PSC 103 Exam 3
Materialism
the theory that ideas are rooted in the material or physical conditions of life, as opposed to spiritual ideals and values which are constructs of the mind which can be independent of material and physical conditions
Idealism
the theory that ideas have a life of their own as the products of consciousness or spiritual ideals and values that are independent of material conditions. In international relations, idealism emphasizes the role of ideas and morality as a determinant of the relations between states
Political identity
the way in which people label themselves as belonging to a particular group (e.g. nation-state, class or caste, ethnic group, religious group)
ideologue
those with an informed, broad, sophisticated and more or less consistent (systematic) view of politics
Ideologues
those with an informed, broad, sophisticated and more or less consistent (systematic) view of the political world
Free ride
to extract the benefits of other people's work without making any effort oneself. The free-rider problem is acute in collective action when individuals can benefit from a public good without paying taxes or making any effort of their own.
Equivalence
two objects or phenomena are equivalent if they have the same value, importance, use, function or result
Rational-choice theory
uses an economic approach that explains political attitudes and behavior in a different way; early rational-choice theory assumed that individuals were well informed about politics; later versions accepted that most people had little political information, but perhaps enough to make political judgements
Issue voting
voters choosing one issue rather than a total party program (or some other aspect of the party) as the basis of their voting decision
Protest vote
voting for a party not so much to support it, but to show opposition to another party or parties, usually those in government
Low information rationality
where citizens without great deal of factual political information have a broad enough grasp of the main issues to make up their mind about them, or else they take cues from sources they trust (sometimes known as "gut rationality")
Doorstep response
where those with no opinion or info respond to polls with the first thing that comes into their head (sometimes known as "non-opinion" or "non-attitudes")
John Locke (1632-1704)
wrote that natural law guarantees every individual the right to "life, liberty, and estate;" citizens would enter into a "social contract" with their government to protect themselves against those who would try to infringe their rights; proper role of government is limited to upholding natural rights and it has no other function
Political culture
"...Political cultures consist of values, attitudes, beliefs and assumptions about government and politics." - N&VD, p. 177
Populism
"A demagogic style of politics that appeals to political prejudices and emotions, particularly of those who feel exploited and oppressed by the rich and powerful." (N&VD)
Political Party
"A political party is an institution that (a) seeks influence in a state, often by attempting to occupy positions in government, and (b) usually consists of more than a single interest in the society and so to some degree attempts to 'aggregate' interests" Alan Ware, Political Parties & Party Systems (1996)
Socialization
"the process by which individuals acquire their political values, attitudes, and habits" - N&VD, p. 179
Ideological Spectrums
(left) socialism <-------- liberalism --------> conservatism (right)
Duverger's Law (1954)
- "Its effect can be expressed in the following formula: the simple-majority single-ballot system favors the two-party system. Of all the hypotheses that have been defined in this book, this approaches the most nearly perhaps to a true sociological law. - "An almost complete correlation is observable between the simple-majority single-ballot system and the two-party system" p. 217
Adam Smith
- "laissez-faire" - markets efficient; minimize the political sphere - be careful not to confuse this with popular use of the term "LIBERAL" in American journalism and politics - "The Wealth of Nations" - keep government out of the economy - the market will drive innovation and will weed out weak competitors
Nationalism
- Associated with the growth of romanticism in Europe - One of the deadliest of all ideologies - Approach this ideology with caution (not all bad, but when it becomes an ethically exclusive view, there is a danger)
National character studies
- French politics is unstable because the French have an unstable political culture - English politics is stable because the English have a culture of political deference
Robert Putnam
- Harvard political scientist - Making Democracy Work - Bowling Alone - Interested in building upon the analysis of civic culture - 1970 - Putnam was interested in the Italian Constitution (provision for regional government, Italians ignored that provision until 1970 and Putnam was interested in determining if political cultural differences would impact regional government success or shortcomings) - The Civic Community (active participation in public affairs, equal rights and obligations for all, virtuous citizens are "helpful, respectful, and trustful towards one another," norms and values embedded in and reinforced by distinctive social structures and practices
Classical Liberalism
- Human nature (rational, interested; goal-oriented; competitive; will exploit opportunities) - Society is artificial (Margaret Thatcher - "There is no such thing as British society.") - Liberty is the highest value (maximize the sphere for privacy) - One of the earliest ideologies (came out of Great Britain during a time when new industrialists were driving innovation and power) - America as the first liberal nation (one of our core founding principles) - Canadian ideological spectrum (old conservative society in what is now Quebec and a more liberal society in the rest of Canada)
