1546 CE) A German monk who became one of the most famous critics of the Roman Catholic Church. In 1517, he wrote 95 theses, or statements of belief attacking the church practices. He led the Protestant Reformation.

Chinese Empire

(2100 BCE - 1911 CE) Since the end of the Warring States Period in 221 BC, China has functioned as an Empire. Although the Dynasties have changed several times, the basic government structure remained the same until the 20th century. The Chinese also have extensive written record of their culture, which heavily empathizes history, philosophy, and a common religion.

Liquids

*Can NOT be compressed (volume cannot be changed) DOES take the shape of its container* Indefinite volume Definite shape Particles loosely packed compared to solid Particles can slide over one another to move Flows

On last night's lottery drawing, 8 of the last 13 numbers were even. What is the probability that the next number drawn will be even?

61% (because 8/13 =0.61...)

Consecutive Integers

Consecutive integers are integers that differ by 1. Example:  -3 and -2 are consecutive integers Example:  x and x+1 are consecutive integers

Negative Integers

Negative integers are those integers less than zero. Negative integers appear to the left of zero on a number line. The negative sign is always written. Negative integers are the opposite of the positive integers. The number zero is neither positive nor negative.

Triangles (two ways to classify)

Triangles can be classified in two ways: 1. By the angles in the triangle: acute, obtuse, and right. 2. By the sides in the triangle:  equilateral, isosceles, and scalene.

Tundra

A biome at the northernmost limits of plant growth and at high altitudes, characterized by dwarf woody shrubs, grasses, mosses, and lichens.

Simile

A comparison using "like" or "as"

Fallacy

A false or mistaken idea.

Synecdoche

A figure of speech in which a part is used for the whole (as hand for sailor), the whole for a part (as the law for police officer), the specific for the general (as cutthroat for assassin), the general for the specific (as thief for pickpocket), or the material for the thing made from it (as steel for sword).

Pilgrims

A group of English Protestant dissenters who established Plymouth Colony in Massachusetts in 1620 to seek religious freedom after having lived briefly in the Netherlands. These people would have the first "Thanksgiving".

Vocabulary

A group of words that a person knows or should know

Prepositonal Phrase

A group of words that begins with a preposition and ends with a noun or pronoun. Examples: Against the grain, across the bridge, below the horizon, etc.

Arctic Circle

A line of latitude about 66.5 degrees North of the equator.

Antarctic Circle

A line of latitude about 66.5 degrees South of the equator.

Atmosphere

A mixture of gases that surround the Earth. (nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide)

Limited Government

A principle of constitutional government; a government whose powers are defined and limited by a constitution.

Meter

A regular pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in a line of poetry.

Imperative Sentence

A sentence that requests or commands.

Stanza Structure in Poems

A stanza is a group of lines. The grouping denotes a relationship among the lines. New stanzas often show change within the poem.

ATP

A substance present in all living cells that provides energy for many metabolic processes and is involved in making RNA. (adenosine triphosphate)

PANGAEA

A supercontinent that assembled at the end of the Paleozoic Era. (Tectonic Plates)

Tall Tale

A tale that is exaggerated and far-fetched (unbelievable).

Providing a print-rich enviroment

A teacher can provide a print-rich environment in a classroom in a number of ways such as... 1) Children's name in print or cursive 2) Children's written work 3) Newspapers and magazines 4)Instructional Charts 5) Written Schedules 6) Signs and Labels 7) Printed songs, poems, or rhymes

Action Verbs

A verb that expresses a physical or mental action (-ing,-s,-ed).

Tone

A writer's attitude toward his or her subject. (Ex. serious, humorous, satiric, surprised)

Acceleration

Acceleration is the measure of how speed (velocity) changes over time. It can be expressed as the change in velocity divided by the change in time: α = ∆v/∆t

Jefferson Davis

An American statesman and politician who served as President of the Confederate States of America for its entire history from 1861 to 1865

William Penn

An English Quaker, founded Pennsylvania in 1682, after receiving a charter from King Charles II the year before. He launched the colony as a "holy experiment" based on religious tolerance.

Missouri Compromise

An agreement proposed by Henry Clay in 1820 that allowed Missouri to enter the Union as a slave state and Maine to enter as a free state. It also outlawed slavery in any territories or states north of 36°30´ latitude line.

Harriet Beecher Stowe

An outspoken abolitionist and an American writer, author of Uncle Tom's cabin. The book describes slavery through a slave's perspective. Her story persuaded people to want to end slavery.

Carnivores

Animals that are meat eaters

Why do fluorescent lights use less energy than incandescent lights?

As electricity stimulated atoms in fluorescent lights, they light up (fluoresce) on their own and it takes only a little electricity to stimulate them. But incandescent lights have to push electricity through filament which requires more energy for the same amount of light

Mitosis

Asexual reproduction - Cell Division - Less Common Daughter cells are genetically identical to parent cell.

Cells

Basic units of life

Metal Complex

Central atom (or ion) bonded to surrounding ligands (molecules or anions)

Teaching Phonological Awareness

Clapping sounds in words, saying blended phonemes, singing songs, nursery rhymes, reading patterned texts, environmental sounds, following directions, rhyming games, alliterative texts, grouping objects using beginning sounds, reordering words in a sentence to make silly phrases.

Lunar Eclipse

Earth blocks sunlight from reaching the moon

Eastern Hemisphere

East of the Prime Meridian

Atomic Number

Element refers to the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom

Alfonso Alvarez de Pineda

He charted the Gulf Coast off of Florida in 1519. He was probably the first European in Texas. He claimed it for Spain

Louisiana Purchase

In 1803, the U.S. purchased the land from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains from Napoleon for $15 million. Jefferson was interested in the territory because it would give the U.S. the Mississippi River and New Orleans (both were valuable for trade and shipping) and also room to expand. Napoleon wanted to sell because he needed money for his European campaigns and because a rebellion against the French in Haiti had soured him on the idea of New World colonies. The Constitution did not give the federal government the power to buy land, so Jefferson used loose construction to justify the purchase.

Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. (1968)

In 1968. MLK began to focus on the relationship between racism and poverty. He was in Memphis Tennessee to assist striking garbage workers and he was assassinated on the balcony of his motel on April 4th, 1968.

Assassination of President Kennedy (1963)

In Dallas Texas, shot by Lee Harvey Oswald in the book depository

6 Types of Simple Machines

In Whirlpools Larry Played Wet Songs Inclined Plane (aka ramp) Wheel & axle Lever (crow-bar, see-saw, pan balance) Pulley Wedge Screw *make tasks easier to accomplish* by reducing friction, reducing effort needed at given moment/magnifying force

Static Characters

In longer works of fiction, main characters who often remains the same as the plot unfolds.

Scalar Quantities

Include length, area, volume, mass, density, energy, work and power

Skin System

Includes skin, hair, nails, sense receptors, sweat glands, and oil glands; sense organ, which provides an exterior barrier against disease, regulates body temperature through perspiration, manufactures chemicals and hormones, and provides a place for nerves from the nervous system and parts of the circulation system to travel through

Commensalism

Interspecific relationships in which one of the organisms benefits

Repetition of Key Words

It helps the reader follow the progression of thought from one sentence to another if key words (which should be defined) are repeated to assure the reader that the writer is still on topic and the discussion still relates to the key word. (This form writing coherence)

What defines what type of element an atom is?

It's atomic number, aka the number of protons it has Can change number of electrons to get an ion, or number of neutrons to get an isotope, but if change number of protons, get a totally different element Ex: helium: protons, lithium: protons

The Scopes Trial

John T. Scopes was arrested for breaking Tennessee law by going against the Butler Act and teaching evolution in the classroom. After 8 days he was found guilty and fined $100

Indo-European Languages

Language family, which includes German, English, Russian, French, Spanish and is spoken by 50% of the world's people.

Law of Gravity Explanation (=Newton's law of universal gravitation)

Law of gravity affects motion *As one or both objects masses increase, the more gravitational force is exerted between them* (because if F = G(m₁*m₂/r²), when m's increase, the numerator increases, increasing the overall number G is multiplied by, so F (gravitational force) increases). *As the distance between 2 objects increases, the force of gravity is lessened exponentially.* (because if F = G(m₁*m₂/r²), when r (=distance) increases, the denominator increases and is squared, decreasing the overall number G is multiplied by very quickly, so F (gravitational force) decreases).

Climax

Most exciting moment of the story; The turning point.

Minerals

Naturally occurring, inorganic solids with a definite chemical composition and an orderly internal crystal structure; classified by their chemical composition

Wavelength

One complete wave cycle

Fugitive Slave Law of 1850

Passed as part of the Compromise of 1850. It set high penalties for anyone who aided escaped slaves and compelled all law enforcement officers to participate in retrieving runaways. Strengthened the antislavery cause in the North.

protons

Positively charged particles of an atom Located in the nucleus Mass = 1 AMU (atomic mass unit)

Treaty of Gent

Signed on December 24, 1814 in the city of Ghent, was the peace treaty that ended the War of 1812 between the United States and Great Britain.

Boyle's Law

States that gases contract when pressure is applied to them; temperature remains constant, the relationship between absolute pressure and volume is inversely proportional

Lead

Symbol: Pb Atomic Mass: 207.2 Atomic Number: 82

Palladium

Symbol: Pd Atomic Mass: 106.4 Atomic Number: 46

Seaborgium

Symbol: Sg Atomic Mass: Atomic Number: 106

Titanium

Symbol: Ti Atomic Mass: 47.87 Atomic Number: 22

Thallium

Symbol: Tl Atomic Mass: 204.4 Atomic Number: 81

Tennessine

Symbol: Ts Atomic Mass: Atomic Number: 117

Vanadium

Symbol: V Atomic Mass: 50.94 Atomic Number: 23

Tungsten

Symbol: W Atomic Mass: 183.9 Atomic Number: 74

Yttrium

Symbol: Y Atomic Mass: 88.91 Atomic Number: 39

Zinc

Symbol: Zn Atomic Mass: 65.39 Atomic Number: 30

Zirconium

Symbol: Zr Atomic Mass: 91.22 Atomic Number: 40

Additive Identity

The additive identity is zero. Any number added to zero results in a sum of that number. The additive identity does not change the number when it is added to it.

The Lowest Point

The Dead Sea

Law of Segregation

Two alleles and that half of the total number of alleles are contributed by each parent organism

prokaryotic cell

a single cell or organisms that does NOT have organized nuclei

In sound waves, the lower the frequency, the _________ the pitch.

lower

Ultraviolet

shorter wavelength than violet cannot be seen by human eyes -can burn your skin/damage your eyes because wavelength is so short and frequency so high that it is very likely to collide with other molecules -when collides with skin molecules: sunburn or skin cancer

displacement

unless object is moving in a vacuum, that object causes displacement. if you are walking through a room, you are displacing the air that used to be there

How does *hydroelectric* energy work?

water flows through a dam, spins a turbine and then turns/powers a generator

Converting Measures of Area

"To convert measures of area, use Unit Analysis (multiply by the conversion factor in such a way that all units cancel out except the unit you want). For example, to change 16 square feet to square inches: <img src=""paste7skkfe.jpg"" /> "

Box and Whiskers Plot

"A box and whiskers plot is a visual way to show the five statistical number summaries: Minimum, Q1, Q2, Q3, and Maximum <img src=""pastev61z4q.png"" />"

Chord of a Circle

"A chord of a circle is a line segment whose endpoints are on the circle. The diameter is the largest possible chord in a circle. <img src=""pasteqjplvi.png"" />"

Plane (geometry)

"A plane is a two-dimensional surface. It is like a sheet of paper that has no thickness, yet it extends in all directions for width and height. <img src=""pasteggeygg.png"" />"

Scalene Triangle

"A scalene triangle is a triangle in which all three sides are of different length. In diagrams representing triangles (and other geometric figures), "tick" marks along the sides are used to denote sides of equal lengths: <img src=""pastemmbztr.png"" />"

Straight Angle

"A straight angle is an angle that measures 180° <img src=""pastehdxi8l.png"" />"

Exterior Angle

"An exterior angle is an angle on the outside of a polygon that is formed by extending the side of the polygon. In the diagram below, ∠d is an exterior angle: <img src=""pastese8bs7.png"" />"

Isosceles Triangle

"An isosceles triangle is one where two of the three legs (sides) are of equal measure, which means two of the angles are of equal measure. In diagrams representing triangles (and other geometric figures), "tick" marks along the sides are used to denote sides of equal lengths: <img src=""paste8nmnux.png"" />"

Dividing by Powers of 10

"Because we use a Base 10 number system, each place value is 10 times the place value to its right. As such, dividing by powers of 10 is simply a matter of moving the decimal point to the left (one place for each power of 10).<div> </div><div>Example:  123.456 ÷ 102 = 123.456 ÷ 100 = 1.23456 In this example, we were dividing by 10 to the power of 2, which is a 1 followed by 2 zeroes, so we merely move the decimal point 2 places to the left. </div>"

Independent (Data)

"Dependent data is the opposite of independent data. Data that is dependent means that it changes depending on how other data changes. Independent data is independent of changes in other data. This term will probably not appear on the Praxis test but is included here for completeness of mathematical topics."

Mitochondria

"Powerhouse of cell" that transforms food energy into ATP.

Fibonacci Sequence

"The Fibonacci Sequence is formed by starting with 0 and 1, adding those two terms to obtain the third term, adding the second and third terms to obtain the fourth term, and continuing by adding the last two terms to find the next term. The Fibonacci sequence is named after Leonardo of Pisa, who was known as Fibonacci. <div> </div><div style=""font-style:italic; font-size: 1.3em; font-family:cambria;"">0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, ...</div><div> The Fibonacci numbers appear in biological settings and are used in computer programming. </div>"

Multiplicative Identity

"The multiplicative identity is the number one (1). We can multiply any number by one and the result is the original number. Multiplying by the multiplicative identity does not change the value of the number. We use the multiplicative identity when we simplify fractions. If the numerator has a factor of 2, and the denominator has a factor of 2, that is the fraction 2/2, which is the whole number 1. Since multiplying by 1 does not change the value of the original fraction, we can "cancel" that 1 to simplify the fraction: <img src=""pastexoxefs.png"" />"

Vertex of a Parabola

"The vertex of a parabola is a single point where the parabola changes direction from upward to downward (or downward to upward).  The x-coordinate of a parabola's vertex is found by <div> <img width=""50px"" src=""paste1joj3i.png"" /> <img src=""pastew3fxjr.png"" /></div>"

Protestant Reformation

(1519 CE - 1648 CE) Religious reform movement within the Latin Christian Church. It split the Roman Catholic Church and resulted in the 'protesters' forming several new Christian denominations, including the Lutheran, Calvinist, and Anglican Churches, The Church of England, among many others.

William Shakespeare

(1564 CE - 1616 CE) English poet and playwright. He is considered one of the greatest writers of the English language; Works include Julius Caesar, Macbeth, Romeo and Juliet, and Hamlet.

*Atmosphere*

(air) layer of gases that surrounds Earth

Proper Fraction

*proper fraction* has a numerator smaller than the denominator and indicates a fraction less than one whole *Remember on test, if answers are in fraction form, correct answer will always be reduced*

Vacuole

-stores food, water, minerals, waste. **Large vacuole found in plant cells, while many small vacuoles found in animal cells

reactivity

-tendency to form chemical bonds with other atoms -determined by number of electrons in the outermost shell of the atom

Gravitational Force

...

Rate Conversion

1 Euro =$1.25 Clock costs 55 Euros. How much would that cost in dollars? (1.25 USD/1 Euro) * Price $1.25/Euro *55 Euros = $68.75

Areas Covered by Geography

1) Investigates global climates, landforms, economies, political systems, human cultures, and migration patterns. 2) Answers questions not only where something is located, but also why it is there, how it got there, and how it is related to areas around it. 3) Explains why people move to other regions. 4) Explains world trade routes and modes of transportation. 5) Identifies where certain animals live and where various crops and forests grow. 6) Identifies and locates populations that follow certain religions. 7) Provides statistics on population and numbers and growth, which aides in economic and infrastructure planning for cities and countries.

The 10 Largest Rivers

1. Nile, Africa 2. Amazon, South America 3. Mississippi-Missouri-Red Rock, United States 4. Chang Jiang (Yangtze), China 5. Ob, Russia 6. Huang Ho (Yellow), China 7. Yenisei, Russia 8. Parana, South America 9. Irtish, Russia 10. Zaire (Congo), Congo

Three States of Water

1. liquid 2. frozen ice 3. water vapor

scientific method

1. state problem 2. form hypothesis 3. observe & experiment 4. interpret data 5. draw conclusions -hypothesis valid? -further test/refine hypothesis

In a right triangle with legs of 6 and 8 inches, the hypotenuse is _______.

10 inches<div>  This is the 3-4-5 triangle with a factor of ×2 </div>

Bob caught and tagged 54 Nene birds, then released them. A week later, he observes 38 Nene birds and notices that 15 of them are tagged. What is the total population of Nene birds?

137 birds (see picture for more detailed steps) x/54 = 38/15 15x =(38)*(54) x =136.8 Round up to 137 because cannot have 0.8 of a bird :)

=potential for Hydrogen a scale used to measure the concentration of Hydrogen ions in a substance (relates to hydronium, H₃O⁺) 7 is neutral, below is acidic, above is alkaline/basic whether the ions are positively or negatively charged is what makes the substance acidic/basic

Definition by Class

A "dictionary definition," constructed by first placing a term in the general class to which it belongs and then differentiating it from all other members of that class.

Denominate Numbers

A *denominate number* specifies a quantity in terms of a number and a unit of measurement. For example, 7 feet and 16 acres are denominate numbers.

Hasty Generalizations

A broad claim based on too few or unrepresentative examples.

Ring of Fire

A major volcanic belt formed by the many volcanoes that rim the Pacific Ocean

Newton's 1st Law of Motion: The Law of Inertia

An object in motion stays in motion with the same speed and in the same direction along a straight path unless acted upon by an external net force. An object at rest stays at rest unless acted upon by an external net force.

Iambic Meter

An unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable.

Explanations

Are given close to the unknown word.

Metacognition

Awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes.

Omnivores

Both plant and meat eaters

Digestive System

Breaks down food polymers into smaller molecules to provide energy for the body.

Decomposition

Chemical reaction whereby a single compound breaks down into component parts or similar compounds

Endothermic Reactions

Chemical reactions that absorb heat and exothermic reactions are chemical reactions that release heat

Cattle Ranching

Cowboys often worked on cattle drives. This was when a large herd of cattle was moved from the ranch to a market place where they could be sold. A lot of the original cattle drives went from Texas to the railroads in Kansas.

Mantle

Earth's thickest layer made of hot rock - below the lithosphere/ asthenosphere but above the core. 70% of the earth's volume

Neptune

Eighth planet from the sun; third largest mass; 12 moons; atmosphere similar to Uranus; strongest sustained winds of nay planet; fragmented ring system

Ideal Gas Law

Explain the properties of a gas under ideal pressure, volume, and temperature conditions

Endocrine System

Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells.

Vertebrates

Have backbones; two cavities: thoracic and abdominal

Roger Williams

He founded Rhode Island for separation of Church and State. He believed that the Puritans were too powerful and was ordered to leave the Massachusetts Bay Colony for his religious beliefs.

Strong Acid

Hydrochloric, hydiodic, hydobromic, perchloric, nitric, and sulfuric

uniform motion

If object that travels equal distances in equal intervals of time. (travels 1 mile every 10 mins, etc.)

Tropic of Capricorn

Located 23.5 degrees south; sun is directly overhead at noon on December 21, which marks the beginning of winter in the northern hemisphere

Antarctic Circle

Located 66.5 degrees south, and marks the start of when the sun is not visible above the horizon; occurs June 21, same day the sun is directly over Tropic of Cancer

Tropic of Cancer

Located at 23.5 degrees north; sun is directly overhead at noon on June 21, which marks the beginning of summer in the northern hemisphere

Genes

Made up of DNA; portion of DNA that identifies how traits are expressed and passed on in an organism; part of a genetic code

Tip for solving comparison problems in Praxis

Make sure that all numbers are in the same format (all fractions or all decimals or all percentages).

Autotrophs

Make their own food ex: plants

Protons

Make up the nucleus of an atom; positive charged

Period

Measure of how long it takes to complete a cycle

Population

Measure of how many individuals exist in a specific area

Frequency

Measure of how often particles in a medium vibrate when a wave passes through the medium with respect to a certain point or node

Density

Measure of the amount of mass per unit volume

Volume

Measure of the amount of space occupied

Compare mixtures and compounds

Mixtures do not have chemical change. They include solutions and suspensions. Compounds are chemically bonded elements. The elements are no longer what they were going into the change. Ex: NaCl (table salt) is 2 dangerous elements, sodium and chloride as a compound. Once they bond at NaCl they are no longer dangerous, they are a totally different thing.

Diffusion

Movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.

Advection

Movement of water through the atmosphere

Third Person

Narrator is not a character, but sees the world through only one character's eyes and thoughts

Greenhouse Effect

Natural situation in which heat is retained in Earth's atmosphere by carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor, and other gases.

electrons

Negatively charged particles of an atom Orbits outside nucleus Mass = 1/1836 AMU (atomic mass unit) (For exam, do not really need to worry about weight of electrons since they are so, so, so small. Just do the math with protons and neutrons and round to the nearest whole number)

Which two gasses compose the vast majority of the Earth's atmosphere?

Nitrogen and Oxygen

Abiotic Factors

Nonliving factors that affect a community or population, such as facets of the environment

Thermodynamic Equilibrium

Objects that have the same temperature because heat is transferred between them to reach equilibrium

Secondary Succession

Occurs after a disturbance or major event that greatly affects a community, such as a wild fire or construction of a dam

Solar System

Planetary system of objects that exist in an ecliptic plane

Herbivores

Plant eaters

Light

Portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that is visible because of its ability to stimulate the retina; absorbed and emitted by electrons, atoms, and molecules that move from one energy level to another

Cell Cycle

Process by which a cell reproduces, which involves cell growth, the duplication of genetic material, and cell division

Literal Comprehension

Refers to the understanding of information that is explicitly stated in a written passage. (main idea, sequence of events, knowledge of vocabulary)

Atomic Mass Unit

Smallest unit of mass, and is equal to 1/12 of the mass of the carbon isotope carbon-12

Solving Algebraic Word Problems (involving uniform motion)

Solving Algebraic Word Problems (involving uniform motion): In problems where you are given data about an object traveling with and then against a moving object, use a table (see picture), and then set the SAME quantities equal to each other & solve. The distance formula is D = st (Distance = speed * time) Example: A boat can travel 12 mi/hr in still water. If the boat can travel 5 mi downstream in the same time it takes to travel 3 mi upstream, what is the rate of the river's current? (see picture for table and solution)

Confederate States

South Carolina, Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, and Georgia

Fantasy and Horror Authors

Stephen King and Ursula LeGuin

Ruthenium

Symbol: Ru Atomic Mass: 101.1 Atomic Number: 44

Sulfur

Symbol: S Atomic Mass: 32.07 Atomic Number: 16

Antimony

Symbol: Sb Atomic Mass: 121.8 Atomic Number: 51

Scandium

Symbol: Sc Atomic Mass: 44.96 Atomic Number: 21

Selenium

Symbol: Se Atomic Mass: 78.96 Atomic Number: 34

Strontium

Symbol: Sr Atomic Mass: Atomic Number: 38

Range (of Data)

The range is used in statistics to describe the difference between the smallest value and the largest value in a data set. To find the range, find the smallest value (the minimum or min) and find the largest value (the maximum or max). The range is the difference when you subtract the min from the max.

Literacy

The ability to identify, understand, interpret, create, communicate, compute, and use printed and written materials associated with varying contexts.

Phonological Awareness

The ability to recognize spoken language and how it can be pulled apart, blended, and manipulated.

Addition of Whole Numbers

The algorithm for whole number addition is:<div>    1. Line up the numbers vertically so place values are in the same column 2. Add beginning in the ones place 3. If the sum is greater than 9, write the tens place digit above the next column to the left 4. Put commas in the answer to separate the digits into periods </div>

Weathering

The breaking down of rocks and other materials on the Earth's surface thru exposure to the earths atmospher

Marine Climate

The climate of some coastal regions, with relatively warm winters and cool summers. These climates are found in the United States, Canada, Chile, Australia, and New Zealand.

Alphabetic Principle

The concept that written language is comprised of letters that represent sounds in spoken words.

Meiosis

The daughter cells have different genetic coding than the parent cell; eukaryotic cells reproduce; encourages genetic diversity

Spatial Organization

The location of places, people, and events, and the connections among places and landscapes.

Which has a stronger gravitational pull on the Earth, the Sun or the moon? Why?

The moon, because it is over 380 times closer than the Sun.

Point of View

The perspective from which a story is told. (Ex. 1st Person, 2nd Person, 3rd Person)

Phonics

The process of learning how to read by learning how spoken language is represented by letters. Students learn to read phonetically by sounding out the phonemes in words and then blending them together to produce the correct sounds in a word.

Physical Geography

The study of physical features of the earth's surface

Cultural Geography

The study of the interaction of humans with their environment and how that interaction produces changes.

Competitive Exclusion

There are limited or insufficient resources and species are competing for them, these species will not be able to co-exist

Ecological Succession

There is an orderly progression of change within a community

If standing on flat land and shoot one bullet out sideways and drop another from the same height, which will hit the ground first? Explain

They will hit the ground at the same time. The shot bullet will travel further laterally, but they will hit the ground at the same time because both bullets have the same mass and shape, so gravity will be exerting equal force on each bullet.

Law of Independent Assortment

Traits are passed on randomly and are not influenced by other traits

Natural Selection

Traits that help give a species a survival advantage are passed on to subsequent generations; members of a species that do not have the advantageous trait die before they reproduce

supplementary

Two angles whose sum is 180 degrees

Comma Splice

Two sentences joined incorrectly with only a comma

Divergent Evolution

Two species that become different over time; caused by one of the species adapting to a different environment

Composition

Types of minerals present in the rock

Blank Verse

Unrhymed poetry written in iambic pentameter.

Model

Used to explain something on a smaller scale or in simpler terms to provide an example

Colons

Used to introduce a letter, a list, or an important point. It's also used between the numbers in time.

Environmental Adaption

Using natural means to adapt to an area.

Allele

Variation of genes

Marshes

Wetland without trees; in North America, this type of land is characterized by cattails and rushes

Improving Comprehension

When a teacher models comprehensive reading, the teacher reads aloud and stops periodically in order to make predictions, clarify meaning, make personal connections, and summarize.

What causes rainbows?

When the white light passes from air into the drop of water, it changes mediums, which refracts (bends) the light and separates it into the component colors of light (ROYGBIV) the component colors slow down to different speeds depending on their frequency This happens because light travels at different speeds in different mediums.

Solid, Liquid, Gas Compression and taking shape of container chart

__________________________Solid_____Liquid______Gas Can be Compressed?_______N__________N_________Y Takes shape of container?__N__________Y_________Y

motion

a change in potion unless object is moving in a vacuum, that object causes displacement.

example of chemical means of weathering

acid rain

Rule of thumb for acidity/alkalinity: Most *biological products* tend to be ______________

acidic (*think* most cleansers are base, this is because they are designed to neutralize food stains left behind from the biological products, which are acidic)

What are the parts of an addition problem?

addends; sum

infrared radiation

aka infrared light aka heat *invisible to human eyes, but people can feel it as heat* -slightly shorter wavelength than radio waves, but still pretty long -light strikes object--> object gives off heat all objects above -450°F give off heat using this (so pretty much everything emits ~) ex: A TV remote control uses ~ waves to change channels. ex2:infrared goggles, heat sensors, etc.

When the Earth makes one full trip around the Sun, the moon.......

also makes the same trip around the sun (because it stays with the Earth duh)

angle of reflection

angle at which light bounces off a reflecting surface is called the angle of reflection

If given a chunk of the periodic question, and ask "Which of these elements has a similar atomic number and mass to to Na (Sodium)?"

answer would be whichever choice is in the same ROW as Na because atomic properties are organized by row. atomic number and mass increase as you move left to right and top to bottom

Average

arithmetic mean To average a group of numbers, add all the numbers together and divide by how many numbers there are. For example, the average of 5, 7, 12, and 8 is (5 + 7 + 12 + 8) / 4 = 8.

Wheel & axle

axle: point at which wheel rotates *reduces friction* rolling pin, rotary phone, windmill, pencil sharpener, wagon, egg beater, pizza cutter

Rule of thumb for acidity/alkalinity: Most *cleansers* tend to be ______________

basic (alkaline) (because most cleansers are designed to neutralize food stains left behind from biological products, which are acidic)

How are oil, coal and natural gas created?

bio-mass (plants and animals) got buried underground and compressed over long period of time when bio-mass gets compressed turns into oil

Where would the most massive elements on period table be?

bottom right because atomic number and mass increase as you move left to right and top to bottom

coal

cheap and used very widely, but burns dirty *largest source of pollution on Earth* bio-mass (plants and animals) get buried underground and compressed over long period of time, this becomes oil. If the ground where the oil exists has lots of carbon and the carbon becomes saturated, then we get coal.

If you are able to separate 2 elements using only a physical change, such as changing its state by boiling, the 2 elements were never _____________________

chemically bonded they were just sharing space in the form of a solution

3 Ways Heat is transferred

conduction, convection, radiation

ordering fractions

convert fractions into decimals first, then put in order

once a protostar becomes an adult star, it continues the process of becoming denser and denser by

converting its fuel into more massive elements and compounds, which in turn, makes the star denser

Does pressure cool or heat things?

cool Because the more pressure that is put on molecules, the harder it is for them to move, and the slower molecules move, the cooler the substance will be

After protostar is created, converts materials into ____ and ______ materials through _______

denser, denser fusion

amplitude

distance *from equilibrium* to crest (top) or trough (bottom) of a wave these are the amps we talk about when we talk about sound waves Ex:The ~ of an ocean wave is the maximum height of the wave crest above the level of calm water, or the maximum depth of the wave trough below the level of calm water.

wavelength

distance between successive crests of a wave, especially points in a sound wave or electromagnetic wave.

amplitude

distance from the equaliburim that the object moves

What are the parts of a division problem?

divisor; dividend; quotient; remainder

Shifting tectonic plates cause:

earthquakes mountain building volcanoes

X-rays

even shorter wavelength than UV rays, so they are more damaging to us (this is why we have to wear lead vests while getting x-rays done) ~ from sun collide with atoms in our atmosphere and never make it down to the Earth's surface, so that is why we don't have to worry about ~s when we go outside

Wedge

ex: axe, nails, toothpick, tooth, wood carving tools, shovel, thumb tacks *Magnifies force*, used to push things apart, or secure things together

What is an example of an organism that lives exclusively in one sphere of the Earth?

fish: live exclusively in the hydrosphere

Factors that cause changes in motion

gravity friction magnetism

Core

has a solid inner/ liquid outter made of iron, nickle alloy with small amounts of oxygen, silicon, and sulfur

bonds

hold together the various atoms that make up molecules within compounds *ionic bond*: a bond in which one atom loses an atom to from a positive ion, the other atom gains an atom to create a negative ion. This creates *electrostatic force* which holds them together *covalent bond*: atoms share one or more of their valence electrons (the ones on the outer most shell of the atom)

Scientists believe that the principles of science will ___________ no matter where you are or what you are looking at. (in different solar systems, etc.)

hold true

Screw

incline plane wrapped around a wheel & axle door lock/key, corkscrew, jar with twist lid, adjustable spinning stool, meat grinder, water faucet *Magnifies force* by increasing distance

Inner Core

inner most part of Earth, made of *solid* metal, primarily nickel and iron

What causes a star to collapse

inward pull of star's own huge amount gravity (which gets more consentrated and stronger as star gets denser) gravitational pull vs. fusion reactions' energy star is pushing out by converting fuel into denser elements as the star becomes denser and denser, eventually the gravity pull is stronger than the fusion reaction energy, it overwhelms the fusion reaction and the star collapses

Way to remember difference between ions and isotopes

ion is the smaller word, and it has to do with the smaller particle, electrons (super, super small) (ion is when atom doesn't have same number of electrons as protons) isotope is the bigger word and it has to do with the number of neutrons, which are bigger than electrons (basketball compared to grain of sand) (isotope is when atom doesn't has a different number of neutrons than its normal amount)

When the dividend is LESS than the divisor, the answer should be _________ than one.

less ex: (1/2) ÷ (5/8) = ? 1/2 is LESS than 5/8, so the answer should be LESS than one. the answer is 4/5, so this is correct

Mantel

made of rock not liquid, not solid - viscous, maleable solid

Objects that fall faster can penetrate the friction in the air more readily because they have more ___________________

mass per unit of surface area

shooting stars are _______________

meteors burning up in the Earth's atmosphere (thanks, killjoy)

every ~ moon makes full rotation around the Earth

month

When translating word problems, the word "of" means __________.

multiply

fossil records and sedimentary rock strata (layers) can help us determine how ______ the rock bed/fossils are

old

neutrons

particles of an atom that have no charge Located in the nucleus Mass = 1 AMU (atomic mass unit)

what type of energy increases with its height above the ground?

potential energy

Convergent plates

push together causes mountain building one plate is often sub ducted under the other eventually -this is why many mountain ranges are higher on one side than on the other

example of physical means of weathering

rain, wine, ice

white dwarf

small, very dense, low-mass star that is typically the size of a planet has exhausted all its central nuclear fuel and its core collapses to form a white dwarf star

paleontology

study of prehistoric life, how organisms evolved, how they interacted with their environment

What are the parts of a subtraction problem?

subtrahend; minuend; difference

The decibel scale goes up by *a power of ____* for every ten (10) decibels, so 160 would be ____, and 40 would be ______.

ten so, basically, every 10 decibels, add one zero to the number 160 decibels is a 1 with 16 zeroes = 10^16 (ten to the 16th power) = 10,000,000,000,000,000 10^4 (ten to the 4th power) =10,000

full moon

the moon is on the opposite side of the earth, so the entire sunlit part of the moon is facing us. The shadowed portion is entirely hidden from view. (opposite of new moon)

Which has more *thermal energy* and why?: 120 degree cup of coffee or 90 degree tub of water

tub of water because amount of heat energy needed to heat amount of water in tub vs coffee cup is much higher

How does *solar* energy work?

tubes of fluid get heated up, which causes pressure to build up, this pressure spins a turbine, which powers a generator

responsibilities of citizens in democracy

use your right to vote

litmus test

used to measure pH

systems of organization provide

useful ways of thinking about the world

Crust

very thin outer layer of the Earth moves on top of the Mantel movement creates earthquakes and collision of plates VERY thin compared to other 3 layers of Earth If the Earth was an apple, the crust would only be as thick as the peel. As human beings, we have never gone deeper than the crust.

