PSC 142

Erickson's Psychosocial Theory Stage: Old age

Ego integrity versus despair

Erickson's Psychosocial Theory Stage: 40 to 65 years (middle adulthood)

Generativity versus stagnation

Erickson's Psychosocial Theory Stage: 12 to 20 years

Identity versus role confusion

Erickson's Psychosocial Theory Stage: 6 to 12 years

Industry versus inferiority

Erickson's Psychosocial Theory Stage: 20 to 40 years (young adulthood)

Intimacy versus isolation

Love withdrawal

Love withdrawal: parent withholds affection or approval, contingent on the child's compliance Children whose parents use love withdrawal are between the other two groups, showing guilt after wrongdoing, but also trying to avoid trouble by concealing wrong.

4. Why is a parent's sensitivity to a baby important in early social interaction?

Responding promptly and appropriately to the infant's signals

Sensitivity of parental care

Responding promptly and appropriately to the infant's signals

Describe Piaget's four stages of cognitive growth.

SENSORIMOTOR THINKING IS BASED ON SENSORY EXPERIENCE, AND (MOTOR) ACTIVITY ALONE (no concepts or symbols) (very practical) PREOPERATIONAL THINKING IS REPRESENTATIONAL (words, concepts, symbols) BUT ILLOGICAL AND EGOCENTRIC (easily fooled or misled) CONCRETE-OPERATIONAL LOGICAL, OBJECTIVE THINKER AND PROBLEM-SOLVER (but conceptually concrete) (easily educated) FORMAL-OPERATIONAL THINKING CAN BE ABSTRACT AND HYPOTHETICAL (thinking about life's meaning)

4. What are some of the benefits of sibling relationships to children? (Are these benefits consistent with your own experience?) What are the factors that contribute to sibling rivalry and conflict?

Siblings as Providers of Emotional Support Siblings as Models and Teachers Siblings as Contributors to Social- Cognitive Understandings • sources of comparison and contrast • emotional support • siblings as models and teachers • sources of social and emotional understanding • forums for learning negotiation, provocation, conflict resolution, and other social skills younger brothers and sisters tend to become more aggressive and to display more problem behaviors over time if their older brothers are highly aggressive and antisocial. And even after controlling for such family variables as parental mental health and the quality of parent/child relation- ships, older children and adolescents whose sibling relationships become more conflictual over time often display an increase in depressive symptoms

7. Describe the peer nomination method (a sociometric technique) of assessing children's peer relationships. Name and briefly describe the six peer status categories.

Sociometric techniques Peer status categories: - Popular (many positives; few negatives) - Controversial (many positives; many negatives) - Neglected (few positives; few negatives) - Rejected-aggressive (few positives; many negatives; characterized by aggressive behavior) - Rejected-withdrawn or submissive (few positives; many negatives; shy and hesitant) - Average (everybody else)

4. What is Murray Strauss's opinion on the "spanking debate"?

Spanking is psychologically harmful to children and provides children with a model of violence that heightens aggression and contributes to family violence

1. How is the concept of a caregiver as a "secure base" relevant to the development of infant-parent attachment?

The formation of a secure attachment to a caregiver has another important consequence: It promotes the development of exploratory behavior. Mary Ainsworth (1979) emphasizes that an attachment object serves as a secure base for exploration—a point of safety from which an infant can feel free to venture away. Paradoxical as it may seem, then, infants apparently need to rely on another person in order to feel confident about acting independently.

Rejected children (aggressive or withdrawn-submissive)

children who are disliked by many peers and liked by few.

Popular children

children who are liked by many members of their peer group and disliked by very few.

Neglected children

children who receive few nominations as either a liked or a disliked individual from members of their peer group.

Controversial children

children who receive many nominations as a liked individual and many as a disliked individual from members of their peer group.

nature versus nurture issue

debate within developmental psychology over the relative importance of biological predispositions (nature) and environmental influences (nurture) as determinants of human development. Are human beings a product of their heredity and other biological predispositions, or are they shaped by the environment in which they are raised?

2. Describe the kinds of play that occur within the peer relationships of children.

exploratory play - playing with objects pretend play role playing themes of power and strength making them feel powerful rather than powerless rehearsing the familiar roles at home adult roles

Social maintenance skills

knowing how to be positive and affirmative, cooperative and standing up for yourself

Social comparison processes

social comparison - (about age 5 - preschool to grade school) fosters children maturity, growth, achievement gender roles conformity pressures - the sense of fitting in

5. Why are social comparison processes important to children?

social comparison - about age 5 gender roles conformity pressures

4. Describe the steps of social problem-solving. Describe how these problem-solving steps might be used in a practical situation in which one child runs into another and it is not clear whether it was an accident or on purpose.

social problem solving - first step identify cues - cast a wide net not just how it happened why it happended step 2 - clarify goals - what your goals are have a lot to do with how you are going to respond step 3 - consider alternative responses Step 4 - decide how to respond and do it Step 5 - evaluate the consequences of what you've done and begin your next step

Social problem-solving

social problem solving - first step identify cues - cast a wide net not just how it happened why it happended step 2 - clarify goals - what your goals are have a lot to do with how you are going to respond step 3 - consider alternative responses Step 4 - decide how to respond and do it Step 5 - evaluate the consequences of what you've done and begin your next step

6. Describe the central conclusions about the "spanking debate" discussed in lecture.

what can we conclude about the effects of spanking on children? • Spanking will elicit immediate compliance • Emotional effects may be disadvantageous (anger, anxiety) • Spanking communicates about disapproved conduct, not desirable • Parental conduct may be imitated by children in their behavior with others

Dimensions of temperament . . .