Assumptions made by Inglehart
- Scarcity hypothesis (example: generation that went through Great Depression; people become fixed on things that they had less of) - Primacy of early socialization - Generations that grow up and go through formative experiences together - Big cultural gap between generation that grew up in Great Depression and baby boomers - SILENT REVOLUTION - Called baby boomers post-materialistic
Arguments AGAINST political culture as a tool of political science
- can be a fuzzy and hard to understand concept - can sometimes explain nothing - political culture explanations risk circularity - cultural explanations of behavior are trivial when they refer to attitudes or preferences only - cultures and structures are mutually interdependent and tend to go together. It shouldn't be surprising that they are associated, but which is cause and effect? - how can we sort our "bottom-up" and "top-down" explanations -existence of subcultures - where does political culture come from? - political culture deals with the last link in a long chain of causes of political behavior
Political orientations are divided into three dimensions:
- cognitive - affective - evaluative
Components of Political Culture
- cognitive (what you know about politics and political system) - affective (how you feel about politics and political system, pride or alienation, how you feel as a political actor) - evaluative (how well is the system working)
Six consequences of shift to post-materialism
- cognitive mobilization - replacement of class with cultural cleavages - increased religious conflict - more political participation - new forms of participation - new political issues Page 183
Ronald Inglehart - The Silent Revolution in Europe
- communities in schools --> quadrangles - children of privilege - Marx was wrong in expecting working class to be the crucial source of conflict in modern societies - since 1945, "materialistic" values have been replace by "post-materialistic" values
Five developments that challenge conventional states
- concentration of commercial power - rise of international NGOs - globalism - changing nature of conflicts - importance of international organizations
Important items on the agenda for democratic reform
- constitutional reform - strengthening parliaments - freedom of information and open government - decentralization of power - making bureaucracies more responsive and efficient - improving citizen participation - strengthening the role of associations - strengthening the independence of mass media - protecting and strengthening human rights - social security - the elimination of corruption and patronage
Supra-national states
- coordinates its member states and lays down binding rules for them
Proto-states
- do not have secure boundaries, or a body of citizens who form a "people," or a single sovereign power with a monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force - threatened by putsches, insurrections, separatist movements, foreign intervention, ethnic clashes, or civil war
Characteristics of good electoral systems
- encourage voter participation (no not "waste" votes) - encourage democratic accountability of elected representatives - translate votes into seats with a minimum of distortion
Clear and explicit principles for the determination of electoral boundaries
- equality of population or electors - respect for local/state government boundaries - community of interest - respect for representation of minority communities - special geographic considerations
Louis Hartz - The Liberal Tradition in America (1955)
- fragment theory - basically argued that you understand the settler colony and the ideological fragment responsible for the country's founding - America's founding ideology taken from those left Europe in 1700s - virtually all who left Europe were classical liberals
Conventional states
- have a well-defined territory - developed sense of nationhood - usually associated with peace and stability - remain sovereign within their own borders
Modes of political behavior
- inactives --> rarely vote or engage in any form of political participation - passive supporters --> vote regularly, support the nation, tacit support for the political system - contact specialists --> contact political and public office holders about personal matters - community activists --> cooperate with others in their community, join local organizations, contact local officials about public matters - party workers --> join parties, volunteer for campaign work, canvass at elections, give money, attend meetings, stand for election - leaders --> fill major political and public offices -- elected representatives in national and sub-national government, party leaders, leaders of pressure groups and social movements, political commentators - protestors --> specialists in protest and unconventional behavior
Possible reasons for being politically inactive:
- marginals - conflict avoiders - alienated - loss of political salience - apathetic Page 193
Agents of socialization
- parents/family - church/school - job - media
Three ideal-typical political cultures
- parochial (local political orientations, limited or no knowledge of politics or government, no developed sense of being "ruled" by anyone/anything, little/no sense of political efficacy) - subject (somewhat higher political knowledge, low levels of "political efficacy" and low levels of involvement, feel "ruled" rather than "empowered") - participant (possess significant political knowledge, some sense that the system responds to individuals, some sense of personal competence as a political actor, take an active part in political life)
Post materialist thesis is supported by...
- persistent left-right divisions - fusion not replacement - high tide of post-materialism? - a missing ingredient? Page 184
Christian Democracy
- popular in Europe especially after WWII (post 1945) - dominant Christian Democratic parties in Germany and Italy - emphasizes --> family and church; protection of the weak and poor; generally pro-business in economic policy orientation
Measuring political culture
- public opinion survey - academic opinion survey research (took off in 1950s and 1960s; new precision in the description of underlying subjective dispositions; not just attitudes or policy preferences)
Three main theories of voting
- sociological/political sociological approaches - psychological/social psychological approaches - rational-choice/economic approaches
Arguments FOR political culture as a tool of political science
- studies of political culture produced empirical findings of political attitudes and behavior - it changes slowly compare to attitudes discussed in newspapers and opinion polls - links micro- and macro-politics - links subjective with objective - links history and traditions with current circumstances and events - sample surveys reveal differences in attitudes and behavior that may be better explained by "soft" cultural factors rather than by "harder" factors or structural factors - doesn't explain everything but helps to explain a wide range of phenomena - study of political cultures is often based on "hard" and extensive quantitative data drawn from surveys
Unconventional varieties of political behavior
- unofficial strikes, sit-ins, protests, demonstrations - civil disobedience - breaking laws for political reasons - political violence - boycotting products or a producer - buying products for political reasons - posted links on social media - commented on social media on political issues
Conventional varieties of political behavior
- voting - reading newspapers, watching television news - talking about politics - joining a political group - involvement with a client body or advisory body for public service - attending political meetings, demonstrations, rallies - contacting the media, elected representatives, or public officials - volunteering for political activity - standing for political office - holding political office
Three main stages of party organization
1. Caucus parties 2. Mass parties 3. Catch-all parties
Four generic principles of Classical Conservatism
1. Emphasis on continuity and tradition (NOT against all change, organic metaphor for society/political system, "growth" and "maturity") 2. Hierarchies are natural in society/politics (all are not endowed with same qualities/talents, should enable people to focus on what they do well, political leaders should be drawn from those best equipped to lead, ordinary citizens ow their political leaders deference) 3. Nationalism (emphasis on the "whole" of society and the harmonious relationship among parts, value the corporate or collective life of the community) 4. Strong states often necessary (may need to curtain the liberty of individuals when it threatens the stability/health of the community, may need to introduce social welfare programs)
For a difference to become politically important, three conditions must be met:
1. Objective social differences - differences must be socially important and recognized by society 2. Subjective awareness - it is not enough for objective differences to exist -- social groups must be aware of their identity and express them in their social life 3. Political organization - there must also be a capacity and willingness on the part of political organizations such as parties and pressure groups to organize those who are objectively different and subjectively aware of their identity, and to represent them and fight for their interests
Three main ways that new parties differ from old ones
1. based on "new" issues of the environment, peace, feminism, minority group rights, community participation, etc. 2. supported mainly by the young, well-educated and relatively affluent sections of the population 3. use different political methods, often direct and grass-roots community action, protests and demonstrations
Four main characteristics of ideology
1. complexity and abstraction 2. empirical explanation 3. normative prescription 4. a plan for action
Two main differences with social democracy from socialism
1. cross-class appeal (not just a working-class movement; mobilize all who are concerned with social justice, fairness, etc.) 2. Heavier reliance on regulation and redistribution (less reliance on socialization/nationalization)
Two components of electoral systems
1. district magnitude 2. allocation formula (Single member plurality elections; Majority voting - ex. France and multiple rounds of elections; Proportional representation electoral systems)
Mass political organizations needed to:
1. educate (party meetings; newsletters; lectures) 2. Mobilize (get out the vote - GOTV) 3. Finance campaigns (membership dues to large numbers of members)
System factors for country differences
1. importance of the election 2. democracy 3. electoral system 4. close, competitive elections 5. left parties 6. frequency of election 7. founding elections 8. presidential and parliamentary systems 9. community characteristics 10. human development 11. compulsory voting
Components of political culture
1. national pride and identity 2. social and political trust and cooperation 3. competence (political efficacy)
Five main characteristics of Christian democracy
1. natural law 2. family, church, community 3. subsidiarity 4. protection of the weak and poor 5. harmony, integration, consultation Page 308
Link between class and voting is dependent on four factors
1. non-economic cleavages may override economic ones 2. extent to which voters reward or punish their government for a weak economic performance depends on how clear it is that the government is responsible for economic conditions 3. voters learn about government (economic) performance in different ways, at different times, and with different effects 4. social class is mainly defined by how people make their money, whereas social status is determined by how they spend it.
Five main characteristics of social democracy
1. optimistic view of human nature 2. equality of opportunity 3. participatory democracy 4. mixed economy 5. peaceful reform Pages 309-311
Two principles that socialism is based on
1. public ownership of the means of production (no profits and no exploitations of labor) 2. economic planning (rational development and allocation of society's resources) Notes: Human nature is good --> institutions of capitalism are the root of evil; remove the institutions and people revert to good behavior
Examples of party families
1. socialist parties are found around the world, from Chile to New Zealand and from Canada to Japan, and virtually everywhere in between. They include social democratic, Labour, new-left, left-socialist and ex-communist parties 2. Christian Democratic parties and Christian Socialist parties are found mainly in Europe and Latin America 3. Agrarian parties, variously called Farmer, Peasant, Agrarian or Centre parties are mainly found in Europe (and India) and are usually of declining importance. In other places agrarian and rural interests are often organized into powerful interest groups with close links to governmental ministries 4. Liberal parties, often known as Radical, Progressive, Liberal or Freedom parties. Liberalism Is strong in Europe, Canada, Australia and New Zealand, but weak in Africa and Asia and most of Latin America 5. Conservative parties often go under the name of Conservative, National, or Moderate parties 6. Nationalist, populist, regional or minority ethnic parties. These take all sorts of political positions from radical parties of the left to those of the right. Some want complete national independence for their region, some stop short of independence but want mroe devolved powers from their central government. Regional parties of the state in Belgium and Spain, for example. 7. Green parties come in different left-right colors but are often center-left and all stress environmental protection and sustainability Page 278
Individual factors for country differences
1. the standard model 2. age, gender, length of residence, and race 3. party identification 4. values 5. voting culture 6. protest voting
When did Robert Putnam estimate that civic engagement peaked?
1960s
Political alienation
A feeling of detachment, estrangement, or critical distance from politics, often because the alienated feel there is something basically wrong with the political system
Political behavior
All political activities of citizens, including sporadic political activity, inactivity and behavior with indirect political consequences
Joseph Schumpeter (1883-1950)
An Austrian economist and political scientist; best remembered for his book Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy (1943), in which, contrary to Marxist theory, he claims that the masses are capable of little, other than stampeding; democracy should be limited to elites and representative forms of government in which the masses have the power only to vote at regular intervals for representatives who compete for popular support
Friedrich von Hayek (1899-1992)
Austrian economist; argued that state regulation and collective action of all kinds tends to limit the freedom of the individual, even if it is moderate and well intended
Most Different Systems Design (MDSD)
Comparison of countries that have little in common but the effect or outcome we want to explain
Pocketbook voting
Deciding which party to vote for on the basis of economic self-interest.
Individual forms of participation
Forms of behaviour used by single citizens aimed at expressing political opinions. These activities are usually driven by ethical and moral reasoning rather than by the wish to influence political decisions.
issue publics
Groups of people who are particularly interested in one political issue (or more), are well informed and likely to take action about it.
Edmund Burke (1729-97)
Irish philosopher and MP; argued that society was like a complex organism that was easily ruined by attempts to reform it too quickly, and pointed to the disastrous experience of the French Revolution to support his claim; believed in a "natural democracy" in society and that the mass of ordinary people could sustain a democracy only with the guidance of a political elite; claimed that practical experience and wisdom are always preferred to abstract rationalism
Nationalism
It is hard to capture the ideas of nationalist ideologies in a few paragraphs because they vary greatly from one place to another and have been advocated for by communists and conservatives, fascists and democrats, imperialists and anti-imperialists alike; some analysts reject that nationalism is an ideology; nationalist thought has features in common with ideologies based on the three main features of modern states: territory, people, and sovereignty
Cartel parties
Katz & Mair
Catch-all parties
Kircheimer
Marxist and class theory
Marxist theories argue that political attitudes and behavior are shaped by capitalist institutions that ensure that the system "reproduces" itself, and that the masses are indoctrinated into a state of false consciousness
Adam Smith (1723-90)
Scottish philosopher and economist; claimed that individual self-interest on the part of the "butcher, brewer, and baker" led, by the way of the "invisible hand" of the market, to the satisfaction of the general good
With each generation they are less civic-minded... Why the erosion?
Some speculations: - movement of women into labor force - geographic mobility - demographic changes - weaker families (more divorces, single parent families, etc.) - technological transformation of leisure
Strengths and Weaknesses of Proportional Representation (PR)
Strengths - fairness (fidelity in translating votes into seats) - "virtuous constituencies" since multiple elected representatives give voter a choice of who to approach for assistance - can be simple Weakness - can be complex! - emphasizes party control (List system PR gives party the choice of candidates) - encourages minor parties - no personal ties between voter and politician
Strengths and weaknesses of Single Member Plurality (SMP)
Strengths - simplicity - personal ties between electors and representatives - tends to produce two-party systems and strong (majoritarian) parliamentary governments Weaknesses - disproportionality - encourages regionalist parties (sectionalism) - "gerrymandering"
Centre-periphery cleavage
The political cleavage between the social and political forces responsible for creating centralized and modern nation-states, and other interests, usually on the periphery of the state, which resisted this process. Centre-periphery cleavages are often, but not always, geographical.
Proportionality
The ratio of seats to votes. The more proportional the closer the ratio (page 253)
Civic culture
The term used by Almond and Verba to signify the balance of subject and participant political cultures that best supports democracy
Losers' consent
The willingness of parties and party supporters to accept the outcome of democratic elections when they have lost the election, thus contributing to the peaceful transfer of power that is an essential of democratic government
Free-ride
To extract the benefits of other people's work without putting in any effort oneself
The 'district magnitude' of the electoral system used for the US Senate is _______ and the 'allocation formula' is ________.
Two, plurality
Small-n/large-V problem
With each additional explanatory variable (V) the number of cases (n) required for comparisons grows exponentially. Therefore, only a few explanatory variables are often too many for the relatively small number of cases available, in which case an empirical test is not possible.
Human Development Index
a UN index of national development that combines measures of life expectancy, educational attainment, and wealth into one measure
"Oversized" coalition
a coalition that is larger than a MWC
Socio-economic status (SES)
a combination of class (how people make their money) and status (how people spend their money) to form a single measure of social stratification
Essentially contestable concept
a concept that is inevitably the subject of endless dispute about its proper use (e.g. art, democracy, justice, beauty, goodness)
Status
a form of social stratification determined by social prestige rather than economic factors or occupation. At their simplest, class is determined by wealth and income, status by such things as social backgrounds, accents, dress, manners, and interests
Status
a form of social stratification determined by social prestige rather than economic factors or occupation. At their simplest, class is determined by wealth and income, status by such things as social backgrounds, accents, dress, manners, and interests.
Public policy
a general set of ideas or plans that has been officially agreed on and which is used as a basis for making decisions
Minority government
a government of coalition that is smaller than a MWC
Class
a group of people sharing certain attributes determined by economic factors, notably occupational hierarchy, income and wealth
Electoral thresholds
a minimum percentage of the poll required to be elected (to discourage small parties) (page 254)
Ideology
a more or less systematic, well-developed and comprehensive set of ideas and beliefs about politics consisting of both (empirical) statements about what is, and (prescriptive) statements about what ought to be
Dominant one-party system
a party system in which one party dominates all the others
Multi-party system
a party system in which several main parties compete, often with the result that no single party has an overall majority
Two-party system
a party system in which two large parties dominate all the others
Political orientation
a predisposition or propensity to view politics in a certain way
Coalition
a set of parties that comes together to form a government
hegemony
a situation in which a class, political interest, or country is so powerful that it does not have to rely on force or power to maintain its rule because its values and attitudes have been accepted or because people dare not oppose it
Caucus
a small but loose-knit group of politicians (notables) who come together from time to time to make decisions about political matters
Populism
a style of politics that appeals to political prejudices and emotions, particularly those who feel exploited and oppressed by the rich and powerful
Vote of confidence
a vote of confidence (or no confidence) tests whether the government of the day continues to have majority support of the members of the assembly
Social capital refers to: a) norms and values of reciprocity, respect, and trust b) investments in education and workforce skills c) the feeling when you can influence politics d) the awareness of government and its impact on your life
a) norms and values of reciprocity, respect, and trust
3 Examples of Political Cultural Analysis
a. Almond & Verba, The Civic Culture (1963) - US; UK; Germany; Italy; Mexico b. Robert Putnam, Making Democracy Work (1990) - Italy first, now the US c. Ronald Inglehart, The Silent Revolution in Europe (1977)
Parties as controversial institutions
a. By definition, parties are "parts" of some larger whole b. Some regard them as divisive and dangerous c. Two examples of this: - Jean-Jacques Rousseau (The Social Contract); James Madison, "Federalist Paper, 10" "the mischiefs of faction"
Basisdemokratie
a. Dedicated itself to "grass-roots democracy" b. 2 expressions - "Imperative mandate" (Decisions taken by the annual conference binding on elected Green representatives); "a rotation principle" (Elected Green representatives could serve only 2 years)
Cadre parties (Duverger)
a. Earliest parties to form - Parliamentary origins; Electioneering imperative b. Weak organizations - Primarily electoral "vehicles" for political elites to secure and retain office c. No strong programmatic orientation (ideology) d. Often started in the parliament trying to keep people in office
Mass Parties (Duverger)
a. Expansion of the right to vote b. New participants in the political process c. Needed to be educated in the ways of democracy d. Needed to be informed and enlightened about their common interests e. Needed to raise money to fight election campaigns, and to organize large numbers of volunteer campaigners f. Extra-parliamentary in their origins (started outside of parliament trying to get in) g. Example: Labour party in England (originally Labour Representation Committee)
Functions of Political Parties
a. Interest aggregation b. Political recruitment c. Political mobilization - "Structuring the vote" d. Integration e. "linkage" f. Socialization g. Organization of government
Three Faces of the Party
a. Parliament - Those elected under the party's label; The party caucuses b. Members - Those who join and pay dues; Activists/partisans c. Electorate - Party supporters and/or identifiers
"Grand" coalition
an oversized coalition that includes all parties or the largest of them
Authoritarian attitudes
attitudes based on obedience to authority, usually accompanied by prejudice, dogmatism, superstition, low tolerance for ambiguity, and hostility to out-groups (anti-semitism and racism)
Values
basic ethical or moral priorities that constrain and give shape to individual attitudes and beliefs
Political marginality
being on the fringes of politics and therefore having little influence
Conceptual stretching
broadening the meaning, and thereby the range of application, of a concept or term
Partisan re-alignment
change of old party identifications in favor of new ones
Cross-cutting cleavages
cleavages that are laid across one another, thereby reducing their capacity to divide
Reinforcing cleavages
cleavages that are laid one on top of the other, making them potentially more important
Case-oriented approach
comparison focused on specific countries and the themes, patterns, and tendencies within these countries
Variable-oriented approach
comparison focused on specific themes, patterns, and tendencies in a set of countries
Small-n comparison
comparison of a few countries, usually based on systematic, in-depth analysis and detailed knowledge of them
Method of difference
comparison of cases which share effects or outcomes but differ in the presence of presumed causes
Method of Agreement
comparison of cases which share the presence of effects or outcomes as well as presumed causes
Most Similar Systems Design (MSSD)
comparison of countries that have a lot in common but have the effect or outcome we want to explain
Large-n compartison
comparison of many countries, usually based on statistical analyses of strictly comparable evidence about them
Political cultures
consist of values, attitudes, beliefs, and assumptions about government and politics; Main components: national pride and identity, social and political trust and co-operation, competence, political support, citizenship, alienation
Multi-member districts (MMD)
constituencies with two or more elected representatives for each area (page 253)
Sociotropic voting
deciding which party to vote for on the basis of general social or economic circumstances
Class de-alignment
decline in the class-based strength of attachment to class-based political parties
Partisan de-alignment
decline in the strength of attachment to political parties
Gerrymandering
drawing electoral boundaries to favor a particular party or interest
ecological fallacy
drawing false inferences about groups from valid observations about individuals who are members of those groups
John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)
drew a distinction between self-regarding and other-regarding actions; self-regarding actions have no impact on others and should not be subject to any restraint by government or any other power; other-regarding actions that have an effect on others are a different matter and may be constrained by the force of the law; Mill's ideas can be interpreted as clearing a way towards socialism
Empirical statement
factual statement about or explanation of the world that is not necessarily true or false, but amenable to falsification
Oligarchy
government by a few
Party families
groups of parties in different countries that have similar ideologies and party programs
Duverger's typology
i. Cellular (clandestine organizations) ii. Cadre (N&VD - "caucus parties") iii. Mass
Other types of parties
i. Ecological/Post-Materialist parties ii. Minority nationalist parties Populist parties
Challenges facing "basisdemokratie"
i. Rigidity ii. Amateurism in representatives iii. Result - internal division - "fundis" versus "realos" iv. The iron law prevails
Key difference between interest groups and political parties
interest groups don't try to get their members elected
John Rawls (1921-2002)
introduced ides of "justice as fairness" and strongly defended the idea that equality and liberty should be closely related
Median voter
median voters have equal numbers of voters to their left and right, and are usually, but not necessarily, typical, middle-of-the-road voters
Material interests
money, promotion, taxes, security
Single-member districts
one elected representative for each constituency (page 253)
Political parties
organizations of politically like-minded people who seek political power and public office in order to realize their policies
Catch-all parties
parties that try to attract a broad range of supporters by advocating rather general policies
Demogogues
political leaders who use impassioned appeals to the emotions and prejudices of citizens to try to gain political power
Ideal interests
political values and ideals, such as a sense of justice and freedom, religious beliefs, or a left/right political position
Environmentalism
prioritizing sustainability over consumerism
A virtuous circle
social capital, economic development, democracy
Salient
something that is relatively important, significant, or prominent in people's minds
Normative statements
statements based on faith, values or evaluations. Sometimes referred to as prescriptive or evaluative statements, they are neither scientific nor unscientific, but non-scientific
Slacktivism
the act of showing support for a cause that requires minimal personal effort, and has little effect
Voting system
the arrangements by which votes are converted into seats on representative bodies
System or external efficacy
the extent to which ordinary citizens feel that political leaders and institutions are responsive to their wishes
Subjective or internal efficacy
the extent to which ordinary citizens feel that they can make their views and actions count in the political system
Democratic deficit
the idea that the institutions of the European Union are not fully democratic, or as democratic as they should be
Compulsory voting
the legal obligation for citizens to appear at polling stations on election day
Voter turnout
the number of citizens casting a valid (i.e. not a spoiled ballot) vote expressed either as a percentage of those eligible to vote (adult citizens), or as a percentage of those on the electoral register
Number of effective parties
the number of effective parties with significant political strength either in terms of votes in elections (effective number of electoral parties) or in terms of parliamentary seats (the effective number of parliamentary parties)
The left-right continuum
the observation that parties and voting could be located on a single continuum ranging from communist and revolutionary socialist ones on the left, to conservative and fascist groups on the right
Volatility
the opposite of stability, volatility involves change in voting patterns from one election to another. Some refer to it as "churning"
Political culture
the pattern of attitudes, values, and beliefs about politics, whether they are conscious or unconscious, explicit or implicit
Party system
the pattern of significant parties within a political system, especially their number and the party families represented
Cognitive mobilization
the process by which increasing knowledge and understanding of the world helps to activate people to play a part in it
Ecology
the relationships (or the study of the relationships) between organisms and their environment (More on sustainable development on page 313)
Political elite
the relatively small number of people at the top of a political system who exercise disproportionate influence or power over political decisions. If powerful enough it is a "ruling elite"
Suffrage
the right to vote
Minimum winning coalition
the smallest number of parties necessary for a majority of votes in parliament
Party identification
the stable and deep-rooted feeling of attachment to and support for a political party
false consciousness
the state of mind of the working class induced by the ruling class to conceal the real nature of capitalism and the real interests of the workers
Referendum
the submission of a public matter to direct popular vote
Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA)
the systematic comparison of a few cases using specific techniques to develop and test generalizations