Pulley

wheel & axle with rope/chord wrapped around it -use to lift objects *pull WITH gravity: mechanical advantage* *reduces friction* by using wheel & axle *redirects force* in whichever direction you want window blinds, oil rig, flag pole, steam shovel, cranes Pulley can have more than one set of wheel & axle. Rope can also go around several times. Both of these *increase mechanical advantage*

nova

when very large, massive star collapses, it is so strong that it explodes outward scattering its material all around the surrounding solar system and region of the galaxy

Mechanism of Evolution

1. descent 2. mutation 3. migration 4. natural selection 5. genetic variation & drift

Why do astronauts have to wear protective space suits?

there is no atmosphere in space to protect them from harmful x-rays and gamma rays (the most dangerous rays) Our atmosphere collides with these wavelengths before they hit the Earth's surface, so this is why we do not have to worry about them on Earth

space age

time period during cold war where US and Soviet Union raced to explore space

The Longest River

The Nile River

Closure

"Closure is a property of operations. Number sets are closed under addition and multiplication, but not under subtraction or division. This means that you can add any two whole numbers and the result will be a whole number. But you can't subtract any two whole numbers and be guaranteed that the result will be a whole number (it might be a negative number, which is not a whole number). This term will probably not appear on the Praxis test but is included here for completeness of mathematical topics."

Concave

"Concave describes an object with a hollowed out or cut out portion—a part of the object has been "caved" in. The opposite of a concave polygon is a convex polygon. <img src=""pastem9enkn.png"" />"

Convex

"Convex describes an object such as a polygon that is not concave. All vertices of a convex polygon are less than 180-degrees in measure: <img src=""pastecrexir.png"" /> The opposite of convex is concave."

Correlation

"Correlation is a statistical relationship between dependent variables. This term will probably not appear on the Praxis test but is included here for completeness of mathematical topics. "

Data Collection

"Data collection is the process of collecting and preparing data for statistical purposes. This term will probably not appear on the Praxis test but is included here for completeness of mathematical topics."

Deductive Reasoning

"Deductive reasoning is a form of logic starting with statements of fact and drawing logical conclusions. If the laws of logic are followed from the statements of fact, the conclusions are true. It often helps to draw logic circles when working with deductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning is making sufficient observations that conclusions can be formed. A trick to remember the difference: Deductive reasoning = Drawing logical conclusions from factual statements Inductive reasoning = I-witness (eye-witness) observations    "

Density

"Density is the measure of how compact the material is inside an object. Density is measured in terms of the mass per unit volume. We have all heard the story of Archimedes who discovered the concept of density when he saw how his body displaced the water in his bathtub. He cried, "Eureka! Eureka!" <img src=""pastevurmyl.png"" /><div>  This term will probably not appear on the Praxis test but is included here for completeness of mathematical topics.</div>"

Dependent (Data)

"Dependent data is the opposite of independent data. Data that is dependent means that it changes depending on how other data changes. Independent data is independent of changes in other data. This term will probably not appear on the Praxis test but is included here for completeness of mathematical topics."

Discounts

"Discounts are usually written as percentages. A discount is an amount by which the purchase price is reduced. Be careful when working with discount problems because the answer may be the discount percentage, an amount of money discounted, the sales price after the discount, or the original sales price. Discount amount is the original sales price multiplied by the percentage of discount. The discounted price is the difference of the original price and the discount amount. <img src=""pastez1nm88.jpg"" />"

Discrete Data

"Discrete variables can be assigned values such as 0, 1, 2, and 3 are said to be countable. Examples of discrete variables are the number of children in a family, the number of students in a classroom, and the number of calls received by a switchboard operator each day for a month. <img src=""pasteo0hvqs.png"" /> This term will probably not appear on the Praxis test but is included here for completeness of mathematical topics."

Division of Whole Numbers

"Division of whole numbers is the inverse of multiply and is repeated subtraction. We divide to find how many groups of a number (the divisor) can be created from another number (the dividend). The symbol ÷ is used to signify division; it means "divided by." The algorithm for division Is: Divide the divisor into the digit in the largest place value of the dividend, multiply, subtract, bring down the next digit, and divide again. <img src=""pastexskq85.png"" />"

Euler's Polyhedron Formula

"Euler's Polyhedron Formula is V - E + F = 2 which means the number of vertices subtract the number of edges add the number of faces in any polyhedron always equals 2. <img src=""pasteoshytu.png"" /> This term will probably not appear on the Praxis test but is included here for completeness of mathematical topics."

Expanded Notation

"Expanded Notation is writing a number to show each digit's place value. Example: Write 123,456 in expanded notation<div style=""font-style:italic; font-size: 1.3em; font-family:cambria;"">(1 × 100,000) + (2 × 10,000) + (3 × 1,000) + (4 × 100) + (5 × 10) + (6 × 1)</div><div> or this number can be written using exponents:</div><div style=""font-style:italic; font-size: 1.3em; font-family:cambria;"">(1 × 105) + (2 × 104) + (3 × 103) + (4 × 102) + (5 × 101) + (6 × 100) </div>"

Factorial

"Factorial is a unary operation. The exclamation point is the symbol used to denote factorial. Factorials are most commonly used in permutations and combinations. To find the factorial of a number n, multiply all the numbers from 1 to the number n. Example: Find 6!<div style=""font-style:italic; font-size: 1.3em; font-family:cambria;"">6! = 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 720</div><div> By convention, 0! = 1 This term will probably not appear on the Praxis I test but may appear on the Praxis II test. </div>"

Geometry Symbols (13 of them)

"Geometry Symbols (13 of them) <img src=""pastenutarn.png"" />"

Inductive Reasoning

"Inductive reasoning is making sufficient observations that conclusions can be formed. Deductive reasoning is a form of logic starting with statements of fact and drawing logical conclusions. If the laws of logic are followed from the statements of fact, the conclusion is true. It often helps to draw logic circles when working with deductive reasoning. A trick to remember the difference: Deductive reasoning = Drawing logical conclusions from factual statements Inductive reasoning = I-witness (eye-witness) observations "

Length (Define & List Units of Measure)

"Length is a measure of distance. The metric measure of length is the meter. In the customary or U.S. English system, refer to the table below:<div> </div><div style=""font-style:italic; font-size: 1.3em; font-family:cambria;"">12 inches = 1 foot</div><div style=""font-style:italic; font-size: 1.3em; font-family:cambria;"">3 feet = 1 yard</div><div style=""font-style:italic; font-size: 1.3em; font-family:cambria;"">5280 feet = 1 mile</div><div style=""font-style:italic; font-size: 1.3em; font-family:cambria;"">1760 yards = 1 mile</div><div> </div>"

Mass (Define & List Units of Measure)

"Mass (also known as weight on Earth) is the amount of matter in an object. Technically, weight is a measure of the force of gravity against an object, but on Earth, mass and weight can be thought of as the same thing. The metric measure of mass is the gram. In the customary or U. S. English system, refer to the table below:<div> </div><div style=""font-style:italic; font-size: 1.3em; font-family:cambria;"">16 ounces - 1 pound</div><div style=""font-style:italic; font-size: 1.3em; font-family:cambria;"">2,000 pounds = 1 Ton</div>"

Normal Distribution

"Normal distribution is used in statistics to describe the normal patterns of data. When graphed, data that is a normal distribution is shaped like a bell curve. This term will probably not appear on the Praxis test but is included here for completeness of mathematical topics."

Parallel Lines

"Parallel lines are lines in a plane that do not intersect or touch at any point. The lines are equidistant from each other.    <img src=""pasteldxdrc.jpg"" />"

Plane Transformations (four types)

"Plane transformations: 1. Translation (move) 2. Rotation (turn) 3. Dilation (scale)  (enlarge/reduce) 4. Reflection (flip)     <img src=""pasteg5pge5.png"" />"

Primary Data

"Primary data is data obtained from an observation or experiment. It is raw data that has not been manipulated in any way. This term will probably not appear on the Praxis test but is included here for completeness of mathematical topics."

Probability

"Probability is the ratio of how likely a specific event is to happen when compared to all possibilities of events that might happen. Probability is most often written as a fraction, but it may also be written as a decimal or a percentage. The numerator of the fraction tells how many possibilities of a specific event, the denominator tells how many total possibilities. For example, in a deck of face cards, the probability of drawing a heart is 13 out of 52 (13 hearts in a deck of 52 face cards). That is written as 13/52 but simplified to 1/4.    The three types of probabilities are classical, empirical, and subjective. "

Properties of Absolute Value

"Properties of Absolute Value:  For all real numbers a and b:<div>   <img src=""pastezyyzjg.png"" /> <img src=""pasterb6ojm.png"" /> <img src=""pastetefynd.png"" /> <img src=""paste8lrdxu.png"" /> <img src=""paste4ubvo0.png"" /> <img src=""pastekbhgom.png"" /></div>"

Qualitative Data

"Qualitative variables are variables that can be placed into distinct categories, according to some characteristic or attribute. For example, if subjects are classified according to gender (male or female), the variable gender is qualitative. Other examples of qualitative variables are religious preference and geographic locations. <img src=""pasteo0hvqs.png"" /> This term will probably not appear on the Praxis test but is included here for completeness of mathematical topics."

Quantitative Data

"Quantitative variables are numerical and can be ordered or ranked. For example, the variable age is numerical, and people can be ranked in order according to the value of their ages. Other examples of quantitative variables are heights, weights, and body temperatures. <img src=""pasteo0hvqs.png"" /> This term will probably not appear on the Praxis test but is included here for completeness of mathematical topics."

Reduce a Fraction

"Reducing a fraction is the same as simplifying a fraction. The term "reduce" is seldom used in mathematics today. To simplify a fraction, expand the numerator and denominator into prime factorizations. "Cancel" any ones such as 3/3 or 5/5. Then multiply straight across those numbers that are left. True story: When I did my student teaching 40 years ago, I was teaching how to add fractions and I used the term "reduce" a fraction. After the lesson, my cooperating teacher took me aside and told me to use "simplify" instead -- he said, "Jolene, only women reduce. Fractions simplify." "

Roman Numerals

"Roman numerals and the Roman number system are similar to the Arabic number system used in the United States. The Roman number system is based on 10 so it is decimal, but it does not have place value. Letters are used to represent various numbers (Roman number names). The rule with Roman numbers is to write the numbers in descending order (from greatest to smallest). The exception to this rule is if a smaller number comes before a larger number, we subtract that smaller number from the larger number.   I = 1, V = 5, X = 10, L = 50, C = 100, D = 500, M = 1,000 "

Rules for Exponents

"Rules for Exponents: <img src=""pastepclu9m.png"" /> <img src=""pastew7lolv.png"" /> <img src=""pastebcyy2v.png"" /> <img src=""pastegsz6at.png"" /> <img src=""pastebs4gbp.png"" /> <img src=""pasteyyuzdq.png"" /> <img src=""paste7tne0g.png"" /> <img src=""pastezmrr27.png"" /> <img src=""pastezr82vh.png"" /> "

Sales Tax

"Sales Tax is written in percentages (which are converted to decimal to computer sales tax). The final purchase price of an item = marked price + (sales tax times marked price). Using FP for final price, MP for marked price, and ST for sales tax, the algebraic equations is: FP = MP + (ST × MP) If you know two of those three amounts, you can use basic algebra to find the missing number. Remember to state the sales tax as a percentage in application problems. "

Scientific Notation

"Scientific Notation is a way to write very large or very small numbers using powers of 10. To convert a number into scientific notation, move the decimal point so the resulting number is between 1 and 10. Then state the power of 10. Because we use a Base 10 number system, an easy way to know what power of 10 is needed, the exponent indicates the number of decimal places the decimal point was moved. The exponent is negative if the decimal point was moved to the right; the exponent is positive if the decimal point was moved to the left. 1234.5 <img src=""pastexurkr0.jpg"" /> 1.2345 × 103"

Secondary data

"Secondary data is data obtained from someone else other than the user. Secondary data can be thought of as second-hand data; nevertheless, secondary data can be extremely useful depending on how the data was original obtained and manipulated.   This term will probably not appear on the Praxis test but is included here for completeness of mathematical topics."

Similar Shapes

"Similar shapes are shapes that have the same angles but the size of the sides is different; they are the same shape but not the same size. The similar shape may be flipped or rotated, but it is still similar if the two shapes are merely dilations of each other. <img src=""paster6ixgb.png"" />   <img src=""paste1br9if.png"" />"

Speed  (measurement)

"Speed is a measurement that tells how fast an object is moving. The rate of speed is usually expressed as a ratio of distance over time. Distance = rate of speed × time  (D = rt) <img src=""pastexupyh8.png"" /> <img src=""pasteb9ccsr.png"" />"

Supplementary Angles

"Supplementary angles are two angles whose measure adds to 180°.     <img src=""pasteskh7hx.png"" />"

Symmetry

"Symmetry (also known as reflection symmetry) is when both halves of an object are exact copies of each other. The line down the middle between the two halves is the line of symmetry. <img src=""pastejzerao.png"" />"

Time Measurement

"Time can be formatted in using a 12-hour clock with a.m. and p.m. or using a 24-hour clock (military time). In most places of the world, time is adjusted twice a year by one hour for Daylight Saving Time (note that there is no "S" on Saving -- it is not Daylight Savings Time). The common units of time are: 60 seconds = 1 minute ; 60 minutes = 1 hour ; 24 hours = 1 day ; 7 days = 1 week ; 28-31 days = 1 month ; 12 months = 1 year 365 days = 1 common year  (366 days = 1 leap year) "

Converting Measures of Capacity/Volume

"To convert measures of capacity in the Metric System, merely move the decimal point to the "place value" of the new unit of measure:   kilo-  hecto-  deka-   l   deci-  centi-  milli- To convert measures of volume in the U. S. Customary System, use Unit Analysis (multiply by the conversion factor in such a way that all units cancel out except the unit you want). For example, to change 5 quarts to ounces: <img src=""pastehrkfkk.png"" /> "

Converting Measures of Length

"To convert measures of length in the Metric System, merely move the decimal point to the "place value" of the new unit of measure:   kilo-  hecto-  deka-   m   deci-  centi-  milli- To convert measures of length in the U. S. Customary System, use Unit Analysis (multiply by the conversion factor in such a way that all units cancel out except the unit you want). For example, to change 16 feet to inches: <img src=""pastefyusyu.png"" />"

Converting Measures of Mass/Weight

"To convert measures of mass in the Metric System, merely move the decimal point to the "place value" of the new unit of measure:   kilo-  hecto-  deka-   g   deci-  centi-  milli- To convert measures of weight in the U. S. Customary System, use Unit Analysis (multiply by the conversion factor in such a way that all units cancel out except the unit you want). For example, to change 5 pounds to tons: <img src=""pasteysfwlh.png"" /> "

Converting Measures of Time

"To convert measures of time, use Unit Analysis (multiply by the conversion factor in such a way that all units cancel out except the unit you want). For example, to change 16 hours to seconds: <img src=""pastegekrwh.png"" />"

Converting Units of Measurement

"To convert from larger units of measurement to smaller units, multiply. To convert from smaller units of measurement to larger units, divide. To convert denominate numbers, use unit analysis. <a href=""http://www.jolenemorris.com/mathematics/Math115/Wk6/convertDenomNum/convertDenomNum.html"">Video explaining unit analysis for English units</a> <a href=""http://www.jolenemorris.com/mathematics/Math115/Wk6/convertMetricDen/convertMetricDen.html"">Video explaining unit analysis for Metric units</a> (both videos are at JoleneMorris.com, Math 115, Week 6) "

Unit Analysis

"Unit Analysis is the process of multiplying by successive conversion units (written in fraction form). unit analysis video: <a href=""http://www.jolenemorris.com/mathematics/Math115/Wk2/2.8prob28/2.8prob28.html"">JoleneMorris.com, Math 115, Wk 2</a> <a href=""http://www.jolenemorris.com/mathematics/Math115/Wk6/convertDenomNum/convertDenomNum.html"">Video explaining unit analysis for English units</a> <a href=""http://www.jolenemorris.com/mathematics/Math115/Wk6/convertMetricDen/convertMetricDen.html"">Video explaining unit analysis for Metric units</a> (both videos are at JoleneMorris.com, Math 115, Week 6) "

Variance

"Variance is a statistical measure of how far the data are spread out from the mean (average). This term will probably not appear on the Praxis test but is included here for completeness of mathematical topics. "

Symbol for "infinity"?

"<div style=""font-size: 1.5em; font-family:cambria;"">∞</div>"

Symbol for "congruent"?

"<div style=""font-size: 1.5em; font-family:cambria;"">≅</div>"

Symbol for "approximately"?

"<div style=""font-size: 1.5em; font-family:cambria;"">≈</div>"

The ratios of side lengths in a 30-60-90 triangle are ______.

"<img src=""pasteqwcsqx.jpg"" />"

The total degrees of measure inside every n-sided shape

"180°(n - 2) Subtract 2 from the number of sides and multiply by 180 degrees."

Using algebra, how can you express the sum of 3 consecutive numbers?

"x + (x + 1) + (x + 2)"

Using algebra, how can you express the sum of 4 consecutive odd numbers?

"x + (x + 2) + (x + 4) + (x + 6)"

Rates

"A *rate* is a ratio between two measurements with different units. In addition to the three ways to write a ratio, rates may also use the word "per". Rates are usually simplified to a one in the denominator (second measurement) Examples: 13 miles per gallon $4.59 per pound 12 inches per foot

Pythagorean Triple

"A Pythagorean Triple is a set of any three integers (a, b, c) such that   a2 + b2 = c2 The three numbers of a Pythagorean Triple describe the length of the three sides of a right triangle. Perhaps the most well-known Pythagorean Triple is 3-4-5. The other common Pythagorean Triple you will see on the Praxis exam is 5-12-13. There are 16 Pythagorean Triples with c < 100: <img src=""pastemfl7al.jpg"" />"

Sample Space

"A Sample Space is the set list all possible outcomes of a probability experiment. Two ways to list sample spaces when there are two outcomes done in sequence are using tree diagrams and tables. This term will probably not appear on the Praxis test but is included here for completeness of mathematical topics."

Venn Diagram

"A Venn diagram is a diagram using circles to show logic statements. Most Venn diagrams display overlapping circles. Venn diagrams are named after John Venn who developed the concept of Venn diagrams about 1880. By shading portions of the overlapping circles, set theory concepts such as UNION and INTERSECTION can be shown. <img src=""pasteuvbfyv.png"" />"

Bar Graph

"A bar graph is used to demonstrate relative values in a data set. The primary purpose of a bar graph is to compare values: The height (or length) of the bars shows how the values compare to other values in the data set. <img src=""pastev4gmvn.png"" />"

Bell Curve

"A bell curve is a line graph where the data values peak in the middle and fall off drastically in both the positive and negative direction. It is named a bell curve because the line resembles the shape of a bell. Another name for a bell curve is a Gaussian function. A bell curve is often used in grading—employing the belief that the majority of the students are C-students and a small minority are A-grade or Failing students. This term will probably not appear on the Praxis test but is included here for completeness of mathematical topics. "

Binomial Distribution

"A binomial distribution is a number indicating the number of results in a two-way experiment. The experiment tests only two outcomes (YES/NO, TRUE/FALSE, etc.). In the simplest explanation, the binomial distribution indicates the probability of the outcomes. This term will probably not appear on the Praxis test but is included here for completeness of mathematical topics. "

Circle Graph

"A circle graph (also known as a pie chart) is a circular graph where sections of the circle represent parts of the whole. A pie chart ALWAYS gives parts of a whole. The pie sections are usually labeled with percentages. <img src=""pastempdkul.png"" />"

Coefficient (algebra)

"A coefficient is the number part of a term in an algebraic expression. For example, negative two is the coefficient of the following expression: -2x3 The coefficient is a factor of the term. The coefficient is multiplied and is, therefore, a multiplicative factor. "

Combinations

"A combination is a way of selecting several things out of a larger group, where order does not matter. <img src=""paste16ysps.png"" /> n is the number of items selected k is the number of items in the larger group This term will probably not appear on the Praxis I test but may be on the Praxis II test."

Common Fraction

"A common fraction is also known as a simple fraction. It represents parts of a whole and is written as a division problem: <img src=""pasteiztjms.png"" />  or 1/4 The 1 in the example above is the numerator. The 4 in the example above is the denominator. <img src=""pastecx2anr.png"" /> "

Compass (geometry)

"A compass is a tool used in geometry to draw arcs and circles. These arcs may be used to bisect lines and angles. <img src=""pasteopobbi.png"" />"

Cone (definition and volume)

"A cone is a three-dimensional shape with a circular base. A cone can be formed by spinning a triangle in three-dimensional space.<div> </div><div style=""font-style:italic; font-size: 1.3em; font-family:cambria;"">V = 1/3πr2h <img src=""pastexppscd.png"" /></div>"

Quadrants (Coordinate Grid)

"A coordinate grid is a two-dimensional grid for locating points. There is an x-axis and a y-axis at 90-degree angles, which divide the grid into four quadrants that are numbered counter-clockwise using Roman numerals. The origin is where the two axes cross (0, 0). A coordinate pair is a pair of numbers indicating the location of a point (x, y).  Sometimes called a Cartesian grid after the mathematician René Descartes (1596-1650). <img src=""pastepfryy3.png"" />"

Coordinate Grid

"A coordinate grid is a two-dimensional grid for locating points. There is an x-axis and a y-axis at 90-degree angles, which divide the grid into four quadrants that are numbered counter-clockwise using Roman numerals. The origin is where the two axes cross (0, 0). A coordinate pair is a pair of numbers indicating the location of a point (x, y).  Sometimes called a Cartesian grid after the mathematician René Descartes (1596-1650). <img src=""pastepfryy3.png"" />"

Origin (coordinate grid)

"A coordinate plane is a two-dimensional grid for locating points. There is an x-axis and a y-axis at 90-degree angles, which divide the grid into four quadrants that are numbered counter-clockwise using Roman numerals. The origin is where the two axes cross (0, 0). A coordinate pair is a pair of numbers indicating the location of a point (x, y).  Sometimes called a Cartesian grid after the mathematician René Descartes (1596-1650) <img src=""pastepfryy3.png"" />"

Coordinate Plane (Definition to include five terms)

"A coordinate plane is a two-dimensional grid for locating points. There is an x-axis and a y-axis at 90-degree angles, which divide the grid into four quadrants that are numbered counter-clockwise using Roman numerals. The origin is where the two axes cross (0, 0). A coordinate pair is a pair of numbers indicating the location of a point (x, y).  Sometimes called a Cartesian grid after the mathematician René Descartes (1596-1650) <img src=""pastepfryy3.png"" />"

Correlation Coefficient

"A correlation coefficient is a statistical measure of the relationship between dependent variables. This term will probably not appear on the Praxis test but is included here for completeness of mathematical topics. "

Cube (Definition, volume, and surface area)

"A cube is a three-dimensional solid where all angles are right angles and all faces are squares. A cube is also informally called a square box. <img src=""pastexwl_ol.png"" /><div style=""font-style:italic; font-size: 1.3em; font-family:cambria;"">V = a3</div><div style=""font-style:italic; font-size: 1.3em; font-family:cambria;"">SA = 6a2</div>"

Cylinder (Definition, volume, and surface area)

"A cylinder is a three-dimensional solid where the top and bottom are circles. <img src=""pastebdvock.png"" /><div style=""font-style:italic; font-size: 1.3em; font-family:cambria;"">V = πr2h</div><div style=""font-style:italic; font-size: 1.3em; font-family:cambria;"">SA = 2πr2 + 2πrh</div>"

Decimal Point

"A decimal point is a period that indicates the location of the one's place - the decimal point always comes to the right of the one's place. If there are no fractional decimal numbers to the right of the decimal point, the decimal point doesn't have to be written. It is understood. <img src=""pasteays8m1.png"" /> "

Function Machine

"A function machine is a visual device to help young students understand the concept of a function. Each function machine has a rule it applies to numbers that are put into the machine (the inputs). After the machine applies the rule, it outputs the result. <img src=""pastes6cmhn.png"" />"

Geometric Sequence

"A geometric sequence is an ordered list of numbers where each number is formed by multiplying a constant number to the previous number. An example of a geometric sequence is: 3, 9, 27, 81, 243, etc. where each number is formed by multiplying by 3. An arithmetic sequence may be written algebraically as <div style=""font-style:italic; font-size: 1.3em; font-family:cambria;"">an = kan-1</div><div> Do not confuse this with a geometric series where numbers are not is a list but form an addition problem. An example of a geometric series is 3 + 9 + 27 + 81 + ... </div>"

Histogram

"A histogram is a bar graph where the bars are vertical; the bars represent continuous groups of numerical data; and the bars touch. The term comes from the late 1890's meaning an historical diagram. Example: children's ages at the movie: A bar graph would have a bar showing how many children of each age attended the movie, i.e. 6-year olds, 7-year olds, 8-year olds, etc. A histogram would have a bar showing how many of each age GROUP attended the movie, i.e., 6-9-year-olds, 10-13-year-olds, 14-17-year-olds. "

Line Graph

"A line graph is a statistical graph showing the data points connected by line segments. A line graph is used to visualize trends in the data. The graphic below is a line graph showing two trend lines. <img src=""pastet1aa0g.png"" />"

Line Segment

"A line segment is a portion of a line with two endpoints. The line segment is named by the two endpoints. The symbol for a line segment is a line segment placed above the two endpoint letters: <img src=""pastewodbmg.png"" />"

Line (geometry) -- How is a line named?

"A line is an infinite collection of collinear points. A line has no width or depth—it has only one dimension: length. A line is named with a lowercase letter or by two points on the line. The symbol for a line is a double headed arrow. Thus, the line below is line l,  or <img src=""pasterfgrge.png"" /> <img src=""paste9jxvzp.jpg"" /> "

Literal Equation

"A literal equation is an equation made up of only known, measurable quantities. A literal equation is the same as a formula. With a literal equation, you are not solving for an unknown quantity that varies. Instead, you are manipulating the letters/variables in the equation to a different form to substitute values in it. This term will probably not appear on the Praxis test but is included here for completeness of mathematical topics. "

Logic Diagram

"A logic diagram is a visual way to determine the truth or logic of statements. A truth table may also be used. With a logic diagram, use circles to show relationships. For example:  (1) ALL cats have tails. (2) SOME cats are black. (3) Goldy is a cat. ALL means the circle is completely inside another circle. SOME means the circle is partially inside another circle. NONE means the circles are completely separate. <img src=""pastefezadz.png"" /> From the logic diagram above, we see that Goldy definitely has a tail but may or may not be black. "

Mixed Number

"A mixed number is a whole number and a proper fraction combined. Mixed numbers may also be called mixed fractions. <img src=""paste65g730.jpg"" /> This graphic shows two whole pizzas and a fraction of 3 pieces out of 4  <img src=""pasteey5lnj.jpg"" /> 2 3/4 "

Monomial

"A monomial is a polynomial with a single term. A term contains a coefficient with possibly one or more variables all multiplied. Neither a term nor a monomial has any addition or subtraction. Here are samples of four monomials:<div> </div><div style=""font-style:italic; font-size: 1.3em; font-family:cambria;"">3        3x        3x2       x5 </div>"

Net or Network (geometry)

"A net is a two-dimensional representation of a three-dimensional object. If a net is cut out, it can be put together to form the three-dimensional object it represents. <img src=""pastega8pp2.png"" /> "

Number Line

"A number line is a straight line where each point of that line corresponds to a real number. A line is made up of an infinite number of points and there are an infinite amount of real numbers. Usually the line is marked off to show the integers, including zero. A number line is generally written as a horizontal line. <img src=""pasteoetkwm.png"" />"

Number Squared

"A number squared is the same as the number times itself. The exponent of 2 is often called squared because the area of a square is the side times itself. n2 = n squared = n × n"

Permutations

"A permutation is a way of selecting several things out of a larger group, where order does matter. (permute = changing order) <img src=""pasten_w36g.png"" /> n is the number of items selected k is the number of items in the larger group This term will probably not appear on the Praxis I test but may appear on the Praxis II exam. "

Pictograph

"A pictograph is a graph or chart where pictures are used to indicate a specific number of objects. <img src=""pastewhwbe7.png"" />"

Pie Chart

"A pie chart (also known as a circle graph) is a circular graph where sections of the circle represent parts of the whole. A pie chart ALWAYS gives parts of a whole. The pie sections are usually labeled with percentages. <img src=""pastempdkul.png"" />"

Polygon (definition and names)

"A polygon is a two-dimensional shape drawn on a plane. A regular polygon is where all sides and all angles of the polygon have the same measure. <img src=""pastem4ndua.png"" />"

Polynomial (terms; degrees; types)

"A polynomial is an algebraic expression with one or more terms. A polynomial cannot have a variable in the denominator (which is a negative exponent). A polynomial with one term is called a monomial; two terms, a binomial; and three terms, a trinomial. The term with the highest exponent (sum) determines the degree of the polynomial. <img src=""pasteerhr6y.jpg"" />"

Prism

"A prism is a three-dimensional object with two bases of the same figure. The side faces of a prism are quadrilaterals. Prisms are named according to their bases. As such, if the two bases are triangles, it is a triangular prism. If the two bases are hexagons, it is a hexagonal prism. <div> </div><div style=""font-style:italic; font-size: 1.3em; font-family:cambria;"">V = area of base × height</div>"

Proportions (How to Solve)

"A proportion is when two ratios are equivalent: <img src=""paste4snc75.png"" /> When two ratios are equivalent, the cross products are equal. Thus, to solve a proportion, cross multiply the two numbers that are diagonal from each other, and then divide by the number diagonal from the unknown. <img src=""pastewj9gxm.png"" /> "

Protractor

"A protractor is a geometry tool used to measure angles. Place one ray of the angle along the zero edge of the protractor. The other ray of the angle points to the number of degrees that are in the angle. <img src=""pastev1xnd2.png"" />"

Pyramid (geometry)

"A pyramid (in geometry) is a three-dimensional object. The base of the pyramid is a polygon. Line segments connect the base of the pyramid to a single point, called the apex. Each base edge and the apex form a triangle -- thus all faces of a pyramid (except the base) are triangular. <img src=""pastexr4d5j.png"" />   <img src=""pastei5rbce.png"" />"

Quadratic Equation (definition & five ways to solve)

"A quadratic equation is a second-degree polynomial equation (the exponent on the leading term is a 2). There are many ways to solve a quadratic equation, but the five most common ways are: 1. Factor and set each factor equal to 0 2. If there is no x-term, solve for x2 and apply the square root method. 3. Graph the equation (as a parabola) and determine the solutions where the parabola crosses the x-axis 4. Complete the square 5. Use the quadratic formula This term will probably not appear on the Praxis test but is included here for completeness of mathematical topics. "

Quadrilateral

"A quadrilateral is a polygon with four sides (and four vertices). Other names for a quadrilateral are a quadrangle and a tetragon. The interior angles of a quadrilateral add to 360◦. An excellent graphic showing the Euler diagram of quadrilateral types can be found on Wikipedia: <a href=""http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Euler_diagram_of_quadrilateral_types.svg"">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Euler_diagram_of_quadrilateral_types.svg</a> "

Radius

"A radius is a line segment that goes from the center of a circle to any point on the circumference of the circle. The measure of the radius is half the diameter. Often, the term radius is also used to denote the measure of the radius line segment. <img src=""pasteqjplvi.png"" />"

Ray (geometry)

"A ray is often mistakenly called a half line. A ray is part of a line that has an endpoint but goes infinitely in a straight line from that endpoint. Two rays that have the same endpoint form an angle. A ray is named by its endpoint and any other point on the ray. The symbol for a ray is a small ray (single headed arrow). <img src=""pasteqch7ya.png"" />"

Reciprocal

"A reciprocal is a fraction where the numerator and denominator have been switched. Multiplying any fraction by its reciprocal results in an answer of 1. As such, a reciprocal is called a multiplicative inverse. NOTE: Since there is no rule on how to divide fractions, but because multiplication is the inverse of division and a reciprocal is the inverse of a fraction, you can divide fractions by multiplying by the reciprocal of the divisor. Hence, the inverse of an inverse results in the same answer as if you had divided. "

Relationships (data pairs)

"A relationship is simply a set of ordered pairs. If the set of ordered pairs has only one y-value for any x-value, this relationship is a function. If the set of ordered pairs has only one y-value for any one x-value, it is a function with a one-to-one correspondence. This term will probably not appear on the Praxis test but is included here for completeness of mathematical topics."

Rhombus (Definition, perimeter, & area)

"A rhombus is a two-dimensional quadrilateral where all four sides are the same length. Thus, a square is a specialized rhombus.    <img src=""pastewevixu.png"" /><div> </div><div style=""font-style:italic; font-size: 1.3em; font-family:cambria;"">P = 4s</div><div style=""font-style:italic; font-size: 1.3em; font-family:cambria;"">A = bh </div>"

Right Triangle

"A right triangle is a triangle in which one angle is a right angle. The right angle is usually marked with a small square: <img src=""paste4dlk9j.png"" />"

Scatter Plot

"A scatter plot is a graph showing a collection of two-coordinate points. The points are not connected with line segments, but the points may demonstrate a trend. A technique called the "line of best fit" determines a line through the points where about half of the points are above the line and about half the points are below the line. This line of best fit visually demonstrates a trend. <img src=""pastenavbm4.png"" />"

Sets

"A set is a collection of objects. The objects in a set can be numbers, expressions, and other mathematical objects. Georg(e) Cantor developed set theory in the late 1800's. Common operations on sets include intersection, union, complements, and Cartesian products. Other concepts include the Universal set, Null set, members or elements, and sub-sets. Sets in mathematics include the set of integers (Z), rational numbers (Q), primes (P), real numbers (R), natural numbers (N), etc. This term will probably not appear on the Praxis test but is included here for completeness of mathematical topics. "

Simulation

"A simulation is a game, computer program, or device that approximates a real-life event. Simulations are used when actual events are dangerous or impractical to duplicate. Examples of simulations are driving teaching machines, dissection of frogs, and chemical experiments. Simulations are used in statistics to approximate results from a real-life event. This term will probably not appear on the Praxis test but is included here for completeness of mathematical topics."