Dimensions of temperament . . . • activity level • emotionality ...dominant mood ...soothability ...fearfulness, anger, irritability ...approach / withdrawal • sociability • adaptability • attention span or persistence ....distractability

11. Why does the expression of temperament change with age?

With maturation and experience the expression of the temperament changes as well as the temperament itself

"Goodness of fit"

between temperament and environment guides development either positively or negatively (illustrates nature - nurture interaction)

Evolutionary psychology -

the application of evolutionary principles to understand psychological functioning

behavioral genetics

the scientific study of how genotype interacts with environment to determine behavioral attributes such as intelligence, personality, and mental health.

EPIGENETICS

the study of how biochemical changes in the gene environment cause changes in gene expression without altering DNA

Developmental behavioral genetics

the use of twin and adoption studies to understand the significance of heredity, environment, and their interaction in development

16. Identify one gene that has been studied by researchers in the field of molecular genetics with behavioral implications for social and personality development.

-- dopamine D4 receptor gene (DRD4 7-repeat allele) with novelty-seeking and externalizing (e.g., conduct) problems -- monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) gene with aggression and antisocial behavior (low MAOA ---> higher aggression)

11. What are the different forms of child maltreatment? What are the risk factors contributing to child maltreatment?

-- Physical abuse, physical neglect, sexual abuse, psychological maltreatment have different origins and consequences -- Child neglect is most common -- Different forms of maltreatment co-occur -- Risk factors: parental stress, depression, abuse, single-parenting, substance abuse; high- risk neighborhood; poverty; social isolation

Secure attachment

About 60-65 percent of l-year-old Americans- The securely attached infant actively explores while alone with the mother and may be visibly upset by separations. The infant often greets the mother warmly when she returns and, if highly distressed, will often seek physical contact with her, which helps to alleviate that distress. The child may be outgoing with strangers while the mother is present. an infant/caregiver bond in which the child welcomes contact with a close companion and uses this person as a secure base from which to explore the environment.

1. Describe the characteristics of the developmental transition between infancy and childhood that explain why early parent-child relationships change over time.

As infants become children . . . • growing conflict of wills with parents as children consolidate sense of self, assert specific preferences, demonstrate abilities • parents become more vigilant (safety), and expect greater compliance and self- control • young children increasingly refuse, delay, negotiate, compromise with adults • parents enlist psychological, not just physical means of control

What cognitive processes are involved in cognitive social learning? Provide an example of how these cognitive processes might influence whether a child imitates an adult who acts aggressively.

Cognitive social learning . . . Learning occurs by observing and imitating the behavior of others. Cognitive processes: • motivation to attend and remember • interpretations of observed behavior • expectations and beliefs about people • does this behavior "fit"? observed behavior ----> cognitive processes----->imitation

Erickson's Psychosocial Theory Stage: Birth to 1 year

Basic trust versus mistrust

4. How are early temperament profiles associated with later adjustment? How is adjustment related to the "goodness of fit" between the child's temperament and parental practices?

Chess and Thomas (1999) find that early temperamental characteristics sometimes do and sometimes do not carry over into later life. In other words, temperamental profiles can change, and one factor that often determines whether they do change is the "goodness of fit" between the child's temperamental style and patterns of child rearing used by parents. Let's first consider a "good fit" between temperament and child rearing. Difficult infants and toddlers who fuss a lot and have trouble adapting to new routines often become less cranky and more adaptable over the long run if parents can remain calm as they insist that their children comply with rules, while also exercising restraint and allowing them to respond to new routines at a more leisurely pace. Indeed, many difficult infants who experience such patient and sensitive caregiving are no lon- ger classifiable as especially difficult or showing any adjustment problems later in child- hood or adolescence Early Temperamental Profiles and Later Development In their earliest reports, Thomas and Chess (1977; Thomas, Chess, & Birch, 1970) noted that certain aspects of infant temperament tend to cluster in predictable ways, forming broader temperamental profiles. In fact, the majority of the 141 infants in their New York Longitudinal Study could be placed into one of three temperamental profiles: 1. Easy temperament (40 percent of the sample): Easygoing children are even-tempered, typically in a positive mood, and quite open and adaptable to new experiences. Their habits are regular and predictable. 2. Difficult temperament (10 percent of the sample): Difficult children are active, irrita- ble, and irregular in their habits. They often react very vigorously to changes in routine and are very slow to adapt to new persons or situations. 3. Slow-to-warm-up temperament (15 percent of the sample): These children are quite inactive, somewhat moody, and can be slow to adapt to new persons and situations. But, unlike the difