Problem Solving: What is a problem

What are the three main classes of explanation proposed for why performance improves with practice?

1) individual task components are executed more efficiently 2) sequences of task components are executed more efficiently 3) qualitative changes occur in representation of task structure.

What is Means-ends (ME) analysis?

A combination of working forwards and backwards. Compare current state and goal state to identify differences, select an operator to reduce one of the differences, apply operator if possible. If not, set a new sub-goal to reach a point where the operator can be applied, or the attempt to use it is abandoned.

What is a problem?

A problem arises when we have a goal (something we want to achieve) and it is not immediately apparent how we can attain it.

Within the information processing approach what sort of process is problem solving generally seen as?

A search process.

What is an algorithm?

A set of procedures that provide a method for solving a problem. (e.g. a cake recipe)

What three components do problems consist of?

A starting state, a goal state and a set of available actions to move from starting to goal state.

What type of problem is involved and chess play and why?

Adversarial problem solving because it involves an opponent.

What assumption is given for why children suffered less from functional fixity?

Because they had less strongly fixed associations between possible uses and object (Defeyter and German, 2003)

Describe Zhang and Norman (1994) theory to account for representational effects in problems such as Tower of Hanoi?

Distinguished between 'internal' and 'external' representations. Internal representations entail a processing and representational burden, because the information needed to solve the problem has to be encoded and maintained in some form. Internal rules are rules that need to be memorized. External rules are not stated explicitly in the instructions but are implied or necessitated by the problem itself - they seem to make a problem easier to solve but also change the nature of the task.

What are emotional blocks?

Fear of taking risks, judging rather than generating ideas, inability to incubate ideas, lack of challenge, excessive zeal (motivation, and lack of imagination.

How did Luchins and Luchins (1959) study set problems?

In a series of experiments using water jar problems.

What are perceptual blocks?

Inability to see the problem from various view-points, failure to utilize all sensory inputs.

What are problems that share the same underlying structure (i.e. have identical state-space diagrams) said to be?

Isomorphic

What is protocol analysis?

One of a cluster of methods for analyzing verbal data. It holds the view information represented in working memory may be verbalized without the sequence of thoughts being disrupted. Verbalization of such information may talk place either directly if that info is in verbal form or through transformation if in non-verbal form.

Describe the radiation problem (Duncker, 1945)?

Participants are to solve a medical problem. Patient has tumor in middle of by, how can you get to the tumor using rays without damaging healthy tissue surrounding the tissue. Idea is to combine rays from several angles so converge on target area.

What are the 3 categories of barriers to problem solving?

Perceptual blocks, Cultural blocks and Emotional blocks.

Describe the candle problem (Duncker)

Problem = fix the candle to the wall so that the wax from the candle doesn't drip onto the floor, using only the materials provided. Solution = requires restructuring the problem by using the box that contains the tacs as part of the solution.

What are 'simple' problems and what are they sometimes known as?

Problems which do not quire extensive background knowledge, sometimes known as 'puzzles'

How did Chase and Simon (1973) show expert and novices seem to see things differently?

Showed expert chess players performed much better than lower level players when chess pieces placed like an actual game but there performance was comparable to novices when chess pieces randomly placed (memory task). Suggested experts encode board positions into larger perceptual chunks.

What is insight?

Sudden arrival at a solution

What are the assumptions of protocol analysis?

That cognition is information processing, information is stored in different memory stores, and recently acquired information is retained in working memory.

What does the structure-mapping theory suggest?

That there's a process of analogical mapping whereby a structural alignment is established between the representations of the base and the target (i.e. explicit correspondences are established between the represented elements and relationships in the 2 situations)

Studies like that involving chess players have become known as what paradigm?

The 'expert-novice' paradigm

What does verbal analysis focus on?

The content of verbal data and so emphasis is on the representation of knowledge that's used to support problem solving rather than underlying processes.

What did the model of chess expertise that emerged become known as?

The pattern recognition hypothesis.

What is the 'power law of practice'?

The relationship between improvements in performance and practice, regardless of what is being learned.

What is the problem space theory (Newell and Simon, 1972)?

Theory of general problem solving. Consists of all possible solutions, path constraints (e.g. possible next moves constrained by current state) and operator/actions that can be taken to alter the current state.

What way has represented effect been investigated by Simon and Hayes (1976)?

Through several versions of the Tower of Hanoi problem.

When is protocol analysis not a suitable approach?

When the requirement to think aloud might change the way in which the task is carried out.

What are well defined problems?

a problem with a specific goal and a clearly indefinable solution path.

What is an ill-defined problem?

a problem without a clear goal, expected solution path, or solution.

What is random search (a.k.a generate and test)?

a process of trial and error.

What problem can hill climbing have?

can lead to problems at times when you need to work backward to move forward when solving a problem.

What is hill-climbing?

choosing the move that most closely resembles the goal.

What is functional fixedness?

cognitive bias that restricts a person to using an object in a typical way.

What is damage to the prefrontal cortex associated with?

deficits in executive processing (high order cognitive control and goal-directed behavior)

What are the key areas of the brain involved in planning?

dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, lateral premotor cortex, rostral anterior cingulate, caudate nucleus (Dagher et al, 1999)

What is the behaviourism approach to problem solving?

identifying a solution to a problem is a process of trail-and-error, rather than insight. (e.g. Thorndike's puzzle box for cats)

What types of problems usually occur in real life?

ill-defined problems.

What issues with problem solving have been shown in patients with damage to prefrontal cortex?

impaired performance of tasks such as the tower of Hanoi and difficulty implementing means-ends analysis (especially resolving goal-sub-goal conflict; Goel and Grafman, 1995)

What is the orbitofrontal involved in?

inhibition, impulse control and behavior.

What do Gestalt school of thought particularly emphasize the role of in problem solving?

insight.

What are common heuristics used when trying to solve problems?

means-ends analysis, hill climbing, and trial-and-error.

What is the dorsolateral involved in?

planning, working memory, reasoning and problem-solving.

What are the 4 phases of problem solving according to Gestalt Psychology?

preparation, incubation, insight and verification.

What is the Gestalt-Psychology approach to problem-solving?

problem-solving is a productive process, which involves restructuring your internal representation to a problem in order to gain insight into the solutions.

How can means-ends analysis be applied?

recursively (have to apply it several times to achieve goal state)

What is fundamental to problem solving?

representation.

What a cultural blocks?

taboos, regarding tradition as preferable to change, seeing what you expect to see (stereotyping)

What assumption does the problem space theory make?

that all the information needed to solve the puzzle is contained in the puzzle - this is not always the case.

Unlike heuristics what do algorithms always lead to?

the correct result

What is means-ends analysis explicitly guided by?

the goal.

What is the template theory (Gobet and Simon, 2000)?

the idea that templates are conceived as high-level schematic structures that may have evolved from perceptual chunks

What is means-end-analysis (short definition)?

the problem is broken down into a series of sub-goals.

what does no differences between current state and goal state mean?

the problem is solved.

What are the issues of algorithms?

they can be time consuming and place high demands on memory?

What is the problem space theory useful for?

well defined problems

What types of problem are there?

well-defined and ill-defined problems

How does the 'set' effect arise?

when learned or habitual ways of tackling a problem prevent the solver from identifying better and simpler methods, or when unwarranted assumptions are made

When do we use heuristics?

when time is limited, when overloaded with information, when task is of limited importance and when there is uncertainty.