Sphere (definition, volume & surface area)

"A sphere is a three-dimensional, perfectly round shape. Sphere is from the Greek word for "ball." <img src=""pasteenjykf.png"" /> <img src=""paste6krvua.png"" /> Technically, in mathematics, a sphere only includes the "surface" and not the interior. "

Table (of Data)

"A table is used to display the information in an organized manner. A table usually has column headings -- each record is in a row of the data table. <img src=""paste9ycib5.png"" /> <a href=""http://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/neic/"">http://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/neic/</a>"

Transformations

"A transformation in geometry changes the position of a shape on the coordinate plane. There are four forms of transformation: 1. translation (slide) 2. rotation (turn) 3. dilation (scale) 4. reflection (flip) <img src=""pasteg5pge5.png"" />"

Transversal

"A transversal is a line that crosses two or more other lines. A transversal of two lines forms eight angles that are often used in geometrical problems (see: vertical angles, adjacent angles, corresponding angles, interior angles, and exterior angles). <img src=""pastepuu9z8.png"" />"

What is a Tree Diagram? What is it used for?

"A tree diagram is a graphic organizer that lists all possibilities of a sequence of events in a systematic way. A tree diagram is used in determining probability - it is a way to calculate the total possible outcomes and view each possible scenario. <img src=""pastebn9e6n.png"" />"

Trend

"A trend is the general direction data tends to move. From a line graph, a trend can be obvious when the line is going in an up or down pattern. Example: In the stock market, when stocks are trending down, it is called a bear market. When stocks are trending up, it is called a bull market. (A mnemonic to remember which is which: A bear has claws that curve downward and a bull has horns which curve upward.) <img src=""pasteaiankc.png"" />"

Trinomial

"A trinomial is an algebraic expression with exactly 3 terms Example:  3x2 + 2x - 1"

Vertex

"A vertex (plural: vertices) is a point that describes the corners or intersections of geometric shapes.    <img src=""pasteunnzhs.png"" /> <img src=""paste_p3_wg.png"" />"

Decimal System Place Value

"A number in standard form is marked into groups of three digits. Each of these groups is called a period. Within each group, the place values are always the 100's place, the 10's place, and the 1's place. Decimal numbers simply extend the place values to the right and use "ths" to identify the places (e.g. 100 millionths place). There is not a oneths place. <img src=""paste6wllx9.png"" />"

Dependent Variable

"A dependent variable is one that depends on another variable (independent variable) for its value. In an equation with two variables, you can choose any value you want for one of them (the independent variable), but once that value is chosen, the dependent variable has limited values in order for the equation to be true. Dependent and independent variables are often interchangeable - in an equation with an x-variable and a y-variable; it doesn't matter which variable you choose a value for, but that sets the value of the other variable. This term will probably not appear on the Praxis test but is included here for completeness of mathematical topics."

Common Factors

"All counting numbers (except 1) have at least two factors. Common factors are those factors that are in common with two or more numbers. For example,    The factors of 6 are 1, 2, 3, and 6    The factors of 9 are 1, 3, and 9    The common factors of 6 and 9 are 1 and 3 "

Common Multiples

"All counting numbers have an infinite number of multiples. Common multiples are those multiples that are in common with two or more numbers. For example,     The multiples of 2 are 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, etc.     The multiples of 3 are 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, etc.     The common multiples of 2 and 3 are 6, 12, 18, etc. "

Acute Angle

"An acute angle is an angle that measures less than 90°    <img src=""pastehdxi8l.png"" /><div> </div>"

Acute Triangle

"An acute triangle is any triangle where all three angles are less than 90°:   <img src=""pastep3fl4r.png"" /><div> </div>"

Angle Bisector

"An angle bisector is a ray (or line or line segment) that divides one angle into two angles of equal measure. In other words, an angle bisector cuts an angle in half. <img src=""paste3zxp_e.png"" />"

Arc

"An arc is a section of a circle. It is a set of points all equidistant from a center point. Arcs of the same size cut equal measured central angles in the circle. <img src=""paste1uhjoc.jpg"" />"

Arithmetic Sequence

"An arithmetic sequence is an ordered list of numbers where each number is formed by adding a constant number to the previous number. An example of an arithmetic sequence is: 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, etc. where each number is formed by adding 3 to the previous number. An arithmetic sequence may be written algebraically as  an = an-1 + k Do not confuse this with an arithmetic series where numbers are not is a list but form an addition problem. An example of an arithmetic series is 3 + 6 + 9 + 12 + ... "

Equilateral Triangle

"An equilateral triangle is one where all three legs (sides) are of equal measure. An equilateral triangle is also equiangular, which all three angles are of equal measure (60°). In diagrams representing triangles (and other geometric figures), "tick" marks along the sides are used to denote sides of equivalent lengths: <img src=""pastezot6cz.png"" />"

Exponent

"An exponent is a symbol to indicate a shortcut of multiplication by the same number. The exponent signifies the base is multiplied by itself (not by the exponent) the exponent number of times. Example:<div style=""font-style:italic; font-size: 1.3em; font-family:cambria;"">63 = 6 × 6 × 6 = 216</div><div> </div><div>Careful:</div><div style=""font-style:italic; font-size: 1.3em; font-family:cambria;"">63 ≠ 6 × 3 </div>"

Obtuse Triangle

"An obtuse triangle is a triangle where one of the angles is obtuse (greater than 90-degrees). <img src=""pastew_b9rw.png"" />"

Oblique Triangle

"Any triangle that is NOT a right triangle is an oblique triangle. As such, acute triangles and obtuse triangles are in the category of oblique triangles. This term will probably not appear on the Praxis test but is included here for completeness of mathematical topics."

Approximate Conversions (English/Customary units to/from Metric)

"Approximate Conversions (English/Customary units to/from Metric):<div> </div><div style=""font-style:italic; font-size: 1.3em; font-family:cambria;"">1 inch ≈ 2.54 cm</div><div style=""font-style:italic; font-size: 1.3em; font-family:cambria;"">1 yard ≈ 0.91</div><div style=""font-style:italic; font-size: 1.3em; font-family:cambria;"">1 mile ≈ 1.61 km</div><div style=""font-style:italic; font-size: 1.3em; font-family:cambria;"">1 ounce ≈  28 g</div><div style=""font-style:italic; font-size: 1.3em; font-family:cambria;"">1 pound ≈  2.2 kg</div><div style=""font-style:italic; font-size: 1.3em; font-family:cambria;"">1 quart ≈ 0.94 l</div><div> </div><div><div>A meter is a little more than a yard. A gram is about the weight of a paper clip. A liter is a little more than a quart. </div></div>"

Algebraic Constant

"As opposed to a variable, an algebraic constant is a known number that does not vary. <div>In the trinomial below, the 5 is a constant.<div>2x2 - 3x + 5. </div><div> </div><div> A constant term is a term in a polynomial without a variable in it. </div></div>"

Scale on Bar or Line Graph

"Bar graphs and line graphs will often have a symbol on the vertical axis to indicate that some numbers have been left out. Be aware of these "broken scales" when analyzing graphs. The break in the scale is used when one or more of the bars/lines are significantly out of range of the other bars/lines. These broken scales can visually give a wrong impression. In the bar graph below, the red bar looks about twice the size of the green bar; whereas, the red bar is actually six or seven times the size of the green bar! <img src=""pastevduqsu.png"" />"

Multiplying by Powers of 10

"Because we use a Base 10 number system, each place value is 10 times the place value to its right. As such, multiplying by powers of 10 is simply a matter of moving the decimal point to the right (one place for each power of 10).   Example:   123.456 × 102 = 123.456 × 100 = 12345.6 In this example, we were multiplying by 10 to the power of 2, which is a 1 followed by 2 zeroes, so we merely move the decimal point 2 places to the right. "

Sum of Interior Angles

"In a polygon, the sum of the interior angles is equal to the number of sides, subtract 2, and then multiply by 180°: <div style=""font-style:italic; font-size: 1.3em; font-family:cambria;"">180(n - 2)°</div>"

Quartiles

"In statistics, quartiles are three points that divide a set of ordered data into four equal groups. The first quartile, also called the lower quartile, splits off the lower 25% of the data. It is denoted by Q1 The second quartile, also called the median, splits the data in half. It is denoted by Q2 The third quartile, also called the upper quartile, splits off the higher 25% of the data. It is denoted by Q3 This term will probably not appear on the Praxis test but is included here for completeness of mathematical topics. "

Sample (statistics)

"In statistics, often the population is too large to test everything in the population. Instead, a subset of the population is tested. This subset is called a sample. An entire college class is offered at most large universities to explain the best way to sample a representative subset of the population without introducing bias. This term will probably not appear on the Praxis test but is included here for completeness of mathematical topics."

Comparing Decimal Numbers

"Line up the decimal numbers according to place value (as though you were going to add them). Starting at the left-most place value, compare the numbers in each place value to find the largest, next largest, etc. <img src=""paste6lle1v.png"" />"

Golden Ratio

"The Golden Ratio is a common ratio found in nature, arts, and mathematics. It is also known as the Golden Section or Divine Proportion. The Greek letter phi (Ф) is used for the Golden Ratio. A Golden Ratio exists between two numbers a and b (with a being the larger value) if <img src=""pastezffbgl.png"" />     Leonardo Da Vinci used the Golden Ratio in creating his statues and paintings. The Golden Ratio drawing of Da Vinci (shown to the right) is famous. <img src=""pasteluupkc.png"" /> This term will probably not appear on the Praxis test but is included here for completeness of mathematical topics."

LCD

"The Lowest Common Denominator (LCD) of two or more fractions is the smallest number that is a multiple of all the denominators. One way to find the LCD is to count by each of the denominators and find the first number that is a multiple of all. <img src=""pastepukqul.png"" />    Another way to find the LCD is to write a prime factorization of each denominator, lined up by factors. Then "bring down" one of each factor and multiply. <img src=""pastemx82fz.png"" />"

Metric System of Measurement

"The Metric System is an international system of measurement based on the decimal system. The prefixes of the Metric System are shown in the table to the right: length <img src=""pasteey5lnj.jpg"" /> meter capacity (volume) <img src=""pasteey5lnj.jpg"" /> liter mass (weight) <img src=""pasteey5lnj.jpg"" /> gram <img src=""pastepaakoa.png"" />"

National Council of Teachers of Mathematics

"The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) is the national organization that sets the standards for what mathematics concepts should be taught and at what grade levels. States have the option of accepting the NCTM standards as is, modifying them for state use, or writing their own standards. Most states have accepted the NCTM with some limited modifications. <a href=""www.nctm.org"">www.nctm.org</a> <img src=""pasteylvtdj.png"" />"

Pythagorean Theorem

"The Pythagorean Theorem is used to determine the measure of an unknown leg or hypotenuse of a right triangle. <div> </div><div style=""font-style:italic; font-size: 1.3em; font-family:cambria;"">a2 + b2 = c2</div><div>    <img src=""pasteo6twj3.png"" /></div>"

Additive Inverse

"The additive inverse is a number such that when a number and its additive inverse are added, the resulting sum is zero (the additive identity). The additive inverse is the negative of a number and the opposite of the value of a variable:<div style=""font-style:italic; font-size: 1.3em; font-family:cambria;"">(n) + (-n) = 0</div><div style=""font-style:italic; font-size: 1.3em; font-family:cambria;"">(6) + (-6) = 0 </div>"

Associative Property

"The associative property says that three numbers may be added/multiplied using the first two numbers first and then the third -or- they may be added/multiplied using the last two numbers first and then the first number. The sum/product will be the same regardless:<div> </div><div style=""font-style:italic; font-size: 1.3em; font-family:cambria;"">(a + b) + c = a + (b + c)</div><div style=""font-style:italic; font-size: 1.3em; font-family:cambria;"">(a × b) × c = a × (b × c) </div>"

Commutative Property

"The commutative property says that two numbers can be added/multiplied in any order and the sum/product will be the same regardless:<div style=""font-style:italic; font-size: 1.3em; font-family:cambria;"">a + b = b + a</div><div style=""font-style:italic; font-size: 1.3em; font-family:cambria;"">a × b = b × a </div>"

Diameter of a Circle

"The diameter of a circle is the longest chord in a circle. It is a line segment that passes through the center of the circle and whose endpoints are on the circle. The symbol for the diameter is Φ, which is made on a Windows computer by ALT+8960. <img src=""pasteqjplvi.png"" />"

Distance Formula

"The distance formula is used to find the distance between two points. The distance formula can be obtained by creating a triangle and using the Pythagorean Theorem to find the length of the hypotenuse. The hypotenuse of the triangle will be the distance between the two points.     <img src=""pastejog92i.png"" /> The distance formula can be derived from the Pythagorean Theorem. As such, you do not need to memorize the distance formula if you understand the Pythagorean Theorem."

Distributive Property

"The distributive property involves both addition and multiplication. If two numbers are added inside parenthesis but multiplied by a third number outside the parenthesis, that third number may be distributed to each of the numbers inside parenthesis and then added. The distributive property is one case where multiplication comes before parenthesis in the order of operations:<div> </div><div style=""font-style:italic; font-size: 1.3em; font-family:cambria;"">a(b + c) = ab + ac</div>"

Domain & Range of a Function

"The domain of a function is the set of all possible x values. The range of a function is the set of all possible y values. This term will probably not appear on the Praxis test but is included here for completeness of mathematical topics."

Rules of Probability

"The five rules of classical probability theory: 1. The probability of any event will always be a number from zero to one ( ). 2. When an event cannot occur, the probability will be 0. 3. When an event is certain to occur, the probability will be 1. 4. The sum of the probability of all outcomes in the sample space is 1. 5. The probability that an event will not occur is equal to 1 minute the probability that it will occur. This term will probably not appear on the Praxis test but is included here for completeness of mathematical topics. "

Hypotenuse

"The hypotenuse is the longest side of a right triangle, often labeled "c".     <img src=""paste_75kns.png"" />"

Identity Property

"The identity property defines what happens when you add or multiply by the identity numbers. The additive identity is zero. When you add zero and a number, the result is that number. The multiplicative identity is one. When you multiply one and a number, the result is that number.<div> </div><div style=""font-style:italic; font-size: 1.3em; font-family:cambria;"">n + 0 = n</div><div style=""font-style:italic; font-size: 1.3em; font-family:cambria;"">n × 1 = n </div>"

Inverse Property

"The inverse property defines what happens when you add or multiply inverse numbers. The additive inverse is the negative or opposite of a number. When you add a number and its opposite, the result is zero. The multiplicative inverse is the reciprocal of a number. When you multiply a number and its opposite, the result is one.<div> <img src=""pastew_tlj3.png"" /> <img src=""pasteq2uqjs.png"" /> </div>"

Multiplicative Inverse

"The multiplicative inverse of a number is the reciprocal of that number. We can multiply any number by its multiplicative inverse and the result is the number one. <img src=""pasteno7s61.png"" />"

Probability of Multiple Events

"The probability of multiple events has different calculations depending on whether the events are independent (OR) or dependent (AND) and whether the events are mutually exclusive (have possibilities in common) • Independent, mutually exclusive <img src=""pasteey5lnj.jpg"" /> add • Independent, non-exclusive <img src=""pasteey5lnj.jpg"" /> add then subtract the events they have in common • Dependent <img src=""pasteey5lnj.jpg"" /> multiply (first event doesn't affect probability of the second event) • Dependent <img src=""pasteey5lnj.jpg"" /> multiply first probability and the conditional second probability "

Square Root of a Number

"The square root of a number is the value when multiplied by itself makes the number. A number's square root is always smaller than half of the number. The symbol for square root is called a radical sign. There is an index of 2 on the radical sign, but an index of 2 is rarely written -- it is understood to be 2 if not written. Finding a square root is the inverse of squaring a number. Although -6 times -6 also makes 36, we always use the positive square root (also called the principal square root). <img src=""pastejysnds.png"" />"

Stem & Leaf Plot

"The stem & leaf plot is a table used to show all data values, but in an organized manner. The table has two columns. The right column gives the ones place and the left column displays the tens place values: <img src=""pastezzgijr.jpg"" /> The stem & leaf plot above displays the numbers 1, 5, 8, 8, 13, 16, 16, 16, 17, 31, 32, and 35."

Square Units of Measurement

"The area of an object is the number of square units that can fit inside the object. For example, if the object is measured in feet, the square unit of measurement for the area of that object is a one-foot by one-foot square. Be careful when finding area of objects when the answer is wanted in a different unit of measure:<div style=""font-style:italic; font-size: 1.3em; font-family:cambria;"">1 yd2 = 9 ft2</div><div style=""font-style:italic; font-size: 1.3em; font-family:cambria;"">1 ft2 = 144 in2</div>"

Random Variable

"The term random variable is used in statistics and probability to indicate a variable where the value of the variable may change according to the probability. This term will probably not appear on the Praxis test but is included here for completeness of mathematical topics. "

Regression

"The term regression is used in statistics to identify a technique or algorithm for estimating relationships between variables. This term will probably not appear on the Praxis test but is included here for completeness of mathematical topics. "

Standard Deviation

"The term standard deviation is used in statistics to describe how much the results deviate (differ) from the mean (average). A small standard deviation indicates that most of the data values are close to the mean. A large standard deviation indicates that the data have a large range of values. This term will probably not appear on the Praxis test but is included here for completeness of mathematical topics. "

Legs of a Triangle

"The legs of a triangle are the sides of the triangle. In a right triangle, the legs are usually labeled "a" and "b". The legs are the two shorter sides of a right triangle. The legs of a right triangle are perpendicular to each other.     <img src=""pasted1v_n8.png"" />"

Percentages, the three types of problems

"There are three types of percentage problems depending on what value is missing in the equation: What number is 15% of 45? <img src=""pastexurkr0.jpg"" />   x = (0.15) ∙ (45) What percent of 45 is 15?     <img src=""pastexurkr0.jpg"" />  45 ∙ x = 15  or 45x = 15 15% of what number is 45?  <img src=""pastexurkr0.jpg"" />  (0.15) ∙ x = 45 or 0.15x=45 "

Interest

"There are basically two kinds of interest: simple and compound. Simple interest is paid on the principal amount only. Compound interest is paid on the principal amount plus accrued interest. The formula to find simple interest is I = prt where p is the principal, r is the interest rate, and t is the time period.    The formula to find compound interest is A = p(1 + r)n where p is the principal, r is the interest rate, and n is the number of interest periods. "

Percentages, Solving

"There are two ways to solve a percentage problem. To solve percentages using the percent proportion, use the means-extreme property of proportions (cross multiply). The percent proportion can be written as: <img src=""pasteh2sohc.png"" /> The second way to solve a percentage problem is with simple algebra: Write the percentage as an algebraic equation where "what number" → variable (x),   is → =,   and of → multiply. Then solve the equation. "

Evaluate Algebraic Expressions

"To evaluate an algebraic expression, substitute the given values for each variable into the expression, and then follow the order of operations (PEMDAS) to simplify the expression. 1. Perform the operations inside a parenthesis first 2. Then follow rules for exponents 3. Then multiplication and division, from left to right 4. Then addition and subtraction, from left to right"

Simplifying Square Roots

"To simplify square roots, take out the square root of any perfect squares that are factors inside the radicand. Perhaps the easiest way to do this is the factor the number inside the radicand so it is obvious which factors can be taken out. Example: Simplify <img src=""pastenr9prq.png"" /> <img src=""paste2w8pyb.png"" />"

Solving Percentages (using the algebraic equations)

"To solve percentages using algebra, write the problem as an algebraic statement where what number <img src=""pasteeimgot.jpg"" /> variable (x) is <img src=""paste_ubim_.jpg"" /> = of <img src=""pasteiboybt.jpg"" /> multiply What number is 15% of 45? <img src=""paste_vyywq.jpg"" />   x = (0.15) ∙ (45) What percent of 45 is 15?     <img src=""pasteey5lnj.jpg"" />  45 • x = 15  or 45x = 15 15% of what number is 45?  <img src=""pasteuwfwqh.jpg"" />  (0.15) • x = 45  or 0.15x=45 "

Solving Percentages (using the Percent Proportion)

"To solve percentages using the percent proportion, use the means-extreme property of proportions (cross multiply). The percent proportion can be written as:    <img src=""pasteh2sohc.png"" /> "

Writing Algebraic Expressions (from English statements)

"To write an algebraic expression from an English statement, we convert each word or phrase to the equivalent algebraic symbol. For example, "of" means to multiply, "per" means to divide, "total" means addition, and "is" means equals. Other flashcards contain ALL common words that can be converted to algebra. Here's an example:  The sum of two numbers is 16. One of the numbers is twice the other number.    x + y = 16     x = 2y"

Adjacent Angles

"Two angles are adjacent angles if they share a common vertex, they share a common side, AND they do not share any interior points. In other words two angles that are side-by-side are adjacent. <img src=""pastequlmnb.png"" />"

Intersecting Lines

"Two lines on the same plane that share a single point are said to be intersecting lines.   <img src=""pastevfekmv.jpg"" />"

Bimodal Distribution

"When a list of numbers has TWO numbers that appear the most, this distribution of numbers in the list is called a bimodal distribution. For example, this list is a bimodal distribution with 3 and 7 as the two modes: <img src=""pastem841zv.jpg"" /> "

Corresponding Angles

"When a transversal line crosses two other lines, it forms eight angles that are often used in geometrical problems. Corresponding angles are angles that are in the same position on each of the lines. In the figure below, Angle 2 corresponds to Angle 6. <img src=""pasteucky2t.png"" />"

Vertical Angles

"When two lines intersect, they form four angles. The two angles opposite each other are called vertical angles. Vertical angles are always the same measure. In the drawing below, Angle 1 and Angle 3 are vertical angles. Angle 2 and Angle 4 are vertical angles. <img src=""paste1g3y38.png"" />"

Words that Signal Addition

"• add • sum • increase • total • rise • plus • grow • added to • more than • increased by • gain <img src=""pasteanxscw.jpg"" />"

Words that Signal Division

"• divide • divided by • quotient • per • ratio • half <img src=""pasteanxscw.jpg"" />"

What are the the steps of the research process?

(1) Develop a research question; (2) Generate a hypothesis; (3) Form operational definitions; (4) Choose a research design; (5) Evaluate ethics; (6) Collect data (conduct study); (7) Analyze data and draw conclusion; (8) Report results

Francesco Petrarch

(1304 CE -1374 CE) Known as the father of Renaissance Humanism. He was a cleric and committed his life to humanistic pursuits and careful study of the classics.

Donato di Niccolò di Betto Bardi

(1386 CE -1466 CE) an Italian sculptor. Probably exerted the greatest influence of any Florentine artist before Michelangelo. His statues expressed an appreciation of the incredible variety of human nature.

Leonardo da Vinci

(1452 CE - 1519 CE) Italian painter, engineer, musician, and scientist. The most versatile genius of the Renaissance, Leonardo filled notebooks with engineering and scientific observations that were in some cases centuries ahead of their time. As a painter Leonardo is best known for The Last Supper (c. 1495) and Mona Lisa (c. 1503).

Desiderius Erasmus

(1466 CE -1536 CE) A Dutch humanist and theologian who was the leading Renaissance scholar of northern Europe. Although his criticisms of the Church led to the Reformation, he opposed violence and condemned Martin Luther. He wrote The Praise of Folly and translated the New Testament from Greek to Latin.

Niccolo Machiavelli

(1469 CE - 1527 CE) A Florentine historian and political theorist. He wrote "The Prince" in 1513. It was a handbook for politicians about how governments most effectively work, not necessarily how the should morally work. It described how politicians should gain and maintain power. Believed that the government should be feared.

Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni

(1475 CE - 1564 CE) An Italian sculptor, painter, poet, engineer, and architect. Famous works include the mural on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, and the sculpture of the biblical character David.

Sir Thomas More

(1478 CE-1535 CE) Renaissance humanist and chancellor of England. H was executed by Henry VIII for his refusal to acknowledge his king publicly as Supreme Head of the Church Clergy of England. He believed that the basic problems of society were caused by greed. Law should exalt mercy above justice. Citizens who live by reason will live a nearly perfect life. He also wrote Utopia.

Jacques Cartier

(1491 CE -1557 CE) A French explorer who explored the St. Lawrence River and laid claim to the region for France.

The Renaissance

(14th Century CE - 17th Century CE) "Renaissance" literally means "rebirth." It refers especially to the rebirth of learning that began in Italy in the fourteenth century, spread to the north, including England, by the sixteenth century, and ended in the north in the mid-seventeenth century (earlier in Italy). During this period, there was an enormous renewal of interest in Ancient Greek and Latin Art, literature, and philosophy, It was also a time of great scientific inquiry, the rise of individualism, extensive geographical exploration, and the rise of secular values.

Industrial Revolution

(1733 CE - 1840's CE) Social and economic change that began in England in with the construction of the Cotton Mill in 1733. The industrial geography of England changed significantly and later diffused to other parts of western Europe. In this period of rapid socioeconomic change, machines replaced human labor and new sources of inanimate energy were tapped. Coal was the leading energy source fueling the industrial revolution in England's textile-focused industrial explosion. Men, women, and child worked up to 14-hour work days, which would eventually lead to Unions and Child Labor Laws.

American Revolution

(1775 - 1783) The American Revolution was a political upheaval that took place between 1765 and 1783 during which rebel colonists in the Thirteen American Colonies rejected the British monarchy and aristocracy, overthrew the authority of Great Britain, and founded the United States of America.

William Lloyd Garrison

(1805 CE -1879 CE) A prominent American abolitionist, journalist, and social reformer. He was the editor of radical abolitionist newspaper "The Liberator", and was one of the founders of the American Anti-Slavery Society.

Elizabeth Cady Stanton

(1815-1902) A suffragette who, with Lucretia Mott, organized the first convention on women's rights, held in Seneca Falls, New York in 1848. Issued the Declaration of Sentiments which declared men and women to be equal and demanded the right to vote for women. Co-founded the National Women's Suffrage Association with Susan B. Anthony in 1869.

World War 1

(1914-1918) First time all European Countries are engulfed in one war (Italy, Austria-Hungry, and Germany, against France, Russia, Great Britain) as a result of Industrial Revolution, scramble for Africa, and alliance systems. At least 20 million people died. The assignation of Archduke Ferdinand was the breaking point. The war ended the Empire system throughout the world.

Great Depression

(1929-1939) The dramatic decline in the world's economy due to the United State's stock market crash of 1929, the overproduction of goods from World War I, and decline in the need for raw materials from non industrialized nations. Results in millions of people losing their jobs as banks and businesses closed around the world. Many people were reduced to homelessness, and had to rely on government sponsored soup kitchens to eat. World trade also declined as many countries imposed protective tariffs in an attempt to restore their economies.

Cold War

(1945-1991) The period after the Second World War marked by rivalry and tension between the two nuclear superpowers, the United States and the communist government of the Soviet Union. The Cold War ended when the Soviet government collapsed in 1991.

The Middle Ages

(500 CE - 1500 CE) Includes the Byzantine civilization, the Rise of Islam, civilizations of the Americas, the Vikings, Charlemagne and his European Empire, the feudal system, the Crusades, Knighthood and Castles, The Black Death, Genghis Khan and China, the African Kingdoms and the Hundred Years' War.

Australis Borealis

* Southern Lights Display * Caused by excited oxygen & nitrogen * Southern Hemisphere

Mesophere

* Temperature decreases with altitude * Meteors or rock fragments burn up *Ionosphere

Integumentary System

* skin, nails, hair, sweat glands * protects the internal structures of the body from damage, prevents dehydration, stores fat and produces vitamines and hormones.

Skeletal System

* supports and protects the body while giving it shape and form * bones, joints, ligaments, tendons, cartilage

Gas

*CAN be compressed DOES take the shape of its container* Indefinite volume Indefinite shape Particles most loosely packed Particles can move freely Flows

Solids

*Can NOT be compressed (volume cannot be changed) DOES NOT take the shape of its container* Definite volume Definite shape Particles closely packed Particles cannot move, can only vibrate at their fixed position Cannot flow

Converting Decimals to Percentages & Fractions

*Change a decimal to a percent* by moving the decimal point two places to the right and appending a percent sign 0.14 = 14% *Change a decimal to a fraction* by writing the decimal over a power of 10 representing the right-most place value in the decimal, and then simplifying: 0.146 = 146/1000 = 73/500

Converting Fractions to Decimals & Percentages

*Change a fraction to a decimal* by dividing the denominator into the numerator. Keep dividing until the decimal number repeats or terminates. Draw a line (vinculum) above the repeating portion. (can just divide on calculator or can do long division, see pic) *Change a fraction to a percent* by first changing it to a decimal as explained above, and then moving the decimal point two places to the right. Remember to add the percent symbol.

*exam tip* On exam will give you example of everyday object and ask which type of simple machine it is.

*Incline Plane:* ladder, stairs, ramp, dump truck, boat propeller, roller coaster, slide *Wheel & axle:* rolling pin, rotary phone, windmill, pencil sharpener, wagon, egg beater, pizza cutter *Lever:* hammer, rake, pliers, stapler, can opener (Hi-C kind), toilet flusher handle, door handle (not knob, the lever kind), scissors *Pulley:* window blinds, oil rig, flag pole, steam shovel, cranes *Wedge:* nails, toothpick, tooth, wood carving tools, shovel, thumb tacks *Screw:* door lock/key, corkscrew, jar with twist lid, adjustable spinning stool, meat grinder, water faucet

Stratosphere

*Less Dense * Temperature Increases with altitude * Ozone Layer * Jet Aircrafts fly here

lunar phases

*New Moon* (can't see from earth) *Waxing Crescent* (sunlit portion is increasing, but less than half) *First Quarter* *Waxing Gibbous* (sunlit portion is still increasing, but now it is more than half) *Full moon* (maximum illumination) *Waning Gibbous* (after full moon so still mostly lit, but the light is continually decreasing). *Third Quarter* *Waning Crescent* (light almost gone), which wanes until the light is completely gone -- a new moon.

Representing Multiplication or Division of Rational Numbers using concrete models

*See pictures for models* These models (pictures) show: 8/9 * 3/4 and 5/9 ÷ 1/4 Remember: To *multiply fractions*, top x top, bottom x bottom, reduce if you can. To *divide fractions*, flip (invert) the 2nd fraction and multiply top x top, bottom x bottom, simplify if you can.

Solving Algebraic Word Problems (involving number relationships)

*Solving Algebraic Word Problems (involving number relationships):* Translate verbal statements into English words using an equal symbol (=) for the word ""is"" or using comparison symbols for statements of inequality.Then, solve the equation or inequality by isolating the variable.

Greenhouse Effect

*When infrared radiation radiated by the Earth is absorbed by atmospheric gases and re-radiated in all directions, (trapping some of the heat) causing the atmosphere and earth to be warmed.* This is *necessary for survival* on Earth However, humans have been creating *excessive amounts of greenhouse gasses, causing the Earth to warm up too much* light (=electromagnetic radiation) can pass through greenhouse gasses (CO₂, water vapor, methane) much more easily than thermal energy can. Once the electromagnetic radiation hits the Earth's surface it is converted into thermal energy and cannot get back out of our atmosphere as easily as it came in

solar nebula

*a rotating cloud of gas and dust swirling around in space that caused the big bang, and created the Earth, other planets and the sun* *It happened because:* gravitationally, the dust and gas were pulled together. A lot of gas and dust banged together in the center of the nebula. This ignited a large nuclear reaction that formed a protostar, which eventually became a star, our sun.

traits and organization of periodic table of elements

*atomic properties organized by row* atomic number and mass increase as you move left to right and top to bottom *chemical properties loosely arranged by column* (how element behaves, what it is possible to bond it with, is it a metal, a gas, etc.)

Lab Tools

*beaker* used for approximate measure of fluids *graduated cylinder* used for exact measure of fluids and displacement *bunsen burner* controlled flame for heat, creating chemical reactions and changing state of substances *balance* measures *mass* does not need to be calibrated, not dependent on gravity *scale* measures weight - depends on gravity, must be calibrated

Conduction

*happens in solids* direct transfer of energy from molecule to molecule through molecular collisions when heat is transferred due to fast moving atoms colliding with slower ones nearby, affecting the slower ones and causing them to move faster/heat up ex: spoon in bowl of soup soup molecules warm spoon that is in bowl, spoon that is in bowl warms spoon handle, etc.

Outer Core

*liquid molten metal* primarily nickel and iron, flow of molten metal as the Earth spins is what gives Earth magnetic field magnetic field causes the Aurora Borealis because catches magnetic things and brings them down at the Earth's poles

*temperature*

*molecular motion/atomic motion* -the faster the molecules are moving, the hotter that thing is (and hotter thing is, faster molecules are moving) -measure of kinetic energy in a substance's molecules

cathode

*negatively charged electrode* used to attract positive ions in electrolysis *opposites attract*

what are the characteristics of chemical change?

*one in which the chemical composition of a substance is altered and is irreversible* compound after ≠ compound before *fire evidence of a chemical reaction taking place* atoms w/i substance are rearranged into different combinations Examples: -propane burning -rusting of iron -combustion (burning) of wood -metabolism of food in the body -mixing an acid and a base, such as hydrochloric acid (HCl) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) -cooking an egg -mixing baking soda and vinegar to produce carbon dioxide gas -baking a cake -using a chemical battery -explosion of fireworks -rotting bananas -grilling a hamburger -milk going sour

Evolutionary History of Life

*only need broad knowledge for exam* Life first appeared on Earth, about 3.8 billion years ago dinosaurs were NOT one of the first kinds of organisms on Earth --*The first organisms on Earth were single-celled organisms, they were the only life on Earth for about half of Earth's life history* *Prokaryotic cells* were first organisms on Earth

anode

*positively charged electrode* (remember by A+) used to attract negative ions in electrolysis *opposites attract*

electrolysis

*process by which electric current is passed through a substance to effect a chemical change* -used to break down a compound into its the elements it is made of -Separates compound into negatively charged and positively charged ions ex: the ~ of water produces hydrogen and oxygen

Inclined Plane

*reduces effort at any given moment* *mechanical advantage* ex: ramp to get things into moving truck If ramp is 4x the distance it would have been to lift things directly into truck, you will be doing ¼ the work at any given moment on the ramp than you would have been lifting it ladder, stairs, ramp, dump truck, boat propeller, roller coaster, slide

mixture

*seems like a chemical reaction but IS NOT* *NO CHEMICAL CHANGE* material that can *be separated by PHYSICAL MEANS into TWO OR MORE substances* 2 Types of mixtures: *solution*: homogeneous (even throughout) mixture where 1 substance is evenly dissolved into the other (i.e. salt water/saline solution: salt evenly distrib. throughout the water) *suspension*: small particles are kept dispersed throughout the mixture by agitation only (agitation = molecular motion in the surrounding medium) (i.e. muddy water in river - churning of water in river keeps mud mixed into the water, but if water was still, would separate due to gravity) *if separates due to simply gravity when agitation ends, it was a suspension*

Valence electrons are important because

*they are involved in chemical bonding, either being transferred or shared* -they give atoms their properties because of how they are transferred or shared -they can be shared, gained or lost -There are some atoms - the noble gases - that have valence electrons that don't change, but most atoms have valence electrons that change. -they are the electrons in the outer shell of an atom.

What causes waves?

*wind stirs the ocean's surfaces over great distances* wind pushes on water particles as waves get closer to land don't have enough room to rotate, so build up higher and higher shallow water means wave cannot rotate down (not enough room) so it builds up into a taller wave *do not confuse with TIDES, which are controlled by the moon*

Negative and Positive Multiplication/Division Rules

+ times + = + Ex: 2 * 3 = 6 + times - = - Ex: 2 * -3 = -6 - times - = - Ex: -2 * -3 = 6 *Remember by: If a good thing happens to a good person, that's good If a good thing happens to a bad person, thats bad If a bad thing happens to a bad person, that's good

Cytoplasm

-Clear, jelly fluid that is within the cell and contains all the organelles of the cell-Moves material through the cell **Found in plant and animal cells

electron shell

-Holds the electrons -The first electron shell is the closest orbital to the nucleus, and it fills with electrons first innermost can contain no more than 2 electrons, then 8. -Electrons in the outermost shells [valence shells] have the highest energy

Chromosomes

-Located within the nucleus and made of DNA (genetic material) -Contains genes that code for various traits (such as hair color, leaf shape, etc) **Found in animal cells & plant cells

Mitochondria

-Powerhouse of the cell -Releases chemical energy from food -Cells that use more energy (like muscle cells) have more mitochondria **Found in both plant & animal cells

Chloroplast

-Produces food for the plant cell by photosynthesis-Contains chlorophyll **Found in plant cells only

How are sound waves and lightwaves different?

-Sound waves need a medium (solid, liquid, gas) to travel through, light waves can travel in a vacuum. -sound waves move MUCH slower than light waves (~800 mph vs 1,000,000 mph+)

Solving Algebraic Word Problems (involving triangles) Problems involving triangles require you to know facts about triangles, such as:

-Two angles that form a straight line (called supplementary angles) add up to 180°. -All the angles inside a triangle add up to 180°. Example: Find the unknown angle (x):

Cell Wall

-a rigid structure that surrounds the cell membrane of plants and provides support to the cell & allows water to pass **plants only

what are the characteristics of a physical change?

-change in state (solid, liquid, gas) with NO change in chemical composition -No new substance created, although matter takes a different form. -size, shape, and color may change -~occur when substances are mixed, but don't chemically react -*usually, not always, reversible* (i.e.: freeze ice cube, can melt it again) *Examples:* -crushing a can -melting an ice cube -boiling water -mixing sand and water -breaking a glass -dissolving sugar and water -shredding paper -chopping wood -mixing red and green marbles -crumpling a paper bag -chopping an apple -melting solid sulfur into liquid sulfur *(in this case, the state change does cause a color change, even though the chemical composition is the same both before and after the change. Several of the nonmetals, such as oxygen and radon, change color as they change phase.)*

Evidence to support plate tectonics theory

-continents would fit together like a puzzle if lined them up -seafloor spreading -fossil of same type found on East coast of S. America and on West coast of Africa and nowhere else records -continents are still currently moving

autumnal equinox

-first day of autumn in northern hemisphere -signifies the start of shorter days and longer nights in the Northern Hemisphere -On this day, both day and night are equal (hence equinox), with 12 hours of light and 12 hours of dark

Prokaryotic Cells

-first organisms on Earth -cells without a nucleus -such as bacteria -DNA is free floating, not localized in a membrane -DNA has only one point of origin for replication -came BEFORE eukaryotic cells A larger Prokaryote engulfed a smaller prokaryote. The smaller prokaryote that was inside then became the nucleus. This created the first eukaryotic cells.

Golgi Body or Golgi Apparatus

-flat curved sacs used for storing and packaging - Packages proteins made by the ribosomes and sends them to other parts of the cell where needed **Found in both plant & animal cells

geothermal fissure

-involved with tectonic activity -magma (molten rock permeated by gas bubbles) moving out from underneath a tectonic plate caused by its movement

reflection

-light returns after bouncing off an object -hits object at 'angle of incident' -bounces off at the 'angle of reflection' -light bounces off at approx same angle as it hit object ex: mirror ex2: lake ex3: glass table

gamma rays

-the shortest wavelength from the sun -most damaging rays to us -shortest electromagnetic radiation produced by the sun or other nuclear reactions that produce radiation -do not hit Earth's surface when come from sun because collide with atoms in our atmosphere before reach Earth's surface -this is why astronauts have to wear spacesuits -if these rays are released by nuclear radiation on Earth they are extremely damaging because atmosphere cannot protect us

Tip for working with Praxis measurement problems

1. Determine if it's customary or metric units 2. Determine if it's length, volume, mass, time, or temperature 3. Change all measurements to the same unit

Tip for solving Praxis problems of area, perimeter, and volume

1. Determine if it's customary or metric units 2. Determine if it's length, volume, or mass 3. Change all measurements to the same unit 4. Use the appropriate formula

Darwin's Four Principles

1. From generation to generation, there are various individuals within a species 2. Genes determine variations 3. More individuals are born than survive to maturation 4. Specific genes enable an organism to better survive

The 10 Largest Islands

1. Greenland, North Atlantic 2. New Guinea, Southwest Pacific 3. Borneo, West mid-Pacific 4. Madagascar, Indian Ocean 5. Baffin, North Atlantic 6. Sumatra, Northeast Indian Ocean 7. Honshu, Sea of Japan-Pacific 8. Great Britain 9. Victoria, Arctic Ocean 10. Ellesmere, Arctic Ocean

Inner & Outer Planets

1. Mercury (I) 2. Venus (I) 3. Earth (I) 4. Mars (I) 5. Jupiter (O) 6. Saturn (O) 7. Uranus (O) 8. Neptune (O)

Main Layers of Earth's Atmosphere

1. Troposphere 2. Stratosphere 3. Mesosphere 4. Thermosphere 5. Exosphere 6. Ionosphere 7. Homosphere 8. Heterosphere 9. Magnetosphere

4 Ways to Indicate Multiplication

1. Using a small "×", such as 3 × 5. 2. Using a small, raised dot, such as 3 • 5 3. Using parenthesis, such as (3)(5) or 3(5) or (3)5 4. Using no symbol, such as 3y (which means 3 times y).

Scientific Method

1. identifying a problem or posing a question 2. formulating a hypothesis or an educated guess 3. conducting experiments or tests that will provide a basis to solve the problem or answer the question 4. observing the results 5. drawing conclusions

Basic Units of Measure

1. meter- measure length 2. liter- measures volume 3. gram- measures mass

*Test Tips: Translating Word Problems into Equations*

1.) Last sentence of word problem = what the question is asking you to find out/what you actually need to solve (Begin with the end in mind) 2.) What do I wish I knew? What would you want to ask if you could ask the test makers to clarify? This could be a variable, like "x" you need to find. 3.) How can I work backwards to find this info? *Approximating can sometimes save time on multiple choice questions.* *Ex:* Tom is at a plant nursery where he spends a total of $41.92. Ferns are $5.24, avocado trees are $3.56, gardenias are $7.13 and succulents are $4.05. He buys a total of 8 of one type of plant. What plant does he buy? Can estimate to guess: Ferns: 8 x $5 = $40 Succulents: 8 x $4=$32 ^^ Already know the answer is ferns because others would be either more than or less than $40. *Ex2:* How much do 11 ferns cost? (fill in the blank) Do TEN x (price), then add one more, because it is much faster to do that mental math. 10 x $5.24 = $52.40 + $5.24 = $57.64

During the *Cambrian Period*, what is North America today was an ancient land mass called ___1___. There was no tectonic activity along the edges on this land mass. This kind of continental edge is referred to as a _____2_______

1.) Laurentia 2.) passive margin

Prime numbers 1-100:

2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97

Vietnam War (1964 - 1973)

58,000 Americans would lose their lives in the first TV war. The United States wanted to prevent communism from spreading to South Vietnam. Although America inflicted extremely heavy casualties on the enemy, public opinion turned against the war. More bombs were dropped here than on Germany, Japan, and Korea combined.

Circumference (definition)

Circumference is the distance around a circle. (circum = around, fer = carry)

Common Decimal and Percentage Equivalents (1/2, 1/3, 2/3, 1/4, 3/4, 1/5, 2/5, 3/5, 4/5, 1/6, 5/6, 1/8, 3/8, 5/8, 7/8, 1, 2, 3 1/2)

Common Equivalents 1/2 = 0.5 = 50% 1/3 = 0.33 1/3 = 33 1/3% 2/3 = 0.66 2/3 = 66 2/3% 1/4 = 0.25 = 25% 3/4 = 0.75 = 75% 1/5 = 0.2 = 20% 2/5 = 0.4 = 40% 3/5 = 0.6 = 60% 4/5 = 0.8 = 80% 1/6 = 0.16 2/3 = 16 2/3% 5/6 = 0.83 1/3 = 83 1/3% 1/8 = 0.125 = 12.5% 3/8 = 0.375 = 37.5% 5/8 = 0.625 = 62.5% 7/8 = 0.875 = 87.5% 1 = 1.0 = 100% 2 = 2.0 = 200% 3 1/2 = 3.5 = 350%

Decimal Number Subtraction

Decimal numbers are subtracted exactly the same as whole numbers: line up the numbers by place value and subtract each place value from the right to the left. When the decimal numbers are lined up by place value properly, the decimal points in each number are also lined up. Any number without a decimal point is lined up so the ones place is right before the decimal point (there is an understood decimal point after the ones place). It may help to write zeros in empty places to facilitate subtraction.

Estimation

Estimation is a mathematical process of finding an approximate value of a variable, expression, or operation. The most common way to find an estimate is to round off the numbers in the problem to numbers that are easy to calculate and then find the answer to the rounded problem. The symbol for an estimated or approximate answer is ≈. For example:   287 + 321 + 878 ≈ 300 + 300 + 900 = 1,500

Even Numbers

Even numbers are integers that are evenly divisible by two (2). Zero is an even number.

Factoring Polynomials

Factoring Polynomials 1. Factor out any common factors in all terms. 2. If the polynomial has four terms, factor it by grouping. 3. If it is a binomial, look for a difference of squares, a sum of cubes, or a difference of cubes. (Note that a sum of squares cannot be factored.) 4. If it is a trinomial and the coefficient of the x² term = 1, un-FOIL to factor. 5. If it is a trinomial and the coefficient of the x² term is not 1, use the AC method to factor.

Central Tendency Measures

Measures of Central Tendency are statistical measures such as mean, median, and mode. Data has a tendency to cluster or center on certain values. The term "average" is also used to indicate measures of central tendency; as such, the mean, median, and mode are ALL averages.

Multiple of an Integer n

Multiples of integers are formed when the integer, n, is successively multiplied by the whole numbers. As such, the multiples of the integer 3 are 0, 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, etc. The way the "multiple of an integer n" is written in algebra is kn where "k" is a whole number.

Odds (Statistical)

Odds and probability are related concepts. With probability, you compare the number of favorable outcomes to the total possible number of outcomes. With odds, you compare the number of favorable outcomes to the number of remaining (unfavorable) outcomes. If you have a box with 2 red balls and 3 blue balls, the probability of randomly picking a red ball is 2 out of 5 or 2/5. The odds of randomly picking a red ball are 2 for and 3 against, or 2:3

Ordinal Numbers

Ordinal numbers, unlike cardinal numbers that indicate a quantity, are numbers that indicate order or rank. Ordinal numbers are 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, etc., unlike cardinal numbers that indicate a quantity, are numbers that indicate order or rank. Ordinal numbers are 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, etc.

Perimeter (Definition)

Perimeter is the measure of the distance around a polygon     (peri = around, meter = measure)

Positive Integers

Positive integers are those integers greater than zero. Positive integers appear to the right of zero on a number line. The positive sign is understood if it isn't written. Negative integers are the opposite of the positive integers. The number zero is neither positive nor negative.

Regrouping

Regrouping is the modern term that should be used instead of "carrying" and "borrowing." Children are now taught to add and subtract by keeping place value in mind. When we need to carry or borrow, we now teach students to re-group units into 10s or 10s into units.

Simultaneous Equations (definition and 3 ways to solve)

Simultaneous Equations are two or more equations with multiple variables. These are often called systems of equations. A solution gives values for the variables that are true for all equations in the system. There are many ways to solve a system of equations. Three ways discussed in beginning algebra are:<div>  1. Elimination (sometimes called adding) 2. Substitution 3. Graphing Another method presented in intermediate/advance algebra is the use of matrices.</div>

Steps to Solve Praxis Problems

Steps to Solve Praxis Problems: 1. Read the question carefully, circling, underlining, and/or writing down what you are looking for. 2. Pull out important information. 3. Draw, sketch, or mark in diagrams or on scratch paper. 4. If you know a simple method or formula, work the problem out as simply and quickly as possible. 5. If you don't know a simple method or formula... a. Try eliminating some unreasonable choices b. Work backwards from the answers c. Substitute in numbers—work a simpler problem d. Try approximating to clarify your thinking 6. Check to be sure your answer is reasonable.

Surface Area

Surface area is the total area of the faces and curved surfaces of a solid figure.

Properties of One

The number one has some interesting properties: • One is the multiplicative identity • Any number multiplied by one equals the number • One is neither prime nor composite • A number with an exponent of 1 equals the number • The number one raised to any power equals one • Any nonzero number divided by itself equals one

Properties of Zero

The number zero has some interesting properties: • Division by zero is undefined • Zero is neither positive nor negative • Zero is the additive identity • Any number multiplied by zero equals zero • Zero is used as the universal place holder • Zero is neither prime nor composite • Zero has no multiplicative inverse • A number with an exponent of zero equals 1 • Zero factorial equals 1

Velocity

Velocity is a measure of the speed of an object and the direction in which it is going. For example, the wind is blowing 22 mph in a NE direction.

Volume (Definition)

Volume is the measure of the number of cubic units that can fit inside an object. Volume is also known as capacity.

Counterexample

A counterexample is one example used to prove a hypothesis false.

What is the difference between a fraction and a ratio?

A fraction compares PART of something to its whole. A ratio compares two different things - neither thing is always the whole or sum of the two.

What is a fraction?

A fraction is a numeral showing a part of a group or a part of a set expressed as division. The top number is called the numerator; the numerator indicates the part. The bottom number is called the denominator; the denominator indicates the total in the group or set.

Rene-Robert De La Salle

A French explorer who sailed down the Mississippi River to the Gulf of Mexico and claimed the entire inland region of North America for France. He named the region Louisiana in honor of Louis XIV.

Juan Ponce de Leon

A Spanish explorer. In 1513 and in 1521, he explored Florida, thinking it was an island. Looking for gold and the "fountain of youth", he failed in his search for the fountain of youth but established Florida as territory for the Spanish, before being killed by a Native American arrow.

Summarization

A brief statement of the main points of something.

Fable

A brief story that leads to a moral, often using animals as characters.

Plateau

A broad, flat area of land higher than the surrounding land. They may be as high as 10,000 feet above sea-level.

Ribosome

A cell organelle composed of RNA and protein; the site of protein synthesis.

Circle

A circle is a closed figure made up of all points that are equidistant from another point (the center). The distance from the center point to the edge of the circle is called the radius. A = (π)r^2 C = (π)d = 2(π)r

Ancient Rome

A civilization that began on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 8th century BCE. During its 12 centuries of existence Roman civilization shifted from a monarchy to a classical republic and then to an increasingly autocratic empire. Through conquest and assimilation it came to dominate Southern and Western Europe, Asia Minor, North Africa, and parts of Northern and Eastern Europe. Ancient Roman society has contributed to modern government, law, politics, engineering, art, literature, and society. It achieved impressive technological and architectural feats, such as the construction of an extensive system of aqueducts and roads, as well as large monuments, palaces, and public facilities.

Ancient Greece

A civilization that lasted from the 8th/6th century BCE to 600 AD. Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and the Byzantine Era. Because of conquests by Alexander the Great of Macedonia, Hellenistic civilization flourished from Central Asia to the western end of the Mediterranean Sea. Classical Greek culture, especially philosophy, had a powerful influence on the Roman Empire, which carried a version of it to many parts of the Mediterranean Basin and Europe, for which Classical Greek is generally considered to be the seminal culture which provided the foundation of modern Western culture.

Federalist Papers

A collection of 85 articles written by Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison under the name "Publius" to defend the Constitution in detail.

Metaphor

A comparison that establishes a figurative identity between objects being compared.

Foothills

A hilly region at the base of a mountain range.

Azimuthal Projection

A map projection in which the plane is the most developed surface.

Cause and Effect

A method of informing that shows the reason something happens and the result of it happening.

Parallelogram

A parallelogram is a quadrilateral with two pairs of parallel sides. A = bh P = 2(b1 + b2)

Gold Rush

A period from 1848 to 1856 when thousands of people came to California in order to search for gold.

Natural Selection

A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits.

Barrier Reefs

A prominent ridge or coral that roughly parallels the coastline but lies offshore, with a shallow lagoon between the reefs and the coast.

Mineral

A solid substance on Earth that has a specific chemical composition and crystalline structure. Its atoms are structurally arranged

Biological Species Concept

A species is a community of individuals that can reproduce and have niche in nature

Context Clues

A vocabulary strategy in which the reader looks at the words around an unfamiliar word to find clues to its meaning.

War of 1812

A war between the U.S. and Great Britain caused by American outrage over the impressment of American sailors by the British, the British seizure of American ships, and British aid to the Indians attacking the Americans on the western frontier. Also, a war against Britain gave the U.S. an excuse to seize the British northwest posts and to annex Florida from Britain's ally Spain, and possibly even to seize Canada from Britain. The War Hawks (young westerners led by Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun) argued for war in Congress. The war involved several sea battles and frontier skirmishes. U.S. troops led by Andrew Jackson seized Florida and at one point the British managed to invade and burn Washington, D.C. The Treaty of Ghent (December 1814) restored the status quo and required the U.S. to give back Florida. Two weeks later, Andrew Jackson's troops defeated the British at the Battle of New Orleans, not knowing that a peace treaty had already been signed. The war strengthened American nationalism and encouraged the growth of industry.

Object

A word or phrase that receives the action of a verb. Example: Joan served THE MEAL. (Object)

Adverb

A word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.

Adjectives

A word used to modify or describe a noun or pronoun, such as "happy," "sad," or "pretty."

Which of the pictured regions would have the most extreme tides?

A.) It is the most isolated region Will have very, very low low-tides and very, very high high-tides

Treaty of Paris

Agreement signed by British and American leaders that stated the United States of America was a free and independent country.

Questions to ask yourself about your Praxis answer

Always ask yourself if your answer is reasonable. If you have time left over at the end of the test, go back through each answer to be sure it is reasonable - but do not change your answer unless it is clearly wrong.

Solution  (algebra)

An algebraic solution is the answer to an equation. The solution will give a value or multiple values for the variables in the equation. A solution is also called a root of the equation. For more than one variable, the solution will be an ordered pair, an ordered triple, etc.

Equation

An equation is a statement where an algebraic expression is equal to another algebraic expression or constant. Equations and expressions are often confused. The equation has an equal symbol; whereas, the expression does not have a comparison symbol (merely a collection of terms). We solve an equation but we evaluate or simplify an expression.

Equiangular Polygon

An equiangular polygon is one where all angles of the polygon are the same measure. If a polygon is both equiangular and equilateral, it is called a regular polygon.

Regular Polygon

An equiangular polygon is one where all angles of the polygon are the same measure. An equilateral polygon is one where all sides of the polygon are the same measure. If a polygon is both equiangular and equilateral, it is called a regular polygon.

Equilateral Polygon

An equilateral polygon is one where all sides of the polygon are the same measure. If a polygon is both equiangular and equilateral, it is called a regular polygon.

How can you tell when an expression is simplified?

An expression is simplified when • No parentheses appear • No powers are raised to powers • No more than one like term • No negative exponents appear

Ordered Pair

An ordered pair is a pair of numbers indicating the location of a point. The first number, called the first coordinate, tells how far the point is right or left on the horizontal x-axis. The second number, called the second coordinate, tells how far the point is up or down on the vertical y-axis. The actual point is the intersection of those two coordinates.

Whig Party

An American political party, which spanned from 1833 to 1856 and had only two successful presidential victories , that believed in expanding federal power on economy and encouraged industrial development; Could only gain power on the local level. The party was led by rival Henry Clay.

Parallels

Another name for lines of latitude.

Meridians

Another name for lines of longitude.

Examples

Are given to help the reader define the term.

Tip for Praxis problem with fractions of unlike denominators

Change all fractions to common denominators before beginning your calculations.

Biochemical Cycles

Chemical elements required by living organisms cycle between living and nonliving organisms

Cross-Cultural Comparisons

Comparison of various psychological, sociological, or cultural factors in order to assess the similarities or diversities occurring in two or more different cultures or societies.

Neutralization, acid-base, or proton transfer

Compound acquires H+ from another

Atoms

Consist of a nucleus and electrons; can bond together to make molecules; most basic unit of measure

Food Web

Consists of interconnected food chains in a community

Skeletal System

Consists of the bones and joints; provides support for the body through its rigid structure, provides protection for internal organs, and works to make organisms motile

Question Generation

Constantly ask questions about comprehension, vocabulary, personal knowledge or experiences, predictions.

Haploid

Contain half the genetic material of the parent cell

Why are there bubbles in boiling water?

Convection. As hotter water rises, cooler surrounding water comes down from above it and takes its place. When cooler water comes down, it sometimes takes air with it. Air goes down to bottom of water, the bubbles we see are the air bubbling back up to the surface

Polyhedron (names)

Convex polyhedron are named according to the number of faces:<div>  4 = tetrahedron 5 = pentahedron 6 = hexahedron 7 = heptahedron 8 = octahedron 9 = nonahedron 10 = decahedron </div>

How does electrolysis work?

Electric current (i.e., electrons) enters substance through negatively charged electrode (cathode); -positively charged components of the solution travel to this electrode, combine with the electrons, and are transformed to neutral elements or molecules. -negatively charged components of the solution travel to the other electrode (anode), give up their electrons, and are transformed into neutral elements or molecules. ex: the ~ of water produces hydrogen and oxygen

Electron Configuration

Electrons fill shells and subshells in an element in a particular order and with a particular number of electrons

According to Kepler's First Law of Planetary motion the orbit of every planet is what?

Elliptical

Active Transport

Energy-requiring process that moves material across a cell membrane against a concentration difference

Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882)

English naturalist known for his belief that evolution occurred by natural selection; species descend from common ancestors

Rest Position

Equilibrium; point at which there is neither positive nor negative displacement

Rule of Threes *to solve Ratio/Proportion Problems*

Every proportion is made up of *4 numbers* (2 numerators and 2 denominators) If word problem gives you 3 out of the 4 numbers in a proportion problem, you can cross multiply and solve for the 4th (missing) number. (When you cross multiply a fraction/ration, equation should be linear, no longer fractions - see example) Ex: Margery is pouring orange juice for the kids in her class. She pours 3 cups every 2 minutes (Margery is super slow at pouring juice). How long will it take her to fill up 24 cups of juice? 3 cups/2 mins = 24 cups/x minutes *cross multiply to get:* 3x = 24*2 3x=48 x=16 It will take Margery 16 minutes to pour 24 cups of juice. (Get it together, Margery!) *TRICKY QUESTION!!*: If the question said: "Margary *poured* (as opposed to pourS) 3 cups *in* 2 mins....how long will it take for her to *finish* filling all 24 cups for her class?" then you would have to subtract out the 3 cups she ALREADY filled!! 24 cups total - 2 cups already filled = 21 cups left to fill 3 cups/2 mins = 21 cups/x minutes *cross multiply to get:* 3x = 21*2 3x=42 x=14 *BE VERY CAREFUL ABOUT THIS TRICK!*

Electric Currents

Experience resistance as they travel through a circuit

Friction

Force that arises as a resistance to motion where two surfaces are in contact

Onomatopeia

Formation or use of words that imitate sounds of the actions they refer to. (Ex. Sizzling)

Joseph Smith

Founded Mormonism in New York in 1830 with the guidance of an angel. In 1843, Smith's announcement that God sanctioned polygamy split the Mormons and let to an uprising against Mormons in 1844; He translated the Book of Mormon and died a martyr.

Multicellular Organism

Has many cells

hydronium

H₃O⁺ (same as H+ stuck to a water molecule). pH relates to the amount of this compound in a substance

Punctuated Equilibrium

Idea in evolutionary biology that states that evolution involves long time periods of no change accompanied by relatively brief periods of rapid change

How does coal get created from oil?

If the ground where the oil exists has lots of carbon and the carbon becomes saturated, then we get coal

The Earth is made of 3 types of rock. They are:

Igneous, Metamorphic, and Sedimentary

Nervous System

Includes the brain, spinal cord, and nerves; signaling system for intrabody communications among systems, responses to stimuli, and interaction within an environment

Circulatory System

Includes the heart, blood, and blood vessels, such as veins, arteries, and capillaries; blood transports oxygen and nutrients to cells and carbon dioxide to the lungs

American Industrialization

Industrial growth in the U.S. mushroomed after the Civil War as railroads, factories, and cities all grew across the west 1865-1920. Unskilled labors worked in terrible conditions for very little pay while owners earned millions. Most development occurred in the Northeast and Midwest regions; the South still recovering from Reconstruction.

Revising a Paper

Is the thesis clear? Do the body paragraphs logically flow and provide details that support the thesis? Is anything unnecessarily repeated? Is there something irrelevant in the work? Is the language understandable? Is it interesting?

Science Fiction Authors

Isaac Isamov, Ray Bradbury, and H.G. Wells

Coordinating Conjunction

Join ideas that are similar; Example: Craig gets in trouble, BUT he usually gets out of it. (FANBOY - For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet)

Subordinating Conjunctions

Joins a subordinate clause and an independent clause and establishes a relationship between them. Example: We can play after Steve finishes his homework.

Buoyancy

Key determiner as to whether an object will float or sink in water is its density; the general rule is that is an object is less dense than water, it floats & if it's denser than water, it sinks

Cognitive Approach

Language acquisition theory that states behavior is a result of information processing, such as perception, memory, thought, judgment, and decision making.

Linguistic Approach

Language acquisition theory that states language ability is innate and develops through natural human maturation as environmental stimuli trigger the acquisition of syntactical structures appropriate to exposure level.

Learning Approach

Language acquisition theory that states rules of language structure were learned and applied through imitation and reinforcement.

Figurative Language

Language that cannot be taken literally since it was written to create a special effect or feeling.

Food Chain

Linking of organisms in a community that is based on how they use each other as food sources

Organism

Living thing

Element

Matter with one particular type of atom; represented in upper case letters

Median

Middle number in a list of numbers sorted from least to greatest

The Law of Interaction

Newtons 3rd Law. For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction

The Law of Inertia

Newtons First Law. the velocity of an object does not change unless a force is applied.

Do mixtures chemically bond?

No, if they had chemically bonded, the 2 substances would stay together after a physical change. Example: salt water If boil salt water (physical change), the water will boil off but the salt will remain. If they had chemically bonded, both would have evaporated.

DNA

Nucleic acid located in the cell nucleus; model or structure of DNA is described as a double helix

How much louder is a 120-decibel sound than a 100-decibel sound?

One hundred times louder. One hundred (100) on the decibel scale is 10^10 (ten to the 10th power = 1,000,000,000) and 120 is 10^12 (ten to the 12th power = 100,000,000,000). So a sound that is 120 is 10^12, or 100 times louder than a sound that is 10^10. The decibel scale *goes up by a power of ten for every ten (10) decibels*, so 160 would be 10^16 and 40 would be 10^4.

Unicellular Oranganism

Only has one cell

Anaphase

Pairs of chromosomes, called sisters, begin to pull apart, and may bend

Parentheses

Parentheses are a way to group numbers. Other grouping symbols are: braces { }, square brackets and the vinculum or fraction bar. To remove parentheses, we distribute the number immediately outside the parenthesis (with its sign). We distribute by multiplying by the number. 3(3x +1) = 9x + 3 -(2x - 5) = -2x + 5

Crest

Peak; point at which a wave's positive or upward displacement from the rest position is at its maximum

Sound

Pressure disturbance that moves through a medium in the form of mechanical waves, which transfer energy from one particle to the next; requires a medium to travel through, such as air, water, or other matter since it's the vibrations that transfer energy to adjacent particles, not the actual movement of particles over a great distance

Solving Algebraic Word Problems (involving rectangular area & perimeter)

Problems involving area & perimeter require use of formulas: P = 2L + 2W, where P = Perimeter, L = length, W = width. A = LW, where A = area Example: The length of a rectangle is twice its width. If the perimeter of the rectangle is 60 in, find its area. L = 2W so P = 2(2W) + 2W 60 = 4W + 2W 60 = 6W W = 10 and since L = 2W L = 20 Knowing this, A = LW = 20(10) = 200 in²

Motions of Subatomic Structures

Produce a magnetic field; direction of the spin and orbit that indicate the direction of the field

Coral Reefs

Prominent oceanic features composed of hard, limy skeletons produced by coral animals; usually formed along edges of shallow, submerged ocean banks or along shelves in warm, shallow, tropical seas.

Atomic Weight

Ratio of the average mass per atom of a sample to 1/12 of the mass of an atom of carbon-12

Competition

Relationship in which both organisms are harmed

Predation

Relationship in which one individual feeds on another, causing the prey to die

Parasitism

Relationship in which one organism benefits and the other is harmed

Intraspecific Relationships

Relationships among members of a species

Solid Structures

Rigid or nearly rigid and have strong bonds

Niche

Role of a species within a community

Cartography

Science or art of making maps. Steps of Cartography 1) Survey 2) Aerial Photography 3) Field Survey 4) Overlapping Photos 5) Field Survey

Astronomy

Scientific study of celestial objects and their positions, movements, and structures

Solving Algebraic Word Problems (involving unit conversion)

Set up unit conversion problems as a proportion. Then cross multiply (Means- Extremes Property) and simplify. Example: Convert 16 yards to feet. Because there are 3 feet in 1 yard: yard 1 16 feet 3 x 1/3 = 16/x Cross multiply: 1x= 3(16) x = 48 feet (Unit analysis may also be used - see the flashcard on unit analysis.)

meisos

Sexual reproduction - Cell Division - Most Common number of chromosomes are reduced by half Genetically Diverse

Lewis Formulas

Show the bonding or nonbonding tendency of specific pairs of valence electrons; dot diagrams use dots to represent valence electrons; dots are paired around an atom; when an atom forms a covalent bond with another atom, the elements share the dots as they would electrons

Classification Paper

Sorts information. It opens with a topic sentence that identifies the group to be classified, and then breaks that group into categories. For example, a group might be baseball players, while a category might be positions they play. (Types of paragraphs or essays)

Southern Hemisphere

South of the equator.

Black Codes

Southern laws designed to restrict the rights of the newly freed black slaves.

Charles's Law

States that gases expand when they are heated; also known as the law of volumes

Geomorphology

Study of Earth's land forms and the processes that have formed them.

Mechanics

Study of matter and motion, and the topics related to matter and motion, such as force, energy, and work

Mineralogy

Study of minerals

Ecology

Study of plants, animals, their environments, and how they interact

Mean

Sum of a list of numbers divided by the number of numbers

3 sources of light

Sun, lightbulbs, excited atoms

Gold

Symbol: Au Atomic Mass: 197.0 Atomic Number: 79

Boron

Symbol: B Atomic Mass: 10.81 Atomic Number: 5

Beryllium

Symbol: Be Atomic Mass: 9.01 Atomic Number: 4

Bohrium

Symbol: Bh Atomic Mass: Atomic Number: 107

Francium

Symbol: Fr Atomic Mass: Atomic Number: 87

Platinum

Symbol: Pt Atomic Mass: 195.1 Atomic Number: 78

Rhenium

Symbol: Re Atomic Mass: 186.2 Atomic Number: 75

Rhodium

Symbol: Rh Atomic Mass: 102.9 Atomic Number: 45

Technetium

Symbol: Tc Atomic Mass: (98) Atomic Number: 43

Xenon

Symbol: Xe Atomic Mass: 131.3 Atomic Number: 54

English System of Measurement

The English System of Measurement is also called the Customary System of Measurement (or the Common System of Measurement). This is the primary measurement system used in the United States. Length = inch, foot, yard, rod, mile, etc. Weight = ounce, pound, Ton, etc. Volume = liquid ounces, cup, pint, quart, gallon, etc.

Median

The median is used in statistics to describe one of three measures of central tendency. To find the median, list all the data values in numerical order. The median is the middle data value. If there is an even number of values, find the mean (or average) of the middle two values. Medians are used instead of means when there are outliers in the list of values that would distort the average. A mnemonic used to remember this term is to think of the median in the center of a freeway. A statistical median is in the center of the data values.

Slope of a Line

The slope of a line is an algebraic concept used to graph linear equations. In the equation y = mx + b, the variable m represents the slope of the line. Slope is calculated by dividing the change in the y-coordinate (the rise) by the change in the x-coordinate (the run). Parallel lines have equivalent slopes. Perpendicular lines have slopes that are negative and reciprocal of each other. To graph a line when the slope and the y-intercept are known, plot the y-intercept and then use the slope to count UP and OVER to find another point on the line.

Addition of Integers

The RULE for adding integers is:<div>    If the signs are the same, add the absolute values of the numbers and give the result their same sign. If the signs are different, subtract the absolute values of the numbers and give them the same sign as the number with the larger absolute value. </div>

Division of Integers

The RULE for dividing integers is: If the signs are the same, divide the absolute values of the numbers and give the result a positive sign. If the signs are different, divide the absolute values of the numbers and give the result a negative sign.

What are tides?

The alternating pattern of rising and falling sea level with respect to land Caused by the gravitational pull of the Sun and Moon on the Earth (Because the Earth rotates, the places of high/low tides will change as the Earth spins. Every 24 hours, a place will have 2 high tides and 2 low tides)

quarter moon

The first quarter and third quarter moons (both often called a "half moon"), happen when the moon is at a 90 degree angle with respect to the earth and sun. So we are seeing exactly half of the moon illuminated and half in shadow.

Taxomony

The hierarchical groups of related organisms (Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus and Species)

Heat Capacity

Thermal mass; amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of an object, and is measured in Joules per Kelvin or Joules per degree celsius

If weighed log before you burned it and the ash + gas after you burned it, what would be the difference between the weights?

They would weigh exactly the same amount

Earth

Third planet from the sun; orbits every 365 days; 71% of the planet is salt-water oceans; atmosphere mainly composed of oxygen and nitrogen; one moon

How do you convert a fraction such as 2/3 into a ratio?

To convert a fraction into a ratio, keep the numerator; the new denominator becomes the difference of the denominator and numerator. The denominator of a fraction is the WHOLE amount; the denominator of a ratio is the REMAINING part. Example: The fraction 2/3 is a ratio of 2 parts to 1 remaining part or 2:1

Francisco Vasquez de Coronado

While looking for El Dorado (the seven cities of gold, which was probably a myth), Coronado became the first European to explore the American Southwest in, what is today, Arizona and New Mexico.

Whole Numbers

Whole numbers = the counting numbers and zero (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ...). Positive numbers that have no fractions or decimals, including zero.

Civil Rights Act

Wide-ranging legislation passed by Congress to outlaw segregation in public facilities and discrimination in employment, education, and voting; created the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission.

World War 2

World War II was a major global conflict that lasted from 1939-1945. WWII was between Allied (USSR, US, UK, China, France, ...) and Axis (Germany, Japan, Italy, and affiliates) powers, and spanned across every continent (except Antarctica) at some point. WWII began on September 1, 1939 when Nazi Germany (a.k.a. the Third Reich) invaded Poland. Japan, as well, was invading other territories in Southwest Asia. At the zenith of the war, Germany had control over much of Central Europe, and was sending Jews, Poles, homosexuals, and other "inadequate" people to concentration and extermination camps (see "The Holocaust"). WWII also introduced new styles of warfare, including widespread air strikes and tank warfare, both of which were undeniably dominated by Germany. However, Germany's resources began to run short as Allied forces began to capture and liberate the concentration camps. Eventually, the Third Reich, along with Japan and Italy, collapsed. As a result of WWI and WWII, the UN was made, along with the establishment of Israel.

How would you write 399 as a Roman numeral?

Write the number in expanded form and convert each term to Roman numerals: 300 + 90 + 9 = 399 CCC XC IX CCCXCIX represents 399.

condensation

after evaporation, water particles rise up into the atmosphere and pull together into larger and larger droplets, until have big liquid droplets that are too heavy to stay in the air

When the Sun and Moon are in __________ we get more extreme tides called spring tides.

alignment (lined up in a straight line)

atomic mass

amount of matter that makes up an atom can estimate atom's atomic mass (in AMUs) by adding up number of protons and number of neutrons ex: Helium atom has 2 protons and 2 neutrons, so its atomic mass is 4 AMU's

resistance

amt of friction object will put against electricity flowing through it, heat up when electrical current runs through them (called the Joule-effect), converting electrical energy to light energy A filament made of tungsten has a lot of resistance to electricity, so this is why it heats up and glows in a lightbulb

electrostatic force (aka Coulomb force, aka Coulomb interaction)

attraction between particles of opposite charge and repulsion between particles of the same charge ex: if one kid steals another's ball, the 2nd kid chases the 1st kid around to try and get it back If the two charges have the same sign, the electrostatic force between them is repulsive; if they have different sign, the force between them is attractive.

What were some of the earliest cells to appear on Earth?

bacteria then algae (earliest photosynthetic organism)

If human beings have never been deeper than the crust of the Earth, how do we know about the other 3 layers of the Earth?

based on info we get from things like radio waves and other waves that we pass through the Earth and can use to determine composition

How are stars born?

begin as huge clouds of dust and particles, called nebulas. all the particles in the nebulas are exerting gravitational force on all the other particles in the nebula over a long period of time, maybe millions of years, the gas and dust are pulled together, gravitationally, into the middle of the nebula *(this is called the nebula contracting)*, where they collide with each other and this collision ignites a huge nuclear (fusion) reaction. The nuclear reaction *a fusion reaction* creates a protostar, which eventually becomes a star After protostar is created, converts materials into denser and denser materials through fusion --getting denser and denser, and eventually converts into adult star

magnetism

can cause changes in motion *Outer Core of the Earth is *liquid molten metal* and as the Earth spins, the flow of the molten metal builds up a magnetic field around the Earth* Causes the Aurora Borealis because the Earth's magnetic field catches ions and particles coming into Earth's atmosphere and brings them down at the Earth's poles. The glowing lights are caused by charged particles (ions) coming down at the North Pole. Is also why a compass points North

Solar system

everything that surrounds a star all of the bodies that are orbiting that star are held in their paths by centrifugal force the balance between inertia and gravity in makes it want to continue in a straight line on into infinity gravity makes it want to go directly into the sun inertia vs gravity is like a tetherball. gravity is like the rope, the inertia is like hitting the ball and the sun is the pole

fluoresce

excited atoms giving off electromagnetic energy in the form of visible light This is done in elements such as argon and neon, which can be excited by small amounts of electrical stimulation

vernal equinox

first day of spring in the northern hemisphere -signifies the start of longer days and shorter nights in the Northern Hemisphere -On this day, both day and night are equal (hence equinox), with 12 hours of light and 12 hours of dark

What is the prevailing theory on how the earth formed?

formed from the dust and gas that existed in the solar nebula, the gas and dust from which was pulled together by gravity. That gas and dust banged together in the center and ignited a large nuclear reaction, which created a protostar, which would eventually become a star, our sun. Little whirlpools of gas and dust also formed inside the nebula, further away from the center, these became the planets. This happened about 4.5 billion years ago. There was no life on Earth until about 3.8 billion years ago.

How does *nuclear* energy work?

fusion or fission reaction causes water inside nuclear power plant to heat up, evaporate, and then vapor causes pressure which spins a turbine, the turbine then turns/powers a generator

the shortest wavelength from the sun

gamma rays

Saturn

gas super giant - much larger than other planets in our solar system and composed primarily of gas

greenhouse gas

gases in the atmosphere that absorb infrared radiation and keep heat inside our atmosphere *methane, water-vapor, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, ozone, and CFCs*

As you go up in altitude, what happens to the temperature needed to boil matter?

goes down (need less heat to do same thing because you have to fight less atmospheric pressure than you would at sea level)

When the dividend is GREATER than the divisor, the answer should be _________ than one.

greater ex: (3/4) ÷ (5/8) =? 3/4 is GREATER than 5/8, so the answer should be GREATER than one the answer is 1 and 1/5, so this is correct

In sound waves, the higher the frequency, the _________ the pitch.

higher

More __________ bodies of water have more extreme tides

isolated The more difficult it is for the water to enter/exit a region, the more extreme the tides tend to be

the more massive one or both object(s) being attracted to each other are by gravity, the

more gravitational force is exerted between them

radioactive decay

most isotopes decay back into their "normal" forms over time

milky way

name of our galaxy a cluster of billions of stars *shaped like a spiral disk with several long arms* (looks like a white strip to us from Earth because we are on one of the arms, we can see so many stars at once that it looks milky because you are looking INTO the arm of the ~)

short circuit

occurs when a very low resistance circuit is formed, causing a very large current that could easily start a fire from overheated wires ex: if tree falls on power lines and breaks through insulation, instead of electrons having to go all the way to end of circuit and come back to ground out, all hit the tree from both directions (so shortens the circuit)

smoother landforms are usually ________ than angular landforms. Why?

older They have experienced more erosion

Science is an _______________ study and will _________________.

ongoing, never end

When a switch is off, the circuit is (open/closed)?

open circuit has a gap in it and electrons cannot flow around, so cannot power object at middle of circuit

electromagnetic radiation with the longest wavelength

radio waves

gibbous moon

refers to phases where the moon is more than half illuminated (opposite of crescent)

supply and demand

relationship between the amount of product and the desire for the product

fossils

remains of plants, animals and other organisms that are preserved in rock -because fell into tar pit -got caught in sap -layers of rock on top of it -that left an impression in the rock that allows us to see the structure of that organism *mostly the hard structures* such as bones

suspension

small particles are kept dispersed throughout the mixture by agitation only ex: sandy water in ocean - churning of water in ocean keeps salt mixed into the water, but if water was still, would separate due to gravity *if separates due to simply gravity when agitation ends, it was a suspension* more examples: oil in water snow globe

Why is it hotter on the blacktop on a sunny day than on the grass?

the black of the asphalt absorbs all the wavelengths of light, which then get transferred to thermal energy (heat)

Natural Numbers

the counting numbers (1, 2, 3, 4 ...) whole numbers 1 and up **DOES NOT INCLUDE 0**

frequency

the number of crests (tops) of a wave that move past a given point in a given unit of time measured most commonly in hertz (Hz), which is one crest per second *=speed of waves ÷ wavelength*

Lithosphere

the outer layer of Earth's surface which is made of cool brittle rock

Science assumes that the behavior of the universe is ___________________ , ____________________, and ___________________.

the same everywhere, understandable, predictable

In a vacuum, when the only force acting on objects is gravity, every object falls at ____________

the same rate, regardless of mass or shape this idea was first *hypothesized by Galileo* and then *proven by astronaut Dave Scott* on the moon when he dropped a hammer and a feather and they fell at the same rate

What causes eclipses?

the shadow of the Earth or moon is cast onto other body lunar eclipse = moon being blocked out by Earth solar eclipse = sun being blocked out by moon

Layers of the Earth's Atmosphere

troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere and exposphere

precipitation

when water droplets are too heavy to stay in the air, and they fall to the Earth as rain, snow, hail, sleet

estuary

where fresh water river/stream and salt water meet

Mimicry

Adaptation developed as a response to predation; an organism that has a similar appearance to another species, which is meant to fool the predator into thinking the organism is more dangerous than it really is

Expression

An expression is a collection of terms that have been added or subtracted. Equations and expressions are often confused. The equation has an equal symbol; whereas, the expression does not have a comparison symbol (merely a collection of terms). We solve an equation but we evaluate or simplify an expression.

Puppetry

Small-scale figures of human or other living beings often constructed with jointed limbs and moved usually on a small stage by a rod or by hand from below or by strings or wires from above. It generates ideas, encourages imagination, and foster language development.

Buffer

Solution whose pH remains relatively constant when a small amount of an acid or a base is added

Facts

Something that actually exists and can be proven true

Hernando de Soto

Spanish Conquistador; explored in 1540's from Florida west to the Mississippi with six hundred men in search of gold; discovered the Mississippi, a vital North American river.

Sumerians

The people who dominated southern Mesopotamia through the end of the third millennium B.C.E. They were responsible for the creation of many fundamental elements of Mesopotamian culture-such as irrigation technology, cuneiform, and religious conceptions.

Spondaic Meter

Two consecutive syllables that are stressed almost equally.

Energy

Two types of energy most important in mechanics are potential and kinetic energy 1. potential energy- amount of energy an object has stored within itself because of its position or orientation 2. kinetic energy- energy of an object in motion

Velocity

Two types of velocity to consider: average velocity and instantaneous velocity 1. average velocity- we need to know two things: the displacement, or the distance it has covered, and the time it took to cover this distance 2. instantaneous velocity- requires the use of calculus

Origin of Sedimentary Rock

Type of water that was involved in its creation

Hydrologic (water) Cycle

Water movement on, above, and in the Earth

Condensation

Water vapor changes to liquid water

Translating English (Word Problems) into Math: Percentages

What = x percent = /100 of = * is = equals "What percent of 8 is 2?" = [x/100 * 8 = 2]

Gods of Greek/Roman Mythology

Zeus/Jupiter - King of Gods Hera/Juno - Goddess of Marriage Poseidon/Neptune - God of the Sea Cronos/Saturn - Youngest son of Uranus, Father of Zeus Aphrodite/Venus - Goddess of Love Hades/Pluto - God of the Underworld Hephaistos/Vulcan - God of the Forge Demeter/Ceres - Goddess of the Harvest Apollo/Apollo - God of Music and Medicine Athena/Minerva - Goddess of Wisdom Artemis/Diana - Goddess of the Hunt Ares/Mars - God of War Hermes/Mercury = Messenger of the Gods Dionysus/Bacchus - God of Wine Persephone/Proserpine - Goddess of Underworld Eros/Cupid - God of Love Gaia/Gaea - Goddess of Earth

How would you write 99 as a Roman numeral? explain why

XCIX In Roman numerals, when a smaller value appears to the left of a higher value, flip those two numbers around and subtract. The number can only be one place value away though to do the flip thing. (ex: canNOT do IC as 99 (which would be 100 -1), can only do (XC = 100-10=90) + (IX= 10-1 = 9) ) Write the number in expanded form and convert each term to Roman numerals: 90 + 9 = 99 XC IX XCIX represents 99.

current

flow of electrons

What is the difference between Kinetic and Potential energy?

kinetic energy is actually doing work potential energy is stored and can later be released as kinetic energy ex: a rubber band zinged from your finger has kinetic energy when a rubber band is stretched and waiting to be released it has potential energy

when bio-mass gets compressed turns into

oil

Electrons will go the ____________ path to ground out

shortest so, if something breaks a circuit, electrons will take short circuit to ground out rather than passing over and staying on circuit

renewable energy source

solar, wind, hydroelectric, nuclear have different initial steps but all end with powering/turning a generator

valence shell

the outermost shell of an atom

crescent moon

the phases where the moon is less than half illuminated (opposite of gibbous)

joule-effect (=resistive heating)

the process where the energy of an electric current is converted into heat as it flows through a resistance (resistance = amt of friction object will put against electricity flowing through it) this is why lightbulbs light up - tungsten filament in lightbulbs has high resistance, so creates lots of light when electricity flows through it

solar eclipse

the shadow of the moon falls onto the Earth, moon is between Earth and the sun

infiltration

when water reaches ground after precipitation, if ground is porous enough and can receive water water goes into the ground why we have a water table, layer underground where water is situated that the ground has absorbed. this is what people drill into when they drill wells, etc.

run-off

when water reaches ground after precipitation, if ground is too saturated or not porous enough and cannot receive water this creates rivers, streams, etc., takes water back to oceans or lakes this is when water is most likely to act as agents of transportation for sediment, such as salt to sedimentary rock beds and to the ocean

Words that Signal Equals

will be is

Nervous System

* monitors/ coordinates internal organ function * responds to changes in the external environment. * brain, spinal cord, nerves

Symbol for "summation"?

"<div style=""font-size: 1.5em; font-family:cambria;"">∑</div>"

Dictatorship

A form of government in which the ruler is an absolute dictator (not restricted by a constitution or laws or opposition etc.)

Humid Continental Climate

Humid climate type that possesses warm-to-cool summers and bitterly cold winters.

Carl Linnaean

Created a method to classify plants and animals, which became known as the Linnaean taxonomy

Longitude

Distance east or west of the prime meridian.

Muscular System

Includes the muscles; allows the body to move and respond to its environment

The Largest Desert

Sahara

Exponential Growth

Unlimited rising growth rate

Definition by Synonym

Substitution of a word having similar meaning for the word being defined.

Hydrogen

Symbol: H Atomic Mass: 1.01 Atomic Number: 1

Measuring Angles

"Angles are measured in degrees using a protractor. Place one ray of the angle along the zero edge of the protractor. The other ray of the angle points to the number of degrees that are in the angle. <img src=""pastev1xnd2.png"" /> "

Rules for Square Roots

"Rules for Square Roots: <img src=""paste6xwrtd.png"" /> <img src=""paste4a38gn.png"" /> <img src=""pastecmnozo.png"" /> <img src=""pastel_tjlb.png"" /> <img src=""pastegjgr9o.png"" /> "

atomic number

*number of protons* an atom has this defines its *type of element* Can change number of electrons to get an ion, or number of neutrons to get an isotope, but *if change number of protons, get a totally different element* Ex: helium + 1 proton= lithium helium - 1 proton = hydrogen

Euphemism

An indirect, less offensive way of saying something that is considered unpleasant.

The Largest Waterfall

Angel Falls

Subtraction of Integers

Because a negative number is the inverse of a positive number, and because subtraction is the inverse operation of addition, the RULE for subtracting integers is:    Change the sign of the second number to its opposite and change the operation to addition. Then, follow the rules for adding integers.

Why don't we observe many objects staying in motion often on Earth?

Because there are many forces acting upon objects, such as gravity and friction caused by the air, etc.

Nickel

Symbol: Ni Atomic Mass: 58.69 Atomic Number: 28

When did the sea animals start to come out on to land?

Before the dinosaurs After the formation of algae

working with unit fractions

Any fraction where there is a 1 in the numerator They make up all fractions, for example: 5/7 = 1/7 + 1/7 + 1/7 +1/7 + 1/7

Prose

Any material that is not written in a regular meter like poetry.

Community

Any number of species interacting within a given area

Robert E. Lee

Appointed command of the Confederate Army in 1862 during the Civil War. Despite his skill he was forced to surrender to Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox Courthouse in 1865.

The Shot Heard Around the World

April 1775, English soldiers on their way to confiscate arms in Concord passed through Lexington, MA and met the colonial militia called the Minutemen. A fight ensued. In Concord, a larger group of Minutemen forced the British to retreat.

First Continental Congress

Convened on September 5, 1774, to protest the Intolerable Acts. The congress endorsed the Suffolk Resolves, voted for a boycott of British imports, and sent a petition to King George III, conceding to Parliament the power of regulation of commerce but stringently objecting to its arbitrary taxation and unfair judicial system.

Photosynthesis

Conversion of sunlight into energy in plant cells, and also occurs in some types of bacteria and protists

Sedimentary Rock

Cover 75% of Earth's surface Small broken up pieces of igneous rock carried to rock beds. rock beds are in layers *Newer rock lands on top of older rock, so the deeper a bed is, the older that sedimentary bed is.* Sometimes there is a shift in the layers of the rock, so they don't line up anymore. This happens when, after sediment was deposited, there was fault shift. This is what geologists called discontinuity Ex: sand, sandstone

Law of Gravity

Explains why an object falls

Prefixes

Letters added to the beginning of a word to alter its meaning

Mode

The mode is used in statistics to describe one of three measures of central tendency. To find the mode, list all the data values in numerical order. The data value that appears the most in the list is the mode. A data set of values can have no modes, one mode, or more than one mode.  Mode is used to determine popularity or commonly recurring events. A mnemonic used to remember this term is to think of the word "most," which is similar to "mode." Mode is/are the values that appear the most.

The Largest Lake

The Caspian Sea

Political Location

The political divisions within continent that designates various countries.

crest

top of a wave

Hafnium

Symbol: Hf Atomic Mass: 178.5 Atomic Number: 72

Mercury

Symbol: Hg Atomic Mass: 200.6 Atomic Number: 80

Iodine

Symbol: I Atomic Mass: 126.9 Atomic Number: 53

Indium

Symbol: In Atomic Mass: 114.8 Atomic Number: 49

Iridium

Symbol: Ir Atomic Mass: 192.2 Atomic Number: 77

Potassium

Symbol: K Atomic Mass: 39.10 Atomic Number: 19

Krypton

Symbol: Kr Atomic Mass: 83.80 Atomic Number: 36

Lithium

Symbol: Li Atomic Mass: 3 Atomic Number: 6.94

Livermorium

Symbol: Lv Atomic Mass: Atomic Number: 116

Moscovium

Symbol: Mc Atomic Mass: Atomic Number: 115

Magnesium

Symbol: Mg Atomic Mass: 24.31 Atomic Number: 12

Manganese

Symbol: Mn Atomic Mass: 54.94 Atomic Number: 25

Molybdenum

Symbol: Mo Atomic Mass: 95.94 Atomic Number: 42

Nitrogen

Symbol: N Atomic Mass: 14.01 Atomic Number: 7

Sodium

Symbol: Na Atomic Mass: 22.99 Atomic Number: 11

Niobium

Symbol: Nb Atomic Mass: 92.91 Atomic Number: 41

Neon

Symbol: Ne Atomic Mass: 20.18 Atomic Number: 10

Oxygen

Symbol: O Atomic Mass: 16.00 Atomic Number: 8

Oganesson

Symbol: Og Atomic Mass: Atomic Number: 118

Osmium

Symbol: Os Atomic Mass: 190.2 Atomic Number: 76

Phosphorus

Symbol: P Atomic Mass: 30.97 Atomic Number: 15

Roentgenium

Symbol: Rg Atomic Mass: Atomic Number: 111

Radon

Symbol: Rn Atomic Mass: Atomic Number: 86

Silicon

Symbol: Si Atomic Mass: 28.09 Atomic Number: 14

Tantalum

Symbol: Ta Atomic Mass: 180.9 Atomic Number: 73

Tellurium

Symbol: Te Atomic Mass: 127.6 Atomic Number: 52

Perpendicular Lines

"Perpendicular lines are lines that meet or intersect at 90° angles. The slope of one is the negative reciprocal of the other.     <img src=""pasteiktpd5.png"" />"

centrifugal force

all of the bodies that are orbiting that star are held in their paths by ~ the balance between inertia and gravity

Kepler's First Law of Planetary motion

all planets orbit the sun in a path that resembles an ellipse, with the sun being located at one of the foci of that ellipse

Doppler Effect

an increase (or decrease) in the frequency of sound, light, or other waves as the source emitting or rejecting the waves and the observer move toward (or away from) each other, which in turn changes the pitch we hear. Ex: sudden change in pitch noticeable in a passing siren ex2: used to predict weather patterns (~ radar) ex3: cops use for speed guns to catch ppl speeding ex4: redshift observed by astronomers: (light waves from distant galaxies look red because are moving fast away from the Milky Way, the galaxy in which Earth is located while nearer galaxies look much less red because they are moving away at relatively slower speeds)

Abraham Lincoln

16th President of the United States. He saved the Union during the Civil War and emancipated the slaves; was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth in 1865.

Assassination of Robert Kennedy (1968)

1968: Democratic presidential who ran for president in 1968 promoting civil rights and other equality based ideals. He was ultimately assassinated in 1968, leaving Nixon to take the presidency but instilling hope in many Americans.

Knights of Labor

1st effort to create National union. Open to everyone but lawyers and bankers. Vague program, no clear goals, weak leadership and organization. Failed

Algebraic Symbol Manipulation

"Algebraic Symbol Manipulation means to solve for a variable in a formula means to find an equivalent equation in which the desired variable is isolated. Follow the same general strategies as solving any equation.       Example: P = 2L + 2W, solve for W    P = 2L + 2W -2L   -2L               Addition Property P - 2L   =  2W P - 2L = 2W    2           2             Multiplication Property <img src=""paste2kdom8.png"" /> "

Complementary Angles

"Complementary angles are two angles whose measure adds to 90°.    <img src=""pastewt8zfx.png"" />"

Congruent Shapes

"Congruent shapes are two shapes of exactly the same size and shape. The two shapes may be rotated or flipped. The common way to mark the matching sides and angles of congruent shapes is with hash marks as shown below: <img src=""pastepp88mc.png"" />"

Continuous Data

"Continuous variables can assume an infinite number of values between any two specific values. They are obtained by measuring. They often include fractions and decimals. <img src=""pasteo0hvqs.png"" />"

Right Angle

"A right angle is an angle that measures 90°    <img src=""pastepowczn.png"" />"

Nematoda

Roundworms; nonsegmented; digestive track that runs directly from the mouth to the anus

The Cuban Missile Crisis (1961)

(JFK) An international crisis in October 1962, the closest approach to nuclear war at any time. When the U.S. discovered Soviet nuclear missiles on Cuba, President John F. Kennedy demanded their removal and announced a naval blockade of the island; the Soviet leader Khrushchev acceded to the U.S. demands a week later, on condition that US doesn't invade Cuba.

Common examples of alkalines (bases), listed from least to most basic

(distilled water: neutral) hand soap ammonium bleach lye

Common examples of acids, listed from least to most acidic

(distilled water: neutral) milk coffee beer vinegar gastric acid lead battery acid hydrochloric acid

*Lithosphere* (=Geosphere)

(earth) Rock, ground, actual Earth Earth's solid, outer layer strong, cold, rigid outer shell of the Earth, composed of crust and uppermost part of mantle, made up of 12 plates, earthquakes occur within it

Asteroids

(minor planets)- small rocky worlds which orbit the sun, Mars and Jupiter * icy nucleus heats by the solar wind

What would the graph of the motion for the following scenario look like? Plane takes off from JFK, flies to Chicago where it sits on the runway for an hour, then takes off from Chicago to LA, then sits on runway for an hour, then goes back to JFK.

(see pic) *note* distance keeps going up or is flat, does not go backwards, because even if change direction, still adding distance to trip

*Hydrosphere*

(water) all the bodies of water on earth's surface

3 Domains of Organism

* Archea (Prokaryotic Single Celled Organisms) * Bacteria (Uni Celled Prokaryotic micro-organisms) * Eukaryotes (Organisms whose cells have nucleus and sp. organelles)

Thermoshere

* Auroras * Air is very thin * Temperature increases with altitude * Space shuttles orbits here

Capillaries

* Connect w/ the arteries and veins * Smallest of the blood vessels * Oxygen, nutrients, and wastes are exchanged within the tissues.

Four Types of Tissue

* Epithelial - protection, secretion and absorption * Connective - holds everything together * Muscle - provides movement and force * Nervous - brain, spinal cord, peripheral nervous system

Traposhere

* First layer above the earth's surface * Weather occurs here *Pressure/ Temperature decreases with altitude

Tectonic Plates

* Large movable plates under the Earth's surface. * Located btw Lithosphere and Asthenosphere * Earthquakes

Ozone Layer

* Layer of the stratosphere * Absorbs most of the Sun's harmful ultraviolet radiation

Aurora Borealis

* Northern Lights Display - Formed in the upper layers of the earth's atmosphere (ionosphere) * Caused by excited oxygen & nitrogen * Northern Hemisphere

Exosphere

* Outer most layer w/ few particles * Merges with space

water cycle

*may have to diagram on test as a written response*

Andrew Jackson

- Jackson's election is considered the beginning of the modern political party system and the start of the Democratic Party. - Jeffersonian democracy, a system governed by upper/middle class educated property owners, was replaced by Jacksonian Democracy, a system that allowed universal white male suffrage.

Lysosome

-A sac in the cell that has digestive enzymes that can break down cell waste and old cell parts that have died **Found mostly in animal cells, rarely in plants

Nucleus

-Control center or "brain of the cell" -Contains the DNA (genetic material stored in chromosomes) **Found in both plant & animal cells

Endoplasmic Reticulum (Rough & Smooth)

-Folded membranes that act like a road in the cell, transporting substances such as proteins. Rough ER are rough due to the presence of ribosome; Smooth ER lacks ribosomes **Found in both plant & animal cells

Ribosomes

-Makes proteins in the cell -Found in cytoplasm and on rough endoplasmic reticulum, but initially made in the nucleolus **Found in both plant and animal cells

The Five Themes of Geography

1) Location - Such a relative or specific location 2) Place - Physical characteristics (beaches, deserts, mountains, plains) or human characteristics (architecture, roads, industries) 3) Human-Environmental Interactions - Human adaption to the environment (using umbrellas when it rains), human modification of the environment (building terraces to prevent soil erosion), Human dependance of the environment for food, water, natural resources. 4) Movement - Interaction through trade, migrations, communications, political boundaries, etc. 5) Regions - Formal Regions (city, states, countries), functional regions (defined by a common organization as defined as political boundaries, like school districts), and vernacular regions (informal divisions determined by perceptions or one's mental image, such as the "Far East".

Newton's Laws

1. An object at rest or in motion will remain at rest or in motion unless acted upon by an external force 2. An object's acceleration is directly proportional to the net force acting on the object, and inversely proportional to the object's mass 3. For every fore, there is an equal and opposite force

The 10 Largest Lakes

1. Caspian Sea, Azerbaijan-Russia-Kazakhstan-Turkmenistan-Iran (salt water) 2. Superior, U.S.-Canada 3. Victoria, Tanzania-Uganda 4. Huron, U.S.-Canada 5. Michigan, U.S. 6. Aral, Kazakhstan-Uzbekistan 7. Tanganyika, Tanzania-Congo 8. Baikal, Russia 9. Great Bear, Canada 10. Nyasa, Malawi-Mozambique-Tanzania

Three Main Temperature Measures

1. Celsius- base reference points of water freezing at 0 degrees and boiling at 100 degrees 2. Fahrenheit- base reference points of water freezing at 32 degrees and boiling at 212 degrees 3. Kelvin- absolute temperature scale

Colonization Efforts in Massachusetts. Maryland, Rhode Island, and Pennslyvania

1629, 400 Puritans arrived in Salem. which would become a famous port and later for the "Witch Trials". 1628, the self-governed Massachusetts Bay Company was organized, and the Massachusetts Indians sold most of the land to the English. 1630, Boston was established. 1638, Harvard University was established.

What number does MMCCXCIV represent in Roman numerals? explain

2,294 In Roman numerals, when a smaller value appears to the left of a higher value, flip those two numbers around and subtract. The number can only be one place value away though to do the flip thing. (ex: cannot do 2,300 - 6 as MMIIVCCC) MM = 2,000 CC = 200 XC = (100-10) =90 IV = (5 - 1) = 4 so, 2000+200+90+4 = 2,294

When did the first anatomically modern humans (homo sapien sapiens) appear on Earth?

200,000 years ago

Tilt of the Earth

23.5 degrees; causes the seasons and affects the temperature because it affects the amount of sun the area receives

There is a bag of candy with 8 chocolates, 11 peppermints, 13 gumdrops and 9 pieces of licorice inside. Amy takes one out randomly and gets a gumdrop. What is the probability that the next candy she takes out will be either a gumdrop or a peppermint?

23/40

Time Zones

24 hour zones that 1,000 miles apart from the other, each one is an hour before or after the one next to it. It helps to differentiate between the different times from one point on the Earth to another point.

How many oceans are there?

5 Oceans: Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Southern Ocean, and the Arctic Ocean.

real-world problems adding fractions Chad, a pet store employee, wants to fit two fish tanks on one table. One fish tank is 2/5 of a foot wide and the other fish tank is 3/10 of a foot wide. When placed next to each other, what is the total width of the two fish tanks? At the neighborhood block party, Mario served 7/10 of a gallon of hot chocolate and 2/5 of a gallon of apple cider. How much more hot chocolate than apple cider did Mario serve?

7/10 ft

The Scarlet Letter

A novel about Hester Prynne, a woman in seventeenth century New England who is convicted of adultery. At the beginning of the story, she is forced to wear a scarlet letter A on her dress as a sign of her guilt. Hester will not reveal the identity of her partner in adultery. Her husband comes to realize who her lover is and takes revenge on him. Eventually, her dying lover publicly admits his part in the adultery.

Absolute Value

Absolute value is the value portion of a number without a sign. Absolute values are also described as the distance on a number line from 0. Zero is the only number that is its own absolute value (because zero is neither positive nor negative).    See the flashcard on the "Properties of Absolute Value." <div> </div>

Algebra

Algebra is the study of numbers, number patterns, and relationships among numbers. Algebra generalizes these numbers, number patterns, and relationships. It is often said that algebraic thinking is the study of number patterns.

Algebraic Thinking

Algebraic thinking is the mathematics we teach and learn to prepare us to understand algebra. In elementary schools, algebraic thinking is the study of our number system, patterns, representations, and mathematical reasoning.

Approximating Square Roots

Approximating square roots means to find the approximate value of a number's square root. We find approximate square roots by comparing the number to perfect square numbers where the square roots are known.<div> </div><div>For example, to find the approximate square root of 51, use the fact that 7 x 7 = 49 and 8 x 8 = 64. Since 51 is between the perfect squares of 49 and 64 (but closer to 49 than 64), the approximate square root of 51 is between 7 and 8 (but closer to 7 than 8). The approximate square root of 51 is 7.1 or 7.2</div>

Units of Capacity (Define & List Units of Measure)

Capacity (also known as volume) is the amount of space inside an object.  The measurement of capacity/volume in the metric system is the liter. In the customary or U. S. English system, refer to the table below: 1 pint (pt) = 2 cups (c) 1 quart (qt) = 2 pints (pt) 1 quart (qt) = 4 cups (c) 1 gallon (gal) = 4 quarts (qt) 1 gallon (gal) = 8 pints (pt) 1 gallon (gal) = 16 cups (c)

Cardinal Numbers

Cardinal Numbers are numbers used to indicate quantity. The Cardinal Numbers are the same as the Natural Numbers (for the purposes of elementary school students' understanding).

Collinear

Collinear describes two or more points that are on the same line (they are in a straight row or lined up).

Zero (as an Integer)

Zero is an integer and divides a number line into  -|+ The number zero has some interesting properties: • Division by zero is undefined • Zero is neither positive nor negative • Zero is the additive identity • Any number multiplied by zero equals zero • Zero is used as the universal place holder • Zero is neither prime nor composite • Zero has no multiplicative inverse • A number with an exponent of zero equals 1 • Zero factorial equals 1

Multiples

A *multiple* is the product of the number and the counting numbers (1-9) any quantity and an integer. Multiples may be found by counting by the number. A calculator may also be used to find multiples - enter the quantity, hit the plus sign, enter the quantity again, and then hit the equal symbol. Then keep hitting the equal symbol to see successive multiples. Example: Find Multiples of 23: 23 + 23 = 46, = 69, = 92, = 115, etc. 23 x 1, 23 x 2, 23 x 3, 23 x 4, 23 x 5, etc.

Flow Charts

A flow chart is a diagram used to visually describe an algorithm. A flow chart shows a step-by-step path for the algorithm.    Small circles are used to show the start and end points. Diamonds are used for decisions -- to ask questions and branch the flow chart depending on the answer to the question. A rectangle is used to show a process or action step. Input and output are represented by parallelograms. Other symbols are used in more complex flow charts.

Frequency Distribution

A frequency distribution is an organized way to display the results from an experiment. Frequency distribution tables are often used in probability for situations that do not use sample spaces (a set listing ALL possible outcomes in an experiment).  The three types of probabilities are classical, empirical, and subjective. The probability for situations that use a frequency distribution is called Empirical Probability or Relative Frequency Probability. Classical probability uses a list of ALL possible outcomes. Subjective probability is based on a person's knowledge of the situation (an educated guess).

Function

A function is a relation between a set of inputs and a set of potential outputs with the property that each input is related to exactly one output.

Patterns

A pattern is a type of theme of recurring events or objects, sometimes referred to as elements of a set of objects. It is said that algebra is a study of patterns.

Polyhedron (definition only)

A polyhedron is any three-dimensional solid with faces, edges, and vertices. Euler's formula describes an interesting property of convex polyhedron:  V - E + F = 2

Sequence

A sequence is a set of members where order is important. For example, the sequence of letters ABC is entirely difference from the sequence of letters ACB - although we are using the same three letters, they are in different order.

Tessellation

A tessellation is a two-dimensional plane created by one or more polygon shapes fitted into each other so no "open space" remains. Kepler first discussed tessellations in the early 1600's. Equilateral triangles, squares, and hexagons are the only regular polygons that tessellate. There exists an entire branch of geometry about tessellations, begun by Russian scientist Fyodorov in the late 1800's. Tessellations for 3+ dimensional spaces are also defined.

Variable

A variable is used in algebra to represent a value that changes within the parameters of the problem. The opposite of a variable is a constant. Lowercase letters of the alphabet are generally used to denote a variable. There are two types of variables: dependent and independent.

equilibrium

A condition in which all influences/forces acting on an object cancel each other out, so that a static or balanced situation results. -object is at rest -object is in state of uniform motion (constant speed/constant distance) -no *resultant force* (aka "net force") on the object (no one force stronger than any other and able to pull object) *acceleration = 0* ex: man doing a headstand - he is pushing his body up with an equal amount of muscle force that gravity is pulling his body down ex2: string with a weight tied to the end. Gravity pulls string down while the string pulls the weight up. These two forces are equal and opposite to each other. Together, they cancel each other out. The weight is "at rest" with no net forces acting on it.

Anne Hutchison

A devoted Puritan, started to hold prayer meetings where they discussed sermons and compared ministers. this created a problem for Puritan leaders; in 1637, the General Court called her to trial to answer to charges of heresy, and was banished. Help found Rhode Island after exile.

Direct Object

A direct object is a noun or pronoun that recieves the action of the verb.

Primary Source

A document or physical object which was written or created during the time under study.

Ad Hominem

A fallacy that attacks the person rather than dealing with the real issue in dispute.

Personification

A figure of speech in which an object or animal is given human feelings, thoughts, or attitudes

Metonymy

A figure of speech in which the name of one object is substituted for that of another closely associated with it. For example, a news release that claims "the White House declared" rather than "the President declared".

Hyperbole

A figure of speech that uses exaggeration to express strong emotion, make a point, or evoke humor

Oligarchy

A form of government in which the power to rule is held by a small, usually self-appointed elite.

K-W-L Chart

A graphical organizer designed to help in learning. The letters KWL are an acronym, for what students, in the course of a lesson, already know, want to know, and ultimately learn. A KWL table is typically divided into three columns titled Know, Want and Learned.

Tissue

A group of similar cells that perform the same function.

Anti-Federalist

A group who opposed the ratification of the Constitution in 1787. They opposed a strong central government (tyranny) and supported states' rights.

Phototropism

A growth response to light

Galaxy

A huge group of single stars, star systems, star clusters, dust, and gas bound together by gravity

The Virginia Company

A joint-stock company proposed by James I in 1606 hoping to establish settlements on the coast of North America.

Delta

A land form made of sediment that is deposited where a river flows into an ocean or lake.

How were the first eukaryotic cells created?

A larger prokaryote engulfed a smaller prokaryote. The smaller prokaryote that was inside then became the nucleus. This became a Eukaryotic cell.

Hepburn Act of 1906

A law that gave the government the authority to set railroad rates and maximum prices for ferries, bridge tolls, and oil pipelines.

Tropic of Capricorn

A line of latitude about 23 degrees South of the equator.

Line Structure in Poems

A line of poetry can be any length and any metrical pattern. A line is determined by the physical portion of words on a page,. A line is simply a group of words on a single line.

Valleys

A low area between mountains or hills where streams and rivers often flow.

Isoline

A map line that connects points of equal or very similar values.

Cylindrical Projections

A map projection that is made by moving the surface features of the globe onto a cylinder.

Convert Mixed Number to Improper Fraction

A mixed number indicates the whole amounts and the parts (a fraction). For each whole number, there are a complete number of parts (for example, if the parts are measured in thirds, each whole has three thirds). To convert a mixed number to an improper fraction, multiply the whole number by how many parts are in a whole, and then add the remaining parts. For example, 6 2/3 means there are 6 whole amounts of 3/3 (6 x 3 = 18) so there are 18/3. Adding the remaining 2/3 results in a total of 20/3 in 6 2/3.

New Moon

A moon that is completely dark because it's unlit side is facing Earth

Gilded Age

A name for the late 1800s, coined by Mark Twain to describe the tremendous increase in wealth caused by the industrial age and the ostentatious lifestyles it allowed the very rich. The great industrial success of the U.S. and the fabulous lifestyles of the wealthy hid the many social problems of the time, including a high poverty rate, a high crime rate, and corruption in the government.

Basin

A natural depression in the surface of the land often with a lake at the bottom of it.

Land form

A natural feature of the Earth's surface. Ex: hills, plateau, mountains, plains , etc.

Ralph Waldo Emerson

American transcendentalist who was against slavery and stressed self-reliance, optimism, self-improvement, self-confidence, and freedom; prime example of a transcendentalist; He wrote "Nature" and "Self-Reliance".

dividend

A number that is divided INTO by another number. -the first number in a division problem when it is across for example, 2 is the dividend in 2 ÷ 3 -It is the number inside the bracket in long division

Common Sense

A pamphlet written by Thomas Paine in 1776 that criticized monarchies and convinced many American colonists of the need to break away from Britain.

Authoritarianism

A political system in which a small group of individuals exercises power over the state without being constitutionally responsible to the public.

Feudalism

A political system in which nobles are granted the use of lands that legally belong to their king, in exchange for their loyalty, military service, and protection of the people who live on the land.

Totalitarism

A political system in which the state holds total authority over the society and seeks to control all aspects of public and private life wherever possible.

Liberal Democracy

A political system that promotes participation, competition, and liberty and emphasizes individual freedom and civil rights.

Preposition

A preposition relates a noun or pronoun following it to another word in the sentence. Examples: above, by for in, out, through, to.

Edgar Allan Poe

American writer known especially for his macabre poems, such as "The Raven", and short stories, including "The Fall of the House of Usher", "Tell-Tale Heart", and "The Cask of Amontillado".

Sons of Liberty

A radical political organization formed by Samuel Adams after the passage of the Stamp Act to protest various British acts; organization used both peaceful and violent means of protest.

Dorothea Dix

A reformer and pioneer in the movement to treat the insane as mentally ill, beginning in the 1820's. She was responsible for improving conditions in jails, poorhouses and insane asylums throughout the U.S. and Canada. She succeeded in persuading many states to assume responsibility for the care of the mentally ill. She served as the Superintendant of Nurses for the Union Army during the Civil War.

Ancient Mesopotamia

A religion in and around the Tigris-Euphrates river system in which some of the earliest known civilization formed. it includes Sumer, Assyria, and Babylonia.

Topic Sentence

A sentence, most often appearing at the beginning of a paragraph, that announces the paragraph's idea and often unites it with the work's thesis.

Herman Melville

American writer whose experiences at sea provided the factual basis of Moby-Dick (1851), considered among the greatest American novels

Short Story

A story with a fully developed theme but significantly shorter and less elaborate than a novel.

Trochaic Meter

A stressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllable.

Dactylic Meter

A stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables.

Vocabulary Development

A student's vocabulary can be developed by... 1) Calling upon a student's prior knowledge and making comparisons to that knowledge. 2) Defining a word and providing multiple examples of the use of a word in context. 3) Showing a student how to use context clues to discover the meaning of a word. 4) Providing instruction on prefixes, roots, and suffixes to help students break a word in to its parts and decipher its meaning. 5) Showing students how to use a dictionary and a thesaurus. 6) Asking students to practice new vocabulary by using the words in their own writing 7) Providing a print-rich environment with a word wall 8) Studying a group of words related to a single subject so that concept development is enhanced.

Asthenoshere

A subdivision of the upper mantle situated below the lithosphere, a zone of malleable rock that moves over time

Caste System

A system in India that gives every Indian a particular place in the social hierarchy from birth. Individuals may improve the position in their next life through their actions, or karma. After many lives of good karma, they may be relieved from the cycle of life and win their place in heaven.

Federalism

A system in which power is divided between the national and state governments.

Absolute Monarchy

A system of government in which the head of state is a hereditary position and the king or queen has almost complete power

Autocracy

A system of government in which the power to rule is in the hands of a single individual.

Checks and Balances

A system that allows each branch of government to limit the powers of the other branches in order to prevent abuse of power.

Taiga

A terrestrial habitat zone that is characterized by large tracts of coniferous forests, long and cold winters, and short summers

Cell Membrane

A thin, flexible barrier around a cell; regulates what enters and leaves the cell by osmosis, diffusion, active transport

Trapezoid

A trapezoid is a convex quadrilateral with at least one pair of parallel sides. The parallel sides are called bases and the other two sides are called legs. A = 1/2h(b1 + b2) P = add all four sides

proportion

A true statement that two ratios or fractions are equal. Every proportion is made up of 4 numbers. (2 numerators and 2 denominators) If have a variable, cross multiply to solve. ex: x/9 = 12/54 54x= (9)(12) 54x= 108 (54x)÷54 = 108÷54 x=2

Inductive Reasoning

A type of logic in which generalizations are based on a large number of specific observations.

Gerund

A verb ending in 'ing' to serve as a noun - 'Stabbing (used as a noun) is what i do said the thief.'

Linking Verbs

A verb that connects a subject with a word that describes or identifies it. Example: is, am, were, was, are, be, being, been) (Jenna is happy)

Infinitive

A verbal that is formed using "to" plus the plain form of the verb. They can be used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb.

Articles of Confederation

Adopted in 1777 during the Revolutionary War, the Articles established the United States of America. The Articles granted limited powers to the central government, reserving most powers for the states. The result was a poorly defined national state that couldn't govern the country's finances or maintain stability.

Lord Baltimore

Founded the colony of Maryland and offered religious freedom to all Christian colonists. He did so because he knew that members of his own religion (Catholicism) would be a minority in the colony.

Item Analysis (Praxis study tip)

After taking a practice test, do an item analysis of each problem you missed: 1. What competency/domain is it assessing? 2. What specific concept or skills it is assessing? 3. What is the reason you missed the problem? 4. What were the possible stem distractors that caused the error? 5. What vocabulary should you learn? Add this concept to your study plan as an area of focus.

Reconstruction

After the Civil War between the years of 1865 - 1877, President Andrew Johnson continued Lincoln's plan after his death. Union troops sent to the South to keep the people under control. Former slaves could vote, blacks elected to public office. When the Northern Troops left, the southerners ignored the rights of blacks.

Rocks

Aggregates of one or more minerals. and may also contain mineraloids and organic remains; classified based on their formation and the minerals they contain

Igneous Rock

Burning, Molten rock (from work "ignite") Underground = magma After erupts onto Earth's surface = Lava (Can happen under water or above ground) Cool water/air cools very quickly: lots of impurities Rocks that have a lot of speckling/impurities are usually igneous rock Ex: Granite Wind, Rain, Ice break down rock into smaller and smaller pieces. Then get deposited into sedimentary rock beds

Genotype

All genes- both recessive and dominant

Capitalization

All proper names, all titles, positions, or indications of family relation when preceding a proper name or in place of a proper noun, days of the week, months, and holidays, names of organizations and membership designations, racial, religious, and political designations, specific addresses and geographic locations, sums of money written in legal or business documents, titles or headings of books, magazines, and newspapers.

Judicial Review

Allows the court to determine the constitutionality of laws.

Bill of Rights

Although the Anti-Federalists failed to block the ratification of the Constitution, they did ensure that the Bill of Rights would be created to protect individuals from government interference and possible tyranny. The Bill of Rights, drafted by a group led by James Madison, consisted of the first ten amendments to the Constitution, which guaranteed the civil rights of American citizens.

Henry David Thoreau

American transcendentalist who was against a government that supported slavery. He wrote "Walden" and "Civil Disobedience". He started the movement of civil-disobedience when he refused to pay the toll-tax to support him Mexican War.

Harmonic Series

An *harmonic series* is the sum of progressive unit fractions: 1/1 + 1/2 + 1/3 +1/4 + 1/5......

Algorithm

An algorithm is a step-by-step process for solving a problem. An example of an addition algorithm is: 1. Line up the numbers 2. Add each column starting on the right 3. Carry any tens-place digits to the next column 4. Place commas between periods in the answer An algorithm is often written as a flowchart showing steps, branches, and decisions.

Angle

An angle is the figure formed by two rays, called the sides of the angle, which share a common endpoint, called the *vertex* of the angle. An angle can be named by its vertex or by naming a point on each leg with the vertex point in the middle. The angle below is Angle B or Angle ABC, also written as ∠ABC.

Biome

An area in which species are associated because of climate

Centripetal Force

An attitude that tends to unify people and enhance support for a state

Hypothesis

An educated guess that is not yet proven; used to predict the outcome of an experiment in an attempt to solve a problem or answer a question

Orogeny

An episode of intense deformation of the rocks in a region, generally accompanied by metamorphism and plutonic activity.

Odd vs. Even Numbers

An even number is an integer that is evenly divisible by 2 (without a remainder). Note that the number zero is an even number. An odd number is an integer that is NOT evenly divisible by 2.

Prime Meridian

An imaginary line passing through the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, England, which marks the 0° line of longitude.

Convert Improper Fraction to Mixed Number

An improper fraction shows a total number of parts, but contained in those parts is at least one whole. If the parts are measured in thirds, each three in the numerator of the improper fraction makes one whole. To convert an improper fraction to a mixed number, divide the numerator by how many parts are in a whole. The quotient becomes the whole number and the remainder becomes the numerator of the fraction part of the mixed number. For example, 23/3 equals 23 divided by 3, which is 7 r 2 or 7 2/3

Biomagnification

An increase in concentration of a substance within a food chain; affected by the persistence of a chemical, whether it can be broken down and negated, food energetics, and whether organisms can reduce or negate the substance

Mars

Fourth planet from the sun; iron oxide on the surface; thin atmosphere; rotational period similar to Earth and seasonal cycles; volcanoes, valleys, deserts, and polar ice caps

Kinetic Theory of Gases

Assumes that gas molecules are small compared to the distances between them and that they are in constant random motion

Faulty Causations

Assuming there is a causal relationship between two variables when it could just be coincidence, correlation, etc.

The Driest Land

Atacama Desert

Division of Powers

Basic principle of federalism; the constitutional provisions by which governmental powers are divided on a geographic basic (in the United States, between the National Government and the States)

How does a circuit work?

Battery/generator produces force (voltage) that drives current (flow of electrons) through circuit and back again. 2 conducting wires form a circle, 1 electrons in, 1 electrons out Switch is off: gap in circuit (circuit is 'open') - electrons can't flow around. Switch is on: closes gap (circuit is 'closed') and the electricity is able to move and make the device work. Ex: Two wires connect to light, so that electrons can flow through light bulb and back out.

Dynamic Characters

Characters who change significantly.

Round Characters

Characters who have some or many different traits that form a complex personality.

Threat Display

Behavior by an organism that is intended to intimidate or frighten away members of its own or another species

Oral Language Development

Being involved in open-ended (whole group, small group, and one-on-one) discussions, read- alouds, echo reading, songs, nursery rhymes, storytelling, readers theater, close activities, poetry, role play and drama, fingerplays, etc.

Manifest Destiny

Belief that it was the US' right to expand from coast to coast. Built on white racial superiority and American cultural superiority, major debates of the time period.

Diffraction

Bending of waves around small objects and the spreading out of waves past small openings

Alliance with France

Benjamin Franklin negotiated an agreement with France to fight with the Americans in 1778.

Horace Mann

Secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education; "Father of the public school system"; A prominent proponent of public school reform, and set the standard for public schools throughout the nation; lengthened academic year; pro training & higher salaries to teachers

Thermodynamics

Branch of physics that studies the conversion of energy into work and hear; concerned with variables such as temperature, volume, and pressure; takes places within three different types of systems: open, isolated, and closed systems

Lyell (1797-1875)

British geologist who believed in geographical uniformitarianism, which can be contrasted with catastrophism

Alfred Russell Wallace (1823-1913)

British naturalist who independently developed a theory of evolution by natural selection; believed in the transmutation or species

Boston Massacre

British soldiers fired into a crowd of colonists who were teasing and taunting them. Five colonists were killed. The colonists blamed the British and the Sons of Liberty and used this incident as an excuse to promote the Revolution.

Indus Valley

C.3000-C.1750 BCE A civilization extending from what today is now Pakistan to northwest India and northeast Afghanistan. It flourished in the basins of the Indus River. At its peak it had a population of over five million. The Indus cities are noted for their urban planning, baked brick houses, elaborate drainage systems, water supply systems, and clusters of large non-residential buildings.

Isolated System

Cannot exchange heat, work, or matter with its surroundings

Open System

Capable of interacting with a surrounding environment and can exchange heat, work (energy), and matter outside their system boundaries

Interphase

Cell prepares for division by replicating its genetics and cytoplasmic material

eukaryotic cell

Cell with a nucleus (surrounded by its own membrane) and other internal organelles.

Eukaryotic Cells

Cells with a nucleus -nucleus controls cell and interaction with other cells -cells inside human beings are this type of cell

Theme

Central idea of a work of literature

Base Maps

Created from aerial and field surveys. It is typically designed to provide a visual reference for other layers to help orient the user of the map. Aerial imagery, terrain, and streets are examples.

Acceleration

Change in the velocity of an object; constant value

Metamorphic Rock

Changed by great heat and pressure; results in a variety of outcomes including deformation, compaction, destruction of the characteristics of the original rock, bending, folding, and formation of new minerals because of chemical reactions, and changes in the size and shape of the mineral grain

Genetic Mutations

Changes in the genetic material of cells that passes from one generation to another.

Double Replacement Reaction

Chemical reactants exchange ions but the oxidation state stays the same

Written Language Development

Children see and interact with print like books, magazines, grocery lists in everyday situations. Children begin to combine what they know about speaking and listening with what they know about print.

CFCs

Chloroflurocarbons - Responsible for breaking down the ozone layer.

Prophase

Chromatin thickens into chromosomes and the nuclear membrane begins to disintegrate

circulatory system

Circulation of Blood - to transport nutrients and gasses to cells and tissues throughout body (heart, blood, and blood vessels)

Mercury

Closest to the sun and is also the smallest planet; orbits the sun every 88 days, has no satellites or atmosphere; moon-like surface with craters; dense and rocky with a large iron core

Nucleon

Collectively to neutrons and protons

Ecosystem

Community of species and all of the environment factors that affect them

Precipitation

Condensed water vapor falls to Earth

Weather

Condition of the atmosphere at any given moment; includes changing events such as clouds, storms, and temperature, as well as more extreme events such as tornadoes, hurricanes, and blizzards

Scientific Fact

Considered an objective and verifiable observation

The Solar System

Consist of the sun, moon, 8 planets and their moon, meteors, asteroids, and comets

Lever

Consists of a bar or plank and a pivot point or fulcrum

Separation of Powers

Constitutional division of powers among the Legislative, Executive, and Judicial branches, with the Legislative branch making laws, the Executive applying and enforcing the law, and the Judiciary interpreting the law.

Charles Robert Darwin

Contributing to the survival of the fittest through natural selection theory of evolution by observing different species of birds, specifically finches, in various geological locations; discovered fossils, noted stratification, dissected marine animals, and interacted with indigenous peoples

Nucleus

Control center of the cell. Contains DNA.

Electromagnetic Spectrum

Defined by frequency and wavelength

Definition by Negation

Defining a term by noting what the term is not.

Latitude

Distance north or south of the equator

Chemical Equations

Describe chemical reactions; reactants on the left side before the arrow and the products are on the right side after the arrow

Survey

Designating a few key sites of known elevation as benchmarks to allow measurements of other locations.

Role of Emotions in Poetry

Designed to appeal to the physical and emotional senses through word choice and style.

Rates of Chemical Reactions

Determined by how frequently reacting atoms and molecules interact

Isotope

Distinguish between atoms that have the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons

Three kinds of tectonic plate boundaries

Divergent Transform Convergent

Unbalanced Equation

Does not follow the law of conservation of mass, which states that matter can only be changed, not created

Kinetic Energy

Doesn't change with time as long as the temperature remains the same

Prokaryotic Cells

Don't contain membrane-bound organelles; genetic material is not contained within a membrane-bound nucleus; aggregates in the cytoplasm in a nucleoid; usually divide by binary fission and are haploid

Invertebrates

Don't have backbones

Declaration of Independence

Drafted in 1776 by Thomas Jefferson declaring America's separation from Great Britain (3 parts-New theory of government, reasons for separation, formal declaration of war and independence).

Steppe Regions

Dry flatlands, interior of Asia and North America. They can be grasslands or deserts.

Nixon Doctrine

During the Vietnam War, the Nixon Doctrine was created. It stated that the United States would honor its existing defense commitments, but in the future other countries would have to fight their own wars without support of American troops.

Why do compasses point north?

Earth behaves like a giant bar magnet with one pole up in the Arctic (near the north pole) and another pole down in Antarctica (near the south pole). Needle in compass is being attracted something near Earth's north pole. Since unlike poles attract, the thing your compass is being attracted to must be a magnetic south pole. In other words, the thing we call Earth's magnetic north pole is actually the south pole of the magnet inside Earth. That's quite a confusing idea, but it'll make sense if you always remember that unlike poles attract.

How can electricity be generated and used to power a lightbulb?

Elec. generated when something spins a generator. >magnet inside the generator rotates, causes electrons to build up, builds a charge on the coil in the generator > electrons want to "ground out" (aka bond with other atoms) > when given a path along a good conductor such as copper wire, electrons will follow wire > put light bulb along wire, in lightbulb put filament made of very resistant metal like tungsten. (Resistant means electrons really have to push to get through it which creates lots of friction, which turns to heat and makes the wire glow, which creates light) > then electrons go back out on the neutral wire to ground out *when filament heats up and starts glowing, converts electrical energy to light energy*

Richard Nixon

Elected President in 1968 and 1972 representing the Republican party. He was responsible for getting the United States out of the Vietnam War by using "Vietnamization", which was the withdrawal of 540,000 troops from South Vietnam for an extended period. He was responsible for the Nixon Doctrine. Was the first President to ever resign, due to the Watergate scandal.

Thermal Contact

Energy transferred to a body by a means other than work; can exchange energy with it through the process of heat transfer; does not necessarily involve direct physical contact

For making educated guesses on the Praxis test, what is good to know about the choices?

Except in cases where the problem asks you to compare or order numbers, all answer choices are listed in numerical order. If you must guess, start with the middle answer choice and adjust up or down from there until you find the correct answer.

Closed System

Exchange heat and work, but not matter

Gregor Johann Mendel

Experimenting with pea plants to observe the occurrence of inherited traits; father of genetics

Law

Explanation of events that always lead to the same outcome

Arthropoda

External skeletons, jointed appendages, bilateral symmetry, and nerve cords; open circulatory systems and sense organs

Jupiter

Fifth planet from the sun; largest planet in the solar system; consists mainly of hydrogen, and 25% of mass is made up of helium; fast rotation and has clouds in the tropopause composed of ammonia crystals that are arranged into bands sub-divided into lighter-hued zones and darker belts causing storms and turbulence; wind speeds of 100 m/s; 63 moons; planetary ring

First 10 Cubed Numbers

First 10 Cubed Numbers: 1, 8, 27, 64, 125, 216, 343, 512, 729, 1000

Barbara McClintock

First genetic map for maize and was able to demonstrate basic genetic principles, such as how recombination is an exchange of chromosomal information; transposition flips the switch for traits

Mesas

Flat areas of upland. Their name derives from the Spanish word "table". They are smaller than plateaus and are usually in arid/dry regions.

Platyhelminthes

Flatworms; they have organs and bilateral symmetry; three layers of tissue

Newton's 3rd Law of Motion Law of Reciprocal Actions

For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction ex: Space shuttle exerts force down into air and ground and the ship gets pushed UP by the equal and opposite reaction ex2:person on skateboard pushes himself forward, by exerting a force on the ground in the opposite direction. The ground pushes against him and the skateboard to propel him forward. ex3: Person sitting in a chair. Action force: Gravity pulling person down so doesn't float into air. Reaction force: person in the chair is exerting force of their mass onto the Earth, and the chair, which is applying an upward force on the person to keep them from falling through to the ground. ex4: ballon that is not tied - let go of balloon, air goes one way, the balloon flies the other way

Newton's 2nd law of motion Law of acceleration

Force = mass * acceleration *The more mass something has, the more force it exerts* *the more acceleration an object has relative to the object it collides with, the more force it exerts* (big dude more force than little dude) (running punch more force than standing punch) Ex: It would hurt less to get hit by a 15lb bowling ball going 2mph than by a 1lb baseball going 80 mph, because: 1lb*80 mph =80lbs of force 15lb *2 mph =30lbs of force If sped up bowling ball to 10mph, it would be: baseball: 1lb*80mph=80 lbs of force bowling ball: 15lbs *10mph= 150lbs of force

Conduction

Form of heat transfer that occurs at the molecular level; result of molecular agitation that occurs within an object, body, or material while the material stays motionless

Mountain ranges

Formed by tectonic plates Himalayan, Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats

Sedimentary Rock

Formed by the process of lithification, which involves compaction, the expulsion of liquids from pores, and the cementation of the pre-existing rock

Magnetic Field

Formed not only by a magnetic material, but also by electric current flowing through a wire

Prepositional Phrase Fragment

Fragments that begin with a preposition and are only a phrase, not a thought.

Fr. Jacques Marquette

French Jesuit missionary explorer who, with Louis Joliet, traveled down the Mississippi River and reported the first accurate data on its course.

Lamarck (1769-1832)

French naturalist who believed in the idea of evolution and thought it was a natural occurrence influenced by the environment; studied medicine and botany

Cuvier (1744-1829)

French naturalist who used the fossil record to compare the anatomies of extinct species and existing species to make conclusions about extinction

Law of Gravity Formula (=Newton's law of universal gravitation)

F₁ = F₂ = G(m₁*m₂/r²) F₁ = The force of gravity on the first object F₂= The force of gravity on the 2nd object G = The gravitational constant (don't need to memorized the actual number for the test) m₁ = mass of the 1st object m₂ = mass of the 2nd object r = distance between the two objects

Largest Canyon

Grand Canyon

19th Amendment

Granted women the right to vote

The Largest Reef

Great Barrier Reef

Scientific Theory

Greater body of accepted knowledge, principles, or relationships that might explain a fact

Species

Group of individuals that can mate and reproduce

The 15th Amendment

Guaranteed that state and federal governments could not deny the right to vote to any male citizen because of "race, color, or previous condition of servitude.

Solution

Homogeneous mixture- uniform in their composition; consist of a solute and a solvent; formed when the forces of the molecules of the solute and the solvent are as strong as the individual molecular forces of the solute and the solvent

James Fenimore Cooper

He was the first to write about Native-Americans and wrote "The Leatherstocking Tales" and " The Last of the Mohicans".

Radiation

Heat transfer that occurs through the emission of electromagnetic waves, which carry energy away from the emitting object

Convection

Heat transfer that occurs through the movement or circulation of fluids

Detritivory

Heterotrophs that consume organic dead matter

Anton van Leeuwenhoek

Homemade magnifying glasses to become the first person to observe single-celled organisms; observed bacteria, yeast, plants, and other microscopic organisms

Extrinsic

Homeostatic systems that are controlled outside the body

Chordata

Humans and all other vertebrates, as well as few invertebrates

Gradualism

Idea that evolution proceeds at a steady pace and does not include sudden developments of new species or features from one generation to the next

Punnett Square

Illustrates how alleles combine from the contributing genes to form various phenotypes

Colonization of Virginia

In 1585, Sir Walter Raleigh landed on Roanoke Island and sent Arthur Barlow to the mainland, which they named Virginia. Two attempts of settlement failed. The first permanent English Colony was founded by Captain John Smith in Jamestown in 1607. companies of crop growth and trade began to flourish but the English Crown was indifferent about the colony, so local government grew strong. Four of the first Five presidents were from Virginia because of their political power and influence.

Guild

In medieval Europe, an association of men (rarely women), such as merchants, artisans, or professors, who worked in a particular trade and created an organized institution to promote their economic and political interests.

Organic Compounds

Include carbon and are formed by covalent bonds

Simple Machines

Include the inclined plane, lever, wheel and axle, and pulley; no internal source of energy

Excretory System

Includes the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra; helps maintain the amount of fluids in the body

Digestive System

Includes the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, intestines, rectum, anal canal, teeth, salivary glands, tongue, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, and appendix; helps change food into a form that the body can process and use for energy and nutrients

Respiratory System

Includes the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs; involved in gas exchange, which occurs in the alveoli

Endocrine System

Includes the pituitary glands, pineal gland, hypothalamus, thyroid gland, parathyroids, thymus, adrenals, pancreas, ovaries, and testes; secretes hormones into the blood system

Secondary Source

Information gathered by someone who did not take part in or witness an event

Name the 4 layers of which the Earth is made up

Inner Core Outer Core Mantel Crust

Integers

Integers = the counting numbers, their negatives, and zero (..., -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3 ...). No fractions or decimals

The 14th Amendment

Intended to end the black codes, this amendment gave citizenship to former slaves and declared that all states must give all citizens equal protection under the law.

Critical Comprehension

Involves prior knowledge and an understanding that written material is the author's version of the subject and not necessarily anyone one else's. It involves analysis of meaning, evaluation, validation, questioning, and the reasoning skills a reader uses to recognize... 1) Inference and conclusion 2) Purpose, tone, point of view, and themes 3) The organizational pattern of work 4) Explicit and implicit relationships between words , phrases, and sentences 5) Biased language, persuasive tactics, valid arguments, and the difference between fact and/or fiction.

Center of a Wheel and Axle

Likened to a fulcrum on a rotating lever

Giovani de Verrazano

Italian explorer who led an expedition funded by King Francis I of France to the New York region. Credited with discovering the New York harbor.

Classic Books

Lilies of the Field, Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, Pippi Longstocking, National Velvet, Call of the Wild, Anne of Green Gables, The Hobbit, The Member of the Wedding, and Tom Sawyer,

Sociocognitive Approach

Language acquisition theory that states that the different aspects of linguistic, cognitive, and social knowledge are interactive elements of total human development.

Big Books

Large "child-friendly" volumes that help children learn concepts of print and enjoy positive reading experiences.

Carrying Capacity

Largest number of individuals of a population that a environment can support.

The Shoot System

Leaves, buds, and stems; flowers and fruits in flowering plants; located above ground

Classical Republic

Limited individuals rights to privacy, belief, expression, opportunities to read, think and earn money. If people had freedom to do such things, they might stop being reliable and fully dedicated to the common good.

Preadolescent and Adolescent Literature

Literature that is mostly concerned with the "tween" issues of changing lives, relationships, and bodies. Adolescents seeking escape from their sometimes difficult lives enjoy fantasy and science fiction.

Biotic Factors

Living factors, such as other organisms, that affect a community or population

Arctic Circle

Located 66.5 degrees north, and marks the start of when the sun is not visible above the horizon; occurs December 21, same day the sun is directly over Tropic of Capricorn

Comets

Loose collections of rock, ice, and cosmic dust that orbits around the sun. Gives off gas and dust in the form of a tail as it passes close to the sun

19th Century Immigration

Many people came to America in 1800s looking for jobs, opportunity, freedom and a new life. Two largest were Irish escaping the Potato Famine and Germans escaping oppressive governments.

Cumulus

Low level clouds - Dense thunderstorms (Stratus) (Cumulonimbus)

Mole

Measurement of molecular weight that is equal to the molecule's amu in grams

Potential of Hydrogen (pH)

Measurement of the concentration of hydrogen ions in a substance in terms of the number of moles of H+ per liter of solution

Latitude

Measurement of the distance from the equator; distance from the equator indicates how much solar radiation a particular area receives; indicator of climate

Reproductive System

Males: Includes testes, vas deferens, urethra, prostate, penis, and scrotum Females: Includes ovaries, fallopian tubes, cervix, uterus, vagina, vulva, and mammary glands Sexual reproduction helps provide genetic diversity as gametes from each parent contribute half the DNA to the zygote offspring

Nomenclature

Manner in which a compound is named; must be determined whether the compound is ionic or molecular

Topographic Maps

Maps that use isolines to represent constant elevations. If you took a topographic map out into the field and walked exactly along the path of an isoline on your map, you would always stay at the same elevation.

Which of the following factors least affects a compound's tendency to change state? Pressure Temperature Type of compound Mass

Mass

Molar Mass

Mass of one mole of a substance (element or compound), usually measured in grams per mole (g/mol); differs from molecular mass in that molecular mass is the mass of one molecule of a substance relative to the atomic mass unit (amu)

Amplitude

Maximum amount of displacement of a particle in a medium from its rest position, and corresponds to the amount of energy carried by the wave

Biotic Potential

Maximum reproductive capacity of a population given ideal environmental conditions

Temperature

Measure of an object's stored heat energy

Weight

Measure of the gravitational pull of Earth on an object

Specific Gravity

Measure of the ratio of substance's density compared to the density of water

Frequency

Measured in hertz and wavelength is usually measured in meters

Eukaryotic Cells

Membrane-bound organelles that perform various functions and contribute to the complexity of these types of cells; DNA is mostly contained in chromosomes in the nucleus, although there is some DNA in mitochondria and chloroplasts; divide by mitosis and are diploid

planets

Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Uranus, Saturn, Neptune, (pluto) MVEM JUSN P

Regression Analysis

Method of analyzing sets of data and sets of variables that involves studying how the typical value of the dependent variable changes when any one of the independent variables is varied and the other independent variables remain fixed

Liquids

Molecules or atoms move around and have weak bonds, although they are not weak enough to readily break

Effects of Coastal Topography on Tides

More *isolated* bodies of water have more extreme tides The more difficult it is for the water to enter/exit a region, the more extreme the tides tend to be

The Highest Point

Mount Everest

Osmossis

Movement of water thru permeable membranes to equalize concentration on both sides of the membrane

The Civil Rights Movement (1964 - 1968)

Nearly 100 years after the Emancipation Proclamation, African Americans in Southern states still inhabited a starkly unequal world of disenfranchisement, segregation and various forms of oppression, including race-inspired violence. This movement would put an end to the oppression and advanced the black people in society.

Are the elements in solutions chemically bonded to one another?

No, they are not Solutions and suspensions are both mixtures and mixtures do not chemically bond.

Solving Algebraic Word Problems (involving consecutive numbers)

Numbers following each other in counting order are called consecutive. They can be denoted as x, x + 1, x + 2, x + 3, etc. Consecutive odd numbers are x, x + 2, x + 4, etc. (assuming x is odd), and consecutive even numbers are also x, x + 2, x + 4, etc. (assuming x is even). Example: Find three consecutive, even numbers whose sum is 90. x + (x + 2) + (x + 4) = 90 3x + 6 = 90 3x = 84 x = 28 so the numbers are 28, 30, 32

Perfect Squares (numbers)

Numbers that have a whole number square root. The first ten perfect squares are 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, and 100. Is zero a perfect square? There is a debate about this in the mathematics community - some believe zero is a perfect square because 0 times 0 = 0; some disagree because they say the definition of a perfect square is "numbers that have a POSITIVE integer square root" and zero is not positive. ....so the debate continues.

Percentage of a population

Numerator: # of thing you are interested in Denominator: Total population Ex: There is an orchard with 30 apple trees, 25 orange trees, 15 fig trees and 5 plum trees. What percentage of the trees are fig trees? Numerator: # of fig trees Denominator: Total # of trees 15/(30+25+15+5) = 15/75 Can just divide 15 by 75, or can simplify fraction: 15/75 = (3*5)/(3*25)= (5)/(25) = 1/5 = 20% 20% of the trees are fig trees

Physical Properties

Observed or measured without chemical reactions

The Boston Tea Party

On December 16, 1773 a group of Sons of Liberty boarded this ship illegally and threw the tea into the harbor. The Parliament passed new laws called the "Coercive Acts". The colonists called this law the "Intolerable Acts". This new law makes: 1. Stopped the trade between Boston and Britian 2. End town meetings

Interpreting Remainder Problems

On the Praxis exam, it is important to interpret answers that have remainders correctly. Do you round up? Do you round down? Do you use the remainder as part of the answer (or as the entire answer)? Do you ignore remainders?    1. How many boxes can be filled? (use only the quotient; ignore the remainder) 2. How many cans are needed to paint the wall? (round the quotient to the next greater whole #) 3. How many in the last box that isn't completely full? (use only the remainder)

Tip about Praxis problem words in ALL CAPITAL LETTERS

One of the four question types on the Praxis test is an exception question where you need to find the answer that does NOT fit the pattern or does NOT answer the question. The signal words that this is an exception question will be written in ALL CAPITAL LETTERS, such as EXCEPT, NOT, and LEAST.

Which has more *thermal energy* and why?: 2,000 degree vat of molten iron or Pacific Ocean at 70 degrees?

Pacific Ocean. Takes way more energy to heat entire ocean to 70 degrees than to heat small vat to 2,000 degrees, (because of the quantity of the substance inside, more water in ocean than iron in vat)

Affixes

Parts added to the beginning (prefix) or end (suffix) of a root word to create new words.

Indian Removal Act

Passed in 1830, authorized Andrew Jackson to negotiate land-exchange treaties with tribes living east of the Mississippi. The treaties enacted under this act's provisions paved the way for the reluctant—and often forcible—emigration of tens of thousands of American Indians to the West.

Progressive Era

Period of reform from 1890s-1920s. It opposed waste and corruption, for social justice, general equality, and public safety. Upton Sinclair's "The Jungle", Pure Food and Drug Act and Meat Inspection Act of 1906.`

Features of Geographic Locations

Physical Features: 1) Vegetation Zones or Biomes - Forests, grasslands, deserts, and tundra are the four types of vegetation zones. 2) Climate Zones - Tropical, dry, temperate, continental, and polar are five different types of climate zones. Cultural Features: 1) Population Density - The number of people living in a square mile or kilometer of a place. 2) Religion - The identification of the the dominant religions of a place. 3) Languages - The identification of the dominant language in an area.

Cytokinesis

Physical splitting of the cell into two cells

Magnet

Piece of metal, such as iron, steel, or magnetite that can affect another substance within its field of force that has like characteristics; can either attract or repel other substances; two poles- north and south

Solving Algebraic Word Problems (involving investments)

Problems involving investments require use of the interest formula: i=Prt, where i = interest earned, P = principal (original amount), r = annual rate of interest, and t = time in years. Example: An investment is made at 5% simple interest for 12 years. It earned $420 interest. How much was originally invested? 420 = P(.05)(12) 420 = 0.6P 4200 = 6P P = 4200/6 P = 700

Things to remember: plant cell vs animal cell

Plant cells: chloroplasts, cell wall, vacuole is larger than in animal cell Animal cells: no chloroplasts, no cell wall, vacuole is smaller than those in plant cell

Vascular Tissue

Plant tissue consisting of cells joined into tubes that transport water and nutrients throughout the plant body.

Photosynthesis

Plants use the sun's energy to convert water and carbon dioxide into sugars

Subject-Verb Agreement

Plural subjects must have plural verbs. Singular subjects must have singular verbs.

Free Verse

Poetry that does not have a regular meter or rhyme scheme.

Fossils

Preservations of plants, animals, their remains, or their traces that date back to about 10,000 years ago

The Teapot Dome

President Harding's Secretary of the Interior accepting bribes for granting leases to drill oil on federal land.

Print and Book Awareness

Print and book awareness helps a child understand.... 1) There is a connection between print and messages contained on signs, labels, and other print forms in the child's environment. 2) Reading and writing are ways to obtain information and communicate ideas. 3) Print runs left to right/top to bottom. 4) A book has parts, such as a title, a cover, a title page, and a table of contents. 5) A book has an author and contains a story. 6) Illustrations carry a meaning. 7) Letters and words are different. 8) Words and sentences are separated by spaces and punctuation. 9) Different text forms are used for different functions. 10) Print represents spoken language. 11) How to hold a book.

Solving Algebraic Word Problems (involving discounts)

Problems involving discounts require use of the discount formula: S = 1r - rd, where S is the sale price, r is the retail price, and d is the rate of discount. Example: A coat is on sale for $125. The coat was discounted 20%. What was the original retail price? 125 = 1r - (0.2)r 125 = (0.8)r then multiply both sides by 10 to clear decimal 1250 = 8r r = 1250/8 r = $156.25

Solving Algebraic Word Problems (involving mixtures)

Problems involving mixtures use M₁V₁ + M₂V₂ = M₃V₃, where M is the percentage of each mixture, and V is the volume or amount of each mixture. Example: How much of a 16% solution is needed to combine with 34 ml of a 12% solution to make 50 ml of a 15% solution? 0.16x + 0.12(34) = 0.15(50) 16x + 12(34) = 15(50) 16x + 408 = 750 16x = 342 *x = 21.375 ml*

18th Amendment

Prohibited the manufacture, sale, and distribution of alcoholic beverages.

Immunological System

Protects the body from infections Lymphatic System (Spleen, Tonsils, Thymus Gland)

list wavelengths of visible light, longest to shortest

ROYGBIV

Deductive Reasoning

Reasoning in which a conclusion is reached by stating a general principle and then applying that principle to a specific case (The sun rises every morning; therefore, the sun will rise on Tuesday morning.)

Mutualism

Relationship in which both organisms benefit from an interaction

Interspecific Relationships

Relationships between members of different species

Tip for comparing positive and negative numbers in Praxis

Remember that negative numbers are always smaller than positive numbers. Also remember that the further right on the number line, the larger the number.

Assonance

Repetition of a vowel sound within two or more words in close proximity. (Ex. The quite bride cried)

Constitution

Replaced the Articles of Confederation.It was a series of compromises (Great, 3/5, Slave Trade), provided limits on federal power (separation of powers). Was the founding structure of the nation.

Field Survey

Research study in which variables in an actual organization are measured and correlated sometimes called a correlation study.

Nucleus

Round structure that controls the activities of the cell and contains chromosomes; consists of protons and neutrons

Rounding Numbers

Rounding a number requires that you understand place value. Rounding a number is a type of estimation. Rounding is also called "rounding off." To round a number, look at the digit to the right of the place being rounded. If that digit on the right is 5 or higher, add 1 to the place being rounded; otherwise, leave the place being rounded as is. Change all places to the right of the place being rounded to zeroes.

Venus

Second planet from the sun; orbits every 225 days; similar to Earth in size, gravity, and bulk composition; sense atmosphere composed of carbon dioxide and sulfur; covered in reflective clouds made of sulfuric acid and exhibits signs of volcanism

Representing Addition or Subtraction of Rational Numbers using concrete models

See pictures for models These models (pictures) show 4/8 + 3/8 and 7/8 - 2/8

Syntax

Sentence structure

Uranus

Seventh planet from the sun; atmosphere composed of hydrogen and helium; contains water, ammonia, methane, and traces of hydrocarbons; minimum temperature of 49 K--coldest atmosphere; ring system; magnetosphere; 13 moons

Overlapping Photos

Shows the same area from different positions along the flight line.

Second Langauge Acquisition

Since some students may have a limited understanding of English, a teacher should employ the following practices to promote second language acquisition... 1) Make all instruction as understandable as possible and use simple and repeated terms. 2) Increase interactive activities and use gestures or non-verbal models when modeling. 3) Provide language and literacy development instruction in all curriculum areas. 4) Establish consistent routines that help children connect words with events. 5) Use a schedule so children know what will happen next and will not feel lost. 6) Integrate ESL students with non-ESL students 7) Appoint bilingual students to act as student translators.

Saturn

Sixth planet from the sun; second largest planet in the solar system; composed of hydrogen, helium, and trace elements; small core of rock and ice; thick layer of metallic hydrogen; gaseous outer layer; wind speeds of up to 1,800 km/h; system of rings; 61 moons

The Compromise of 1850

Slavery becomes outlawed in Washington D.C., California is admitted as a free state, and Utah and New Mexico will determine whether slavery is allowed through popular sovereignty. Also, the Fugitive Slave Law is passed.

Hamlets

Small clusters of buildings.

Microbe

Small organisms that are only visible through a microscope

Dominance

Species in a community that is the most populous

Parallel Evolution

Species that are not similar and do not become more or less similar over time

Telophase

Spindle disintegrates, the nuclear membranes reform, and the chromosomes revert to chromatin

Metaphase

Spindle moves to the center of the cell and chromosome pairs align along the center of the spindle structure

Porifera

Sponges; found in marine and fresh water environments; two layers of cells

The Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854

Sponsored by Senator Stephen Douglas, this would rip open the slavery debate; and create the territories of Kansas and Nebraska, opened new lands, repealed the Missouri Compromise of 1820, and allowed settlers in those territories to determine if they would allow slavery within their boundaries.

Ku Klux Klan

Started by Nathan Bedford Forrest; secret organization that used terrorist tactics in an attempt to restore white supremacy in Southern states after the Civil War.

Law of Thermodynamics

State that energy can be exchanged between physical systems as heat or work, and that systems are affected by their surroundings 1. mainly concerned with the conservation of energy and related concepts, which include the statement that energy can only be transferred or converted, not created or destroyed 2. explains how energy can be used; it states heat will not transfer spontaneously from a cold object to a hot object

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

States that two objects in thermodynamic equilibrium with a third object are also in equilibrium with each other 1. first law deals with conservation of energy 2. second law states that the entropy of an isolated system can only increase; heat is not transferred from a lower-temperature system to a higher-temperature one unless additional work is done 3. third law of thermodynamics states that as temperature approaches absolute zero, entropy approaches a constant minimum; system cannot be cooled to absolute zero

Darmstadtium

Symbol: Ds Atomic Mass: Atomic Number: 110

Fluorine

Symbol: F Atomic Mass: 19.00 Atomic Number: 9

Mycology

Study of fungi

Petrology

Study of rocks, including their composition, texture, structure, occurrence, mode of formation, and history

Meteorology

Study of the atmosphere, particularly as it pertains to forecasting the weather and understanding its process

Geology

Study of the planet Earth as it pertains to the composition, structure, and origin of its rocks

Tip for Praxis problems containing a chart or graph

Study the chart or graph carefully before reading the question. Note whether the vertical axis is broken (see Flashcard #153).

Iron

Symbol: Fe Atomic Mass: 55.85 Atomic Number: 26

Compounds

Substances containing two or more elements; formed by chemical reactions and frequently have different properties than the original elements

Matter

Substances that have mass and occupy space; three states: solid, liquid, and gas; consists of atoms

Flerovium

Symbol: Fl Atomic Mass: Atomic Number: 114

Gallium

Symbol: Ga Atomic Mass: 69.72 Atomic Number: 31

Germanium

Symbol: Ge Atomic Mass: 72.61 Atomic Number: 32

Helium

Symbol: He Atomic Mass: 4.00 Atomic Number: 2

Federalist

Supporters of the Constitution that were led by Alexander Hamilton and John Adams. They firmly believed the national government should be strong. They didn't want the Bill of Rights because they felt citizens' rights were already well protected by the Constitution.

Dred Scott vs. Sandford

Supreme Court ruled that Americans of African descent, whether free or slave, were not American citizens and could not sue in federal court. The Court also ruled that Congress lacked power to ban slavery in the U.S.territories.

Aluminum

Symbol: Al Atomic Mass: 26.98 Atomic Number: 13

Argon

Symbol: Ar Atomic Mass: 39.95 Atomic Number: 18

Arsenic

Symbol: As Atomic Mass: 74.92 Atomic Number: 33

Astatine

Symbol: At Atomic Mass: Atomic Number: 85

Barium

Symbol: Ba Atomic Mass: 137.3 Atomic Number: 56

Bismuth

Symbol: Bi Atomic Mass: 209.0 Atomic Number: 83

Bromine

Symbol: Br Atomic Mass: 79.90 Atomic Number: 35

Carbon

Symbol: C Atomic Mass: 12.01 Atomic Number: 6

Calcium

Symbol: Ca Atomic Mass: 40.08 Atomic Number: 20

Cadmium

Symbol: Cd Atomic Mass: 112.4 Atomic Number: 48

Chlorine

Symbol: Cl Atomic Mass: 35.45 Atomic Number: 17

Copernicium

Symbol: Cn Atomic Mass: Atomic Number: 112

Cobalt

Symbol: Co Atomic Mass: 58.93 Atomic Number: 27

Chromium

Symbol: Cr Atomic Mass: 52.00 Atomic Number: 24

Cesium

Symbol: Cs Atomic Mass: 132.9 Atomic Number: 55

Copper

Symbol: Cu Atomic Mass: 63.55 Atomic Number: 29

Dubnium

Symbol: Db Atomic Mass: Atomic Number: 105

Developing Language Skills

Teaching new vocabulary, using questions and examples to extend descriptive language, provide response time, ask clarification, promote conversations, provide feedback

Mitosis

The "daughter cell" is an exact replica of the parent cell; cell reproduction in which a eukaryotic cell splits into two separate, but completely identical cells

Percent Change

The *percent of change* is also known as the percent of increase or the percent of decrease. To calculate the percent of change, 1. Find the difference between the new amount and the original amount, that *difference*= numerator 2. Divide that *difference* (not the new amount!, the difference) by the original amount, original amount = denominator 3. Multiply by 100 ex: Population was 25,000 in 2014 Population was 28,000 in 2015 What is the percent change in the population? 28,000 - 25,000 = 3,000 3,000/25,000 = 3/25 = 12/100 = 12%

Base 10

The Base 10 number system is the system we use - each place value is ten times the value of the place to the right of it. There are 10 digits in the Base 10 number system:  0-9. These 10 digits are all that is needed to make any number. Another name for the Base 10 number system is the decimal number system.

Customary System of Measurement

The Customary System of Measurement is also called the English System of Measurement (or the Common System of Measurement). This is the primary measurement system used in the United States. Length = inch, foot, yard, rod, mile, etc. Weight = ounce, pound, Ton, etc. Volume = liquid ounces, cup, pint, quart, gallon, etc.

Sieve of Eratosthenes

The Sieve of Eratosthenes is a technique to teach young children about prime numbers. A paper is numbered from 2-100. Circle 2 because it is prime. Then count every 2 numbers and cross them off (cross off the multiples of 2). The next number after 2 that is not crossed off is 3, circle it. Count every 3 numbers (multiples of 3) and cross them off. The next number after 3 that is not crossed off is 5, circle it. Count the multiples of 5 and cross them off.... This process continues for the entire chart. All crossed-off numbers are composite; the prime numbers are circled.

Mean

The mean is used in statistics to describe one of three measures of central tendency. Find the mean by adding the data values and dividing by the number of data values. (Also known informally as average.)

The Largest Sea

The Coral Sea

French Explorers in the United States

The French never succeeded in attracting settlers to their territories. Those who came were more interested in the fur and fish trades than forming colonies. Eventually, the French would cede their southern territories, such as New Orleans, to Spain and the new United States of America.

Ordering Integers

To order or compare integers, remember that negative numbers are always smaller than positive numbers. It helps to place the numbers on a number line to compare them. The larger the value of a positive number, the larger the number is. The larger the absolute value of a negative number, the smaller the number is (remember negatives act in an opposite way from positive numbers).

Solar Eclipse

The Moon passes directly between the Sun and Earth and casts a shadow over part of Earth

Multiplication of Integers

The RULE for multiplying integers is: If the signs are the same, multiply the absolute values of the numbers and give the result a positive sign. If the signs are different, multiply the absolute values of the numbers and give the result a negative sign.

Spanish Explorers in the United States

The Spanish explored and claimed huge portions of the United States after the voyages of Christopher Columbus.

Fluency

The ability to speak a language idiomatically and accurately, without undue pausing, without an intrusive accent, and in a manner appropriate to the context.

Metacognitive Skills

The ability to think about one's own learning. Leah recognizes that she is faced with a problem in learning and employs a practiced strategy to correct the problem and improve her understanding of the paragraph.

Aerial Photography

The acquisition of imagery of the ground taken from an airborne platform.

Multiplication of Whole Numbers

The algorithm for whole number multiplication is: 1. Line up the numbers vertically so place values are in the same column 2. Multiply beginning in the ones place -- multiply each digit in the multiplicand. If the product is greater than 9, write the tens place digit above the next column to the left (regrouping or carrying) 3. Next, multiply by the tens place -- to signify that you are in the tens place, put one zero in the partial product. Multiply each digit in the multiplicand. 4. Add the partial products, and put commas in the answer to separate the digits into periods

Subtraction of Whole Numbers

The algorithm for whole number subtraction is: 1. Line up the numbers vertically so place values are in the same column 2. Subtract beginning in the one's place 3. Use regrouping (formerly called borrowing) if the top number is too small to allow subtraction 4. Put commas in the answer to separate the digits into periods

Style

The author's choices regarding language, sentence structure, voice, and tone in order to communicate with the reader.

Climate

The average weather for a particular area over time, typically at least 30 years

Comparing Integers

Federal Reserve System

The country's central banking system, which is responsible for the nation's monetary policy by regulating the supply of money and interest rates.

Solving Algebraic Word Problems (involving distance-speed-time)

The distance formula is D = st, where D is the distance traveled, s is the rate of speed, and t is the time. To calculate the rate of speed: s = D/t To calculate the time: t = D/s

Nullification

The doctrine that a state can declare null and void a federal law that, in the state's opinion, violates the Constitution.

Absolute Location

The exact position of an object or place, measured within the spatial coordinates of a grid system.

Comparison Symbols

The following five symbols are called comparison symbols: <    less than >    greater than ≤    less than or equal to ≥    greater than or equal to =    equal to Each of these symbols can also be negated by putting a slash mark through them, such as "not equal to":   ≠

Binary Operations (name the four basic operations and any special relationships between them)

The four basic binary operations are: 1. Addition 2. Subtraction (the inverse of addition) 3. Multiplication (repeated addition) 4. Division (repeated subtraction and the inverse of multiplication)

Plotting a Point on a Coordinate Grid

To plot a point with the coordinates of (x, y), we follow along the x-axis until we get to the first coordinate, and then we follow along the y-axis until we reach the second coordinate. We mark a small dot at the location where these two coordinates intersect.

What happens to a released helium balloon in the sky?

The higher the balloon goes, the less atmospheric pressure there is, so the more volume the gas inside the balloon takes up. As the balloon climbs higher and higher and pressure keeps reducing, the balloon gets more and more inflated until it pops and the empty balloon floats back down to Earth

neutron star

The highly compressed core of a massive star that remains after a supernova explosion high-mass star runs out of nuclear fuel, will undergo a type II supernova explosion and its core will collapse to form a ~

vinculum

The line that separates the numerator from the denominator

Atomic Mass

The mass number; total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom

Biomass

The mass of one or all of the species in an ecosystem or area

Simplify Algebraic Expressions

To simplify algebraic expressions, use the distributive property and combine like terms. This can also be stated in step-by-step fashion:<div>   1. Clear the parenthesis (by following the distributive property or the rules of exponents) 2. Add the coefficients of like terms 3. Add the constant terms </div>

Decoding

The method or strategy used to make sense of printed words and figure out how to correctly pronounce them. It does not require an understanding of the meaning of the word, only a knowledge of how to recognize and pronounce it.

First Person

The narrator is a character in the story who can reveal only personal thoughts and feelings and what he or she sees and is told by other characters. They can't tell us thoughts of other characters.

Second Person

The narrator tells a listener what he/she has done or said, using the personal pronoun "you." This point of view is rare.

Species

The narrowest range of organisms within the biological taxonomy

The number π is a mathematical constant that is the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter. The constant, sometimes written pi, is an irrational number approximately equal to 3.14159 or 22/7. (i.e., a circle's diameter can be wrapped around its circumference pi times - 3 times and a little bit more.)

Species Diversity

The number of species within a community and their populations

Coordinates

The numbers that make an order pair and identify the location of a point.

Alliteration

The occurrence of the same letter or sound. (Ex. chirp chirp)

Why is the ocean salty?

The ocean does not have drainage. Rivers, streams, etc. all feed INTO the oceans, bringing salt with them. But only way water LEAVES the ocean is by evaporation, which leaves the salt behind. Therefore, the ocean has no way to get rid of the salt

Solving Linear Equations

To solve a linear equation, isolate the variable. Apply the addition principle of equality (add the same number to both sides of the equation), and then apply the multiplication principle of equality (multiply the same number to both sides of the equation). It is often helpful to clear parentheses and clear fractions first.

13 Colonies

The original states : Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, Maryland, Massachusetts, New jersey, New york, North Carolina, South Carolina, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island and Virginia.

Bandwagon Effect

The phenomenon of a popular trend continuing to gain popularity.

Square Deal

The philosophy of President Theodore Roosevelt; included in this was the desire to treat both sides fairly in any dispute. In the coal miner's strike of 1902 he treated the United Mine Workers representatives and company bosses as equals; this approach continued during his efforts to regulate the railroads and other businesses during his second term.

Geography

The study of the earth.

Big Bang Theory

The theory that the universe originated in a huge explosion that released all matter and energy.

Malapropism

The unintentional misuse of a word by confusion with one that sounds similar

Operation Properties (Three of them)

There are three primary properties of operations: • commutative • associative • distributive Other operation properties are closure, zero, inverse, and identity.

Swamps

These are wetlands that have trees and vines beside slow moving rivers that have willows, oak, and cypress trees with fish, snakes, birds, and alligators

Language Arts Graphic Organizer

These can include alphabet organizers or charts showing the components of a five-paragraph essay.

Reading Graphic Organizer

These can include beginning, middle, end graphs or event maps

Science Graphic Organizers

These can include charts that show what animals need or how to classify living things.

Math Graphic Organizer

These can include horizontal bar graphs or timelines.

Letters

To be appropriately prepared to learn to read and write, a child should learn... 1) Each letter is distinct in appearances. 2) What direction and shape must be used to make each letter. 3) Each letter has a name, which can be associated with the shape of the letter. 4) There are 26 letters in the English alphabet, and letters are grouped in a certain order. 5) Letters represent sounds of speech. 6) Words are composed of letters and have meaning. 7) One must be able to correspond letters and sounds to read.

Why are mountain ranges often higher on one side than on the other?

They are often created by convergent plates. When one plate is sub ducted under the other, one part of the range becomes higher than the other

Area of Irregular Shapes

To find the area of irregular shapes, divide the shape into regular two-dimensional shapes or picture a regular shape that has been removed:

Substitution of Pronouns

This doesn't just refer to using single word pronouns such as I, they, us, etc., but also alternate descriptions of the subject. For example, if someone was writing about Benjamin Franklin, it gets boring to keep saying Franklin or he. Other terms that describe him, such as that notable American statesman, this printer, the inventor, and so forth can also be used.

Nathaniel Hawthorne

This novelist wrote "The Scarlet Letter", "The House of Seven Gambles", "Young Goodman Brown", and "The Minister's Black Veil".

What is the difference between tides and waves?

Tides are raising and lowering of the water level twice within every 24-hour period and are created based on the gravitational pull of the moon and sun Waves are created by wind stirring the ocean's surfaces and do not happen on a schedule

Dermal

Tissues that form the covering or outer layer of a plant

Subtraction of Fractions & Mixed Numbers

To subtract fractions & mixed numbers: 1. Write the two fractions/mixed numbers vertically above each other (lining up place value) 2. Change the fractions to a common denominator. 3. Subtract the numerators only *be careful to regroup one whole (2/2, 3/3, 4/4, etc.) if you need to borrow* 4. Put that difference over the common denominator. 5. Simplify the answer. *Remember on test, if answers are in fraction form, correct answer will always be reduced*

Electrical Force

Universal force that exists between any between any two electrically charged objects; opposite charges attract one another and like charges repel one another

Semi Colons

Used to join related independent clauses (There were five major hurricanes this year; Two of them hit our city), join independent clauses joined by a conjunction (Popular books are often made into movies; however, that was wasn't), separate items in a series if commas would be too confusing.

Comma Usage

Used to separate two adjectives modifying the same word, three or more words in a list, phrases that are not needed to complete a sentence.

How is the *doppler effect* used to track weather systems?

Using a *doppler radar* -an inaudible sound/radio wave big enough to interact with clouds and other atmospheric objects is sent out -wave hit clouds/objects and bounce back to the receiver -if the sound wave comes back with exactly the same frequency, the cloud is not moving -if comes back with a *higher* frequency, cloud is moving *towards receiver* if comes back with a *lower* frequency, cloud is moving *away from receiver* -Based on the amount of the change in frequency (doppler shift), the speed of the object can be determined -computers in the doppler radar convert Doppler shift data about the reflected radio waves into pictures showing wind speeds and direction.

velocity

V=d/t (direction) Velocity is the speed of an object *in a particular direction.* (ex: 65mph East) *the rate at which an object changes its position* It is a vector quantity- has both size and direction Velocity can be shown as +25mph if going Ex: person moving rapidly1 step forward, 1 step back would result in a zero velocity, because always return to original position

Trough

Valley; point at which a wave's negative or downward displacement from the rest position is at its maximum

Mode

Value that appears most frequently in a data set

Scientific Notation

Values in science can be very large or very small, which makes them unwieldy ex: 93,000,000= 9.3 x 10^7

Subtropical Climates

Very humid areas in the tropical areas of Japan, China, Australia, Africa, South America, and the United States. The climate is humid and have hot summers and mild winters.

Area Models

Visual model that helps students understand how quantities can be used to describe 2D objects, like 3 shaded squares in a set of 4 squares is 3/4

Rectangular Arrays

Visual model that shows students how to use dots to count Doesn't matter how dots are aligned, as long as it's clear that each of the sets of dots are their own individual digit in a problem ex: 2 + 4 can be shown as °°+°°°° ex2: 2 * 4 can be shown as ₀₀₀₀ ⁰⁰⁰⁰

Transpiration

Water vapor is released from plants into the air

What are examples of organisms that live in more than one sphere of the Earth?

Whales/Dolphins: live in the hydrosphere predominately but have to utilize the atmosphere to breathe Trees: roots in lithosphere and extract water and minerals, but needs atmosphere to extract carbon dioxide Human beings: can use all three a lot of animals live in just one sphere, but animals can also live in 2-3 spheres

Single substitution, Displacement, or Replacement Reactions

When one reactant is displaced by another to form the final product (A+BC -> AB+C)

Apogee

When the Moon is at its farthest distance from Earth

neap tides

When the Sun and the Moon are perpendicular to each other (in relation to the Earth) -happens during the First Quarter Moon or Third Quarter Moon -then high tides are not as high as they normally would be. This is because despite its greater distance, the Sun's mass allows it to exert enough gravitational force on the oceans that it can negate some of the effects of the Moon's pull. (Because the Earth rotates, the places of high/low tides will change as the Earth spins. Every 24 hours, a place will have 2 high tides and 2 low tides) http://www.moonconnection.com/tides.phtml

waves (any kind: light, sound, through liquid, earthquake)

a repeated disturbance (of the air, water, etc.) spread from point to point with regularity between points (the distance between each crest (top of the wave) and the next one is the same)

When is the "mean" the best measure of central tendency?

When the data are consistently distributed and there are no outliers.

When is the "median" the best measure of central tendency?

When the data contains outliers

Solving Algebraic Word Problems (involving commissions)

When we think of sales commissions, we often think of car sales. Thus, it is appropriate that the formula for commission is C = ar, where C = commission earned, a = amount of sale, and r = commission rate. Example: Juana sells cars on a 3% commission rate. She just sold a car for $23,500. What was her commission? C = ar C = 23500(.03) C = $705

*Test Tip* Fraction Number Lines (Ruler)

When working with fractional number line, like a ruler, where you have to measure between point A and point B, don't do the complicated calculations, just count the number of 1/8ths or 1/16th between the points. Count the number of increments in each inch, that number is the denominator. Then count how many of those increments is between points A and B. That number is your numerator. Simplify if you can. Ex: 11/16th Ex2: 2/8ths = 1/4

Textual Marking

Where students interact with the text as they read to help them focus on the importance of small things and provice a reference point for review.

Transitional Words

Words or phrases used to connect one idea to another in writing. Examples: For example, furthermore, in addition, with that being said, etc.

Antonyms

Words that have opposite meanings

Conjunctions

Words used to join words, phrases, or clauses.

Parallelism

Words, phrases, or sentences of a similar construction/meaning placed side by side, balancing each other.

When we see objects at rest are there forces acting on them?

Yes, the force of gravity and the force of the floor holding the object up for example are just equal, opposite forces, so the *net force* is zero. (if gravity = -6, force of floor pushing up = 6, so total net force on object =0)

covalent bond

a (strong force) bond in which atoms share one or more of their valence electrons (the ones on the outer most shell of the atom)

ionic bond

a (strong force) bond in which one atom loses an atom to from a positive ion, the other atom gains an atom to create a negative ion. This creates *electrostatic force* which holds them together ex: if one kid steals another's ball, the 2nd kid chases the 1st kid around to try and get it back

Order of Magnitude

a measure of powers of 10 (basically the number of zeroes to the right of the number if positive ~ or number of zeroes to the left of the number if the ~ is negative.) This concept is often used in working with scientific notation. A number that has been multiplied by 10 has increased its _____________ by 1. A number that has been multiplied by 1000 has increased its _____________ by 3. 1 has a ~ of 0. 10 has a ~ of 1 100 has a ~ of 2 0.1 has a ~ of -1 0.01 has a ~ of -2 0.001 has a ~ of -3

element

a substance that cannot be separated into similar substances by chemical means basic building blocks of everything you see around your (ex: hydrogen, helium, iron, barium, etc.)

When did the first multi-cellular plants and fungi appear on Earth?

about 1.7-1.2 billion years ago

When did the first multi-cellular animals appear on Earth?

about 580 million years ago

Matter generally __________ light

absorbs

What was the first photosynthetic organism on Earth?

algae

angle of incident

angle at which light hits a reflecting surface

If given a chunk of the periodic question, and ask "Which of these elements would have chemical properties similar to Na (Sodium)?"

answer would be whichever choice is in the same COLUMN as Na because chemical properties are loosely arranged by column* (how element behaves, what it is possible to bond it with, is it a metal, a gas, etc.)

where does a pendulum or an arc have the greatest potential energy?

at the top or apex this is the same point where kinetic energy goes to zero, then PE is released and becomes kinetic energy again

isotope

atom with a different number of neutrons than its normal amount

atom

basic unit of a chemical element smallest particle/unit of an element that *still has the properties of that element* composed of 3 basic subatomic particles: protons neutrons electrons

Why don't objects all fall at the same rate on Earth?

because forces like friction resist them at difference forces/rates based on their mass and shape

Why do the boiling and freezing points of water change at different altitudes?

because of (atmospheric) pressure (at sea level, boiling: 212°F, freezing: 32°F) If you go *up* 10,000 ft in altitude, you have 10,000 *less feet of atmosphere pushing down on you*, so water might boil at 210°F, for example

Why can UV rays be damaging to us while longer wavelengths like radio waves pass right through us with no damage done?

because shorter wavelengths with higher frequency are more likely to collide with our other molecules (skin molecules, etc.) when these collisions happen, damage is done to our molecules radio waves are long enough to go between our other molecules without colliding with them

Why can't you hear in space?

because sound waves need a medium (solid, liquid, gas) to travel through and space is a vacuum

Natural gas

bio-mass (plants and animals) get buried underground and becomes gaseous as it breaks down. This creates pockets of natural gas that can be harvested and burned and used for energy

Every substance has its own unique __________ point and _____________ point

boiling, freezing

What is the difference between calories and kilocalories?

calories in food are actually kilocalories. 1 kilocalorie = 1000 calories real calories measure energy (capacity to do work)

Why do certain areas experience more earthquake damage than others?

can depend on how hard the ground is -when goes through softer material, earthquake increases amplitude (goes up and down harder) and causes more damage Ex: San Francisco earthquake was worse along the shore line because ground there was more sediment and sandy in-fill (harder ground allows waves to pass through)

Energy

capacity to do work measured in calories (calories in food are actually kilocalories, which are 1000 of what physicists call calories)

How are tides created?

caused by the gravitational pull of the moon and sun on the Earth the moon has a stronger gravitational pull on the Earth than the Sun (because it's so much closer) Earth bends a little towards the moon because of this. Even the solid parts of the Earth do this, but of course, the liquid parts can really bend toward the moon because able to move more. So the oceans rise up towards the moon on the side that the moon is on AND on the other side, because there is LESS gravitational pull on that side, so those liquid parts are rising up AWAY from the moon. Two high areas and two low areas http://www.moonconnection.com/tides.phtml

The further the pH gets from 7 in *either direction,* the more __________ the substance will be

caustic ex: bleach is very caustic and is a base vinegar is caustic and is an acid

all of the bodies that are orbiting that star are held in their paths by ~ the balance between inertia and gravity

centrifugal force

acceleration

change in velocity a= (v₂-v₁) ÷ (t₂-t₁) a = ∆v/∆t *will be a curved line on a graph* (if going at a constant rate of speed, would be a straight line on the graph, faster they are going, the steeper the line)

fire evidence of a ___________________ taking place

chemical reaction

weathering can occur by _______ or ______ means. weathering usually requires some form of _________ exposure

chemical, physical surface

meteors

chunks of rock that strike a planet, when enter the Earth's atmosphere, usually friction of ~ colliding with air causes ~ to burn up before hitting the Earth's surface --planets with no atmosphere (or our moon for example) don't have way to burn up meteors--leads to lots of craters

When a switch is on, the circuit is (open/closed)?

closed circuit makes a complete circuit and electrons can flow around

Lever

crowbar, pan balance, see-saw, hammer, rake, pliers, stapler, can opener (Hi-C kind), toilet flusher handle, door handle (not knob, the lever kind), scissors *closer object is to fulcrum, the more force is exerted UPON it, further from fulcrum, the more force object exerts* ex: break apart 2 blocks that are stuck together, stick crowbar in between them and push down on other end of crowbar further you are from the fulcrum, the better *mechanical advantage* you have

Which lab tools would be best to use to measure density?

density = mass/volume so *a balance* to find out the mass of the object and a *graduated cylinder* to find out the volume of the object

Why do different bodies of water have different levels of salinity?

depends on how water enters/leaves the body of water bodies of water with drainage such as streams or rivers are much less salty because when the water leaves the body of water, it takes the salt with it bodies of water without drainage have no way to get rid of salt. water flows IN with salt, but can only EXIT by evaporation, when water evaporates, it leaves the salt behind, so water gets more and more salty This is also why the ocean is salty

When translating word problems, the word "per" means _________.

division

Beginning Stages of Writing

drawing pictures > scribble stage > names > letters and alphabet > words > phonetic with only some punctuation

radio waves

electromagnetic radiation with the longest wavelength (as long as 1 km+) -can pass through walls, ppl, etc harmlessly because waves are so long that they can pass through without colliding with atoms of the walls, ppl, etc.

valence electrons

electrons found in the outermost shell (main energy level) of an atom -these are the electrons involved in forming bonds -Typically involved in chemical reactions by being gained, lost, or shared in the formation of chemical bonds

Law of Conservation of Energy

energy can change forms, but cannot be created or destroyed ex: sun rising and shining on ocean, transfers electromagnetic radiation from sun's light into thermal energy as the heat is absorbed by the water (Law of Conservation of Matter=same thing but with matter)

When translating word problems, the word "is" means __________.

equals (=)

More isolated bodies of water have more _______ tides

extreme The more difficult it is for the water to enter/exit a region, the more extreme the tides tend to be *remember:

In the equation y = ax² + bx + c, a negative "a" makes the parabola _________.

face downward (frown)

The equation y = ax² + bx + c, a positive "a" makes the parabola _________.

face upward (smiley-face)

The principle type of evidence of prehistoric life is _________.

fossils

the *less pressure* there is on something, the more it wants to go towards being a (choose one: solid, liquid, gas)

gas Because the less pressure there is on molecules, the easier it is for them to move

Jupiter

gas super giant - much larger than other planets in our solar system and composed primarily of gas

discontinuity

happens when there is a fault shift, which makes the layers of sedimentary rock uneven

solution

homogeneous (even throughout) mixture where 1 substance is evenly dissolved into the other ex: salt water/saline solution: salt evenly distributed throughout the water *doesn't separate after time, stays mixed together* more examples: sugar and water

order

idea that there are certain commonalities and relationships that allow us to understand, statistically quantify and predict the behavior of objects, organisms and events in the universe

ion

imbalanced atom (not the same number of protons and electrons) can be either positive or negative

refraction

light bends while passing from one medium (solid, liquid, gas) into another This happens because light travels at different speeds in different mediums. ex: rainbows ex2: sparkle of diamonds ex3: leg looks different in/above water in pool ex4:mirages: layer of hot air forms close to ground, hot air is less dense than cold air above it, light bends and this makes it look like there is water on the ground ex5: fish in fishtanks look like they are different sizes/in different spot when looking through glass and into water from above (from above, light is only passing through 2 mediums before hitting your eyes - the air and the water, through the side, the light is passing through 3 mediums - air, glass tank and water before hitting your eyes, so this makes the light a little more ~ed when looking through the glass of the tank)

Planets in our solar system

mercury, venus, earth, mars, jupiter, saturn, uranus, neptune, pluto Martha very eagerly munched jellybeans sitting under nancy's porch

What measure of central tendency is used to track trends or popularity?

mode

What was one result of photosynthetic organisms appearing on Earth?

more oxygen in the atmosphere, changed the atmosphere, oxygen became more prevalent in the atmosphere, more animals that breathed oxygen began to proliferate

How can you balance two objects of different masses on a lever?

move the smaller (less massive) object further out from the fulcrum and move the larger (more massive) object closer in to the fulcrum

lunar eclipse

named for what is being blocked out (the moon is being blocked out in this case) the shadow of the Earth falls onto the moon, moon and sun are on opposite sides of the Earth

When the Sun and Moon are pulling atperpendicular angles, we get less extreme tides called _______________.

neap tides

Charles' Law

one of the *gas laws (does not apply to liquids or solids)* Volume and temperature *of gases*are directly proportional. As temperature of gas goes up, volume of gas goes up As temperature of gas goes down, volume of gas goes down This is why need less air in tires in summer than in winter

vacuum

place with no matter

why does moon have so many more craters than the Earth?

planets with no atmosphere don't have way to burn up meteors--leads to lots of impact and so lots of craters

Divergent plates

plates pulling apart Ex: Atlantic seafloor: seafloor is moving slowly apart, breaking apart between tectonic plates as breaks apart, lava comes out, hits cool water, hardens then breaks apart again and more lava comes out and it happens again, which pushes plates further apart

All whole numbers except for 1 and 0 are either _______ or ___________.

prime, composite

diffusion

process by which molecules tend to move from an area where they are more concentrated to an area where they are less concentrated (only really happens in gasses and liquids)

each element has a set # of neutrons, often the same # as the ____________

protons

What are the 3 basic subatomic particles?

protons neutrons electrons

Respiratory System

provides the body with oxygen via gas exchange btw air from the outside environment and gases in the blood. (lungs, nose, trachea, bronchi)

The Doppler scale is used to measure _________

radar

longest wavelength of visible light

red

Ring of fire: Where is it? What causes it?

region of the earth surrounds the pacific plate under the pacific ocean Eastern Asia and West Coast of US lots of volcanoes and earthquakes movement of plate boundary causes earthquakes and volcanoes

Urinary/Excretory Systems

removes wastes and maintains water balance in the body. (kidneys, urinary bladder, urethra, ureters)

Igneous, Metamorphic and Sedimentary rock can all be converted into each other during the __________

rock cycle

clastic

rocks composed of broken pieces of older rocks

metamorphic rock

rocks that get baked under high pressure for a long period of time Tend to be very pure Ex: diamond, schist Can get heated up under ground and turn back into igneous rock

balanced atom

same number of protons and electrons

scarcity and choice

scarcity limits our options and necessitates that we make choices

the *more pressure* there is on something, the more it wants to go towards being a (choose one: solid, liquid, gas)

solid Because when put pressure on molecules, it's harder for them to move

states of matter

solid liquid gas

prism

something that refracts light In addition to bending light as a whole, a ~ separates white light into its component colors. Different colors of light have different frequencies, which causes them to travel at different speeds when they move through matter.

catalyst

something that starts/accelerates up a chemical reaction such as a spark

When the Sun and Moon are in alignment, we get more extreme tides called __________.

spring tides (named not for the season, but for the fact that the water "springs" higher than normal)

Potential Energy

stored energy food, fuel, rock at the edge of a cliff, ball in the air about to come back down, water at top of waterfall

compound

substance made up of 2 or more combined elements ex: H₂O, CO₂, NaCl (Sodium Chloride = table salt) Sodium on its own could burn a hole through the table and Chloride on its own is very caustic and toxic, but when bonded together is not only not toxic to us, but is also something we need for health and survival

An active margin is where there is some ________ _______.

tectonic activity

What causes the Aurora Borealis?

the Earth's magnetic field catching ions and particles coming into Earth's atmosphere and bringing the charged particles (ions) down at the North Pole (this creates glowing lights)

years are based on..........

the Earth's rotation around the Sun when the Earth rotates once all the way around the Sun, that equals one ~

Days are based on..........

the Earth's rotation on its axis when the Earth rotates once all the way around on its axis, that equals one ~

Seasons are caused by

the Earth's tilt on its axis, the tilt itself does not change, the Earth tilts toward the right, so the top of the Earth is the right most point, if you were looking at it in a picture. Even though the tilt itself does not change, which part of the Earth is closest to the Sun changes based on where the Earth is in its orbit. (see picture) As the Earth revolves around the Sun, the tilt causes different hemispheres to receive more direct exposure at different times in its orbit (=diff times of the year)

What is the world's primary source of thermal energy?

the Pacific Ocean

voltage

the force that drives current (the flow of electrons) through a circuit produced by a battery or generator generator can be powered by solar, hydroelectric, nuclear, coal-burning engine, etc.

months are based on........

the moon's rotation around the Earth when the moon rotates once all the way around the Earth, that equals one ~

Plate tectonics

theory that all continents were all once together, which scientists named Pangea

half-life

time required for half the atoms of a particle substance to disintegrate rate of decay gets *slower* over time because dividing decaying part in half each time, so less and less is disintegrating each time ex: carbon14 has a half-life of 5400 years

Brigham Young

took over after Smith's death in 1844. Stern and austere, he was an aggressive leader and elegant preacher. He led the Mormons to Utah in 1846-1847. He would establish Salt Lake City. He married 27 women and had 56 children. He was made the territorial governor of Utah in 1850, and the polygamy customs of the Mormons delayed Utah's statehood until 1896.

The Fujita scale, named after Dr. Thomas Fujita, measures __________

tornado intensity

electromagnetic radiation

types of waves that come from the sun a broad spectrum of waves including Gamma Rays, X-Rays, Ultraviolet Light, Visible Light, Infared Radiation (I.R.), Microwaves, and Radio Waves

Thermal Energy

unlike heat, depends on *quantity* of substance more volume=takes more energy to heat up and therefore more energy is stored in moving molecules of substance

brown dwarf

when a very small, very dense, low-mass star collapses and fizzles out because it has exhausted all its central nuclear fuel and its core collapses to form a ~

black hole

when a very, very massive star collapses so profoundly that all the mass of the star gets pulled into a tiny point, smaller than the head of a pin. Gravity of that is tremendous. (possibly:) Even light passing by gets sucked in, when astronomers look out into night sky and see certain places where there is no electro magnetic radiation being emitted/visible it is believed that these regions are where black holes exist, because black hole is pulling light into them, so we can't see the light from Earth

Convection

when cooler portions of *liquids and gasses* flow in to take place of hotter, rising portions -moves in *cyclonic*/circular action -can see this in pot of boiling water - hot water rises up, cooler surrounding water above it moves down to take its place: this creates a churning action

when is it possible to see the sun and the moon in the sky at the same time?

when it is dawn or dusk and you are looking on opposite horizons

spring tides

when the Sun lines up with the Moon and the Earth in a straight line, like in a New Moon or Full Moon, the tidal effect is increased. These are known as spring tides, named not for the season, but for the fact that the water "springs" higher than normal. (Because the Earth rotates, the places of high/low tides will change as the Earth spins. Every 24 hours, a place will have 2 high tides and 2 low tides) http://www.moonconnection.com/tides.phtml

The equation y = ax² + bx + c crosses the y axis at y = _____?

y = c

can nebulas be spread out?

yes, over very vast distances

Symbol for "absolute value"?

| |

sample space

what are all the possible outcomes? what are all the things you could pick (in a probability experiment)? The set of all possible outcomes of a probability experiment (all the possibilities NOT the number of possibilities) Usually shown in a tree map, table or chart Lets you see how many possible outcomes there are, so you can figure out probability more easily

Factor

numbers that divide evenly into other numbers - without a remainder. For example, 5 divides into 40 evenly so 5 is a factor of 40. We often create a factor tree or a prime factorization of numbers to help us recognize the factors of a number See pic for factor tree which shows that the prime factorization of 120 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 3 x 5

Triangle

polygon with three angles/vertices and three sides made up of line segments -can be named by its three vertices: ΔABC P = a + b + c A=1/2(bh)

round multi-digit numbers to any place value

round 847,256 to the 10,000s place: 850,000 round 847,256 to the thousands place: 847,000 round 847,256 to the hundreds place: 847,300

probability equation

#possibilities of what I want -------------------- total # possible outcomes

Area (Definition)

"Area is the two-dimensional measure of how many square units can fit inside the interior of an object <img src=""paste7hksh1.png"" /><div> </div><div style=""font-style:italic; font-size: 1.3em; font-family:cambria;"">1 acre = 43,560 ft2</div><div style=""font-style:italic; font-size: 1.3em; font-family:cambria;"">640 acres = 1 mile2</div><div> </div>"

Properties of Number System Operations

"Properties of Number System Operations <img src=""pastehp_zce.png"" />"

Decimal Number Division

"Division is not defined for decimal numbers. In order to divide by a decimal number, we change that divisor into a whole number: First multiply each number by powers of 10 - multiply by whatever is necessary to make the divisor a whole number. Then divide as you would with whole numbers. Wherever the decimal point is in the dividend, it floats directly up to that position in the quotient (answer). <img src=""pastex0nanh.png"" />"

Ordering Whole Numbers

"When you are asked to order whole numbers, write them above one another with the place values lined up. Then, starting from the *left*, look for the largest value. For example, if you are asked to order: 5,139 986,733 3,950 77,922 Write them above each other with the place values lined up as you would if you were going to add the numbers. Looking at the place values from left to right, the largest number is 986,733. The next largest number is 77,922. Both the first and third numbers start in the same place value but 5 is larger than 3 so 5,139 is larger than 3,950

Division of Fractions & Mixed Numbers

*Division of Fractions & Mixed Numbers: is not defined.* As such, we use the properties of our number system to *change the division problem into a multiplication problem*, which *is* defined. (see pic) -Change mixed numbers to improper fractions. -Change whole numbers to improper fractions with a "1" on the denominator. -Write the two fractions horizontally beside each other. -Write the reciprocal of the divisor (flip the second fraction upside down) and change the operation to multiplication. Expand each numerator and each denominator into a prime factorization. "Cancel" any ones such as 3/3 or 5/5. Multiply what is left straight across. A reciprocal is the inverse of a fraction. Multiplication is the inverse of division. The inverse of an inverse is the same as the original problem. As such, multiplication of a reciprocal is the same as dividing by the original divisor. *Remember on test, if answers are in fraction form, correct answer will always be reduced* *Do NOT need common denominators* *Answer should be MORE than the original factors* (ex: ½ ÷ ¼= 4/2 = 2) <--2 is more than 1/2 or 1/4*

Equivalent Fractions

*Equivalent fractions* are fractions which simplify to the same simple fraction When two fractions are equivalent, their cross products are equal (see picture) If have a variable, cross multiply to solve. (Each side will now be a linear equation, no longer in fraction form. See example) ex: x/9 = 12/54 54x= (9)(12) 54x= 108 (54x)÷54 = 108÷54 x=2 *Remember on test, if answers are in fraction form, correct answer will always be reduced*

LCM

*Lowest Common Multiple (LCM)* of two or more numbers is the smallest number that is a multiple of all the numbers. One way to find the LCM is to count by each of the numbers and find the first number that is a multiple of all. For example, find the LCM of 9, 12, and 18 Then make a Venn Diagram with all the factors, the shared factors in the center. Lastly, multiply all the numbers together. This is the LCM. (see pic) example LCM word problem: One day, Edward and his friends had lunch while sitting at tables of 15. Another day, they had lunch at tables of 10. What is the *smallest number of people that could be in the group?* (30 people)

Simplifying Fractions

*Simplifying fractions* is sometimes (incorrectly) called reducing a fraction. Expand the numerator and denominator into prime factorizations (see pic). "Cancel" any ones such as 3/3 or 5/5. Then multiply straight across those numbers that are left. The resulting (simplified) fraction is equivalent to the original fraction but is in simplified form. *Remember on test, if answers are in fraction form, correct answer will always be reduced*

First 10 Square Numbers

1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100

Divisibility Rules

2= Even numbers (ending in 0, 2, 4, 6, and 8) 3 = If repeated sums of the digits result in 3, 6, or 9 4 = If the last two digits are divisible by 4 5 = If the last digit is 0 or 5 6 = If the number is divisible by both 2 and 3 8 = If the last three digits are divisible by 8 9 = If repeated sums of the digits result in 9 10 = If the last digit is 0

Which equation shows the commutative property of addition? 2+3 = 4+1 8+1 = 1+8 7+2 = 9

8+1 = 1+ 8 move numbers around and they mean the same thing *THINK COMMUTE = move The property that says that two or more numbers can be added or multiplied in any order without changing the result.

Decimal Number Addition

Decimal numbers are added exactly the same as whole numbers: line up the numbers by place value and add each place value from the right to the left. When the decimal numbers are lined up by place value properly, the decimal points in each number are also lined up. Any number without a decimal point is lined up so the ones place is right before the decimal point (there is an understood decimal point after the one's place). It may help to write zeros in empty places to facilitate addition.

Decimal Number Multiplication

Decimal numbers are multiplied by temporarily ignoring the decimal point. Multiply the two numbers as though they were whole numbers. In the final product, place the decimal point to signify the number of decimal places in both numbers of the original problem. For example:  2.3 (one decimal place) x 1.456 (three decimal places) is the same as 23 x 1456 with the answer having four decimal places (1 + 3 from the original problem) Technically, decimal numbers are multiplied by powers of 10 in order to make them whole numbers before multiplication. Then the answer (product) is divided by that same power of 10.

Fractions (Definition, Meaning, and Parts)

A *fraction* represents equal-sized parts of a whole. The top number of a fraction is called the *numerator* because it is the number of parts. The *denominator* is a denominate number (measurement of size) telling how many of the equal-sized parts are in the whole. The line between the numerator and denominator indicates division and is called a *vinculum* Note that the parts MUST be equal-sized. The parts are usually indicated by coloring them or shading them *Remember on test, if answers are in fraction form, correct answer will always be reduced*

Prime Factorization

A *prime factorization* of a number is a list of all prime factors that multiply together to make that number. A factor tree is often used to find the prime factorization of a number. The prime factorization can be written as the product of individual factors or exponents can be used to write the product of repeated prime factors. Ex: 120 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 3 x 5 This can also be written as 120 = 23 x 3 x 5

Ratios (Definition & three ways to write)

A *ratio* is a FIXED relationship between 2 quantities, or in other words, are a comparison of 2 numbers using division. The most common ratios we see are fractions. Write a ratio using a fraction bar, a colon, or the word "to": 3:2 3/2 3 to 2 When we *set two ratios equal to each other,* we say these 2 ratios/fractions are *proportionate.* The comparison between the numerators and the denominators is *the same fixed relationship*. ex: 1/2 = 2/4 "One half is equal to two fourths." ="One half is proportionate to two fourths."

Factor Tree

A factor tree is a method used to find a number's prime factorization. Start by splitting the number into any two factors that multiply to make that number. Then split each of those two factors into two factors each. Keep splitting each "branch" of the factor tree until you reach a prime number, which cannot be split into factors. The final prime numbers at the end of each "branch" of the factor tree are the prime factorization of the number. See pic for factor tree which shows that the prime factorization of 120 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 3 x 5

Whole Number Place Value

A number in standard form is marked into groups of three digits using commas. Each of these groups is called a period. Within each group, the place values are always the 100's place, the 10's place, and the 1's place (from left to right). Understanding place value is key to understanding our number system. Decimal numbers simply extend the place values to the right and use "ths" to identify the places (e.g. 100 millionths place).

Rectangular Solid (Definition, volume, and surface area)

A rectangular solid (also known as a cuboid) is a three-dimensional solid where *all angles are right angles* and *opposite faces are equal.* A rectangular solid is also informally called a rectangular box. V = Lwh SA = 2wh + 2hL + 2wL

diameter

A straight line passing from side to side through the center of a circle or sphere. It is radius * 2 d=2r

Proportions (Definition)

A true statement that two ratios or fractions are equal. If have a variable, cross multiply to solve. (Each side will now be a linear equation, no longer in fraction form. See example) ex: x/9 = 12/54 54x= (9)(12) 54x= 108 (54x)÷54 = 108÷54 x=2 Every proportion is made up of 4 numbers. When we *set two ratios equal to each other,* we say these 2 ratios/fractions are *proportionate.* The comparison between the numerators and the denominators is *the same fixed relationship*. ex: 1/2 = 2/4 "One half is equal to two fourths." ="One half is proportionate to two fourths."

Irrational Numbers

All real numbers except the rational numbers; -numbers that are square roots of non-perfect square numbers -non-terminating, non-repeating decimal s (like pi - just keeps going no end) -most well-known irrational number is pi (π) which is approximately equal to 22/7 or 3.14 The opposite of Irrational numbers are the rational numbers - ALL real numbers are either rational or irrational.

Improper Fraction & Mixed Numbers (Definition)

An *improper fraction* has a numerator larger than (or equal to) the denominator and indicates a fraction that is equal to one or more than one whole An improper fraction can be changed into a whole number or a mixed number by dividing the denominator into the numerator. A mixed number is the sum of a non-zero integer and a proper fraction. *Remember on test, if answers are in fraction form, correct answer will always be reduced* *Improper fractions: denominator might not be most simplified one - make into mixed number THEN SIMPLIFY FURTHER*

Rational Numbers

Any number that can be represented as the RATIO of two INTEGERS (integers are the counting numbers, their negatives, and zero (..., -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3 ...).) -integers (because every integer is the ratio of the integer over 1. ex: 2 = 2/1) -fractions -decimals that end (like 12.5) or repeat the same numbers over and over (like 23.666666) -percentages **Square roots of non-perfect squares can NOT be expressed as the fraction of two integers, so they IRrational numbers* All real numbers are either rational or irrational. Sets in mathematics include the set of integers (Z), rational numbers (Q), primes (P), real numbers (R), natural numbers (N), whole numbers (W), etc.

Converting Percentages to Decimals & Fractions

Change a percent to a decimal by moving the decimal point two places to the left and removing the percent sign: 14% = 0.14 Change a percent to a fraction by writing the percent as a fraction over 100 and simplifying: 14% = 14/100, which simplifies to 7/50 *Remember: per = divided by; cent = 100* *On test, all fractions must be in most simplified version*

Classify Numbers in Real Number System

Classify Numbers in Real Number System Sets in mathematics include the set of integers (Z), rational numbers (Q), primes (P), real numbers (R), natural numbers (N), whole numbers (W), etc.

solve multi-step mathematical and real-world problems using division of rational numbers DIVIDING FRACTIONS

Flip the 2nd fraction upside down, then multiply straight across, then simplify answer *If numerator and denominator are both divisible by the 2nd number, can just divide across* ex: (2/3) ÷ (3/4) = (2/3) * (4/3) = (2*4) / (3*3) = (8/9) cannot divide 2 by 3, so cannot divide across in this problem ex2: 2/3 ÷ 5 Make the whole number into fraction: = 2/3 ÷ 5/1 INVERT the 2nd fraction: =2/3 * 1/5 MULTIPLY ACROSS: =(2*1)/(3*5) =2/15 cannot divide 2 by 5, so cannot divide across in this problem ex3: 3 ÷ 1/4 INVERT the 2nd Fraction: = 3/1 ÷ 1/4 Multiply across: =3/1 * 4/1 = (3*4)/(1*1) =12/1 SIMPLIFY = 12 ex4: 8/10 ÷ 2/5 = ? INVERT the 2nd Fraction: =8/10 * 5/2 = ? Multiply across: (8*5)/(10*2) = ? Simplify (40) / (20) = ? 4/2 =2 On this one, the numerator and denominator are both divisible by the 2nd number, so could also just divide across 8/10 ÷ 2/5 = (8÷2)/(10÷5) = 4/2 = 2 (*When you flip the 2nd fraction upside down, it is called the RECIPROCAL of the 2nd fraction, or INVERTING the 2nd fraction) ♫ "Dividing fractions, as easy as pie, Flip the second fraction, then multiply. And don't forget to simplify!" ♫

Imaginary Numbers

Imaginary Numbers are numbers that contain the imaginary number "i", which is the square root of negative one: Note that if the discriminant portion of the quadratic equation is negative, the function or quadratic equation has no real solutions. The symbol used for the set of complex numbers is C. ***This term will probably not appear on the Praxis test but is included here for completeness of mathematical topics.***

Prime Numbers

Prime Numbers = Integers greater than 1 with exactly 2 factors or divisors; numbers that are evenly divisible by only 1 and themselves. The number 2 is the first prime and it is the only even number that is prime. *The number 1 is neither prime nor composite,* because a prime number is a number with only 2 factors one AND itself, one is itself. Memorize the prime numbers 1-100: 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97

distributive property of multiplication

Multiplication outside parentheses distributing over either addition or subtraction inside parentheses does not affect the answer

Multiplying Fractions & Mixed Numbers

Multiplying Fractions & Mixed Numbers: Two ways to do it: 1.) multiply top times top, multiply bottom times bottom simplify if you can 2.) (see pic) -Change mixed numbers to improper fractions. -Change whole numbers to improper fractions with a "1" as the denominator. -Write the two fractions to be multiplied horizontally beside each other. -Expand each numerator and each denominator into a prime factorization (see pic). -"Cancel" any ones such as 3/3 or 5/5. Multiply what is left straight across *Remember on test, if answers are in fraction form, correct answer will always be reduced* *Do NOT need common denominators* *Answer should be LESS than the original factors* (ex: ½ * ¼= 1/8) <--1/8 is smaller than both 1/2 and 1/4*

Composite Numbers

Numbers that are not prime numbers. numbers that have more than two factors or divisors

Unit Rates

Price per item Total Cost divided by number of items Ex: Roses are $24/dozen $24/12 = $2 each

Real Numbers

Real Numbers are numbers that can be located on the number line, numbers that can exist in the real world - could be whole numbers, fractions, percents, etc. The opposite of real numbers are imaginary numbers. The symbol used for the set of real numbers is R. Sets in mathematics include the set of integers (Z), rational numbers (Q), primes (P), real numbers (R), natural numbers (N), whole numbers (W), etc. *Remember on test, if answers are in fraction form, correct answer will always be reduced*

solve multi-step mathematical and real-world problems using addition of rational numbers ADDING FRACTIONS

Step 1: Find common denominator -multiply each fraction (both top and bottom) by the denominator of the other fraction - we can do this because any fraction with the same number on the top and bottom is equal to 1, so we are really just multiplying by 1 (look at picture to understand better) Step 2: Add numerators (tops), put the answer over the denominator Step 3: Simplify the fraction (if needed) ex: ¼ + ¼= 2/4 ex2: 1/3 + 1/6 = (6/6) (1/3) + (3/3)(1/6) = (6/18) + (3/18) = 9/18 =1/2

GCF

The *Greatest Common Factor* (GCF) of two or more numbers is the *largest number that is a factor of all the numbers.* One way to find the GCF is to write the prime factorization of each of the numbers. Then make a Venn Diagram with all the factors, the shared factors in the center. Lastly, multiply all the numbers in the middle of the Venn diagram together. (see pic) example GCF word problem: Mei is a dental sales representative who wants to distribute 16 brochures and 10 pamphlets to local dental offices. She wants to deliver *the same combination* of brochures and pamphlets *to each* office, *without having any materials left over.* What is the *greatest number* of dental offices Mei can distribute materials to? (2 offices)

radius

The distance from the center of a circle to any point on the circle. It is half the diameter. r= d/2

identity property of addition/multiplication

The property that states that the sum of 0 and any number is that number AND The property that states that the product of 1 and any number is that number ex: 3+0 = 3 ex2: 3*1 = 3

Addition of Fractions & Mixed Numbers

To add fractions & mixed numbers: 1. Write the two fractions/mixed numbers vertically above each other (lining up place value) 2. Change the fractions to a common denominator. 3. Add the numerators only. 4. Put that sum over the common denominator. 5. Simplify the answer. *Remember on test, if answers are in fraction form, correct answer will always be reduced*

write numbers using base-10 numerals

Write numbers by showing how many of each place value it has: ex: 1,249 (1*1000) + (2*100) + (4*10) + (9*1) (***NOT 1,000 + 200+ 40 + 9, that is expanded form***)

reciprocal

a fraction inverted (flipped upside down) *if you multiply 2 fractions that are reciprocals of each other, the answer is always 1 (ex: 2/3 * 3/2 = 6/6 = 1)

Square

a regular polygon made up of four equal sides and four equal angles of 90 degrees each if s = side A = s^2 P = s*4

Percentages (Definition)

a way of expressing a number, especially a ratio, as a fraction of 100 The percent key on a calculator merely divides by 100. If your calculator doesn't have a percent key, hit the divide key and then 100. *Remember: per = divided by; cent = 100*

rational numbers

any number that can be shown as a fraction (decimals, fractions, whole numbers) the proper way to show rational numbers are as fractions (so integers should be written as being over 1)

Rectangle

any quadrilateral with four right angles A = lw P = 2l + 2w

Which property of addition is shown? 5 + (7 + 1) = (5 + 7) + 1

associative Changing the grouping of numbers will NOT change the value. For example: (7 + 4) + 8 = 7 + (4 + 8) also works with multiplication ex2: as multiplication: (4 × 2) × 1 = 4 × (2 × 1) Grouping numbers together *THINK "associates" means group members/friends

real-world problems diving fractions : ex1: Kevin has 8/10 cups of water. He has to split this water up between dogs' water dishes. He poured 2/5 cups of water into each water dish. How many water dishes can he fill with the water he has? ex2: Cameron has 5/6 yards of string. She needs 1/3 yard of string to make a bracelet. How many bracelets can she make?

ex1: 8/10 c ÷ 2/5 c per bowl = number of bowls This is asking "How many groups of 2/5 fit in 8/10?" 8/10 ÷ 2/5 = ? INVERT the 2nd Fraction: =8/10 * 5/2 = ? Multiply across: (8*5)/(10*2) = ? (40) / (20) = ? 4/2 =? =2 He can fill 2 water dishes with this much water ex2: 5/6 ÷ 1/3 = ? using inverse fraction and multiplying: 5/6 * 3/1 =(5*3)/(6*1) =15/6 both can be divided by 3, to simplify down to =5/2 =2 and 1/2 or dividing across: 5/6 ÷ 1/3 =(5÷1)/(6÷3) =5/2 =2 and 1/2

In Roman numerals, when a smaller value appears to the left of a higher value, _______ _____ _________ _______ and then ________. Ex: XLI = ?

flip the numbers around, subtract M= 1000 D=500 C=100 L=50 X=10 V = 5 I = 1 XLI = XL + 1 = (50-10) + 1 = 41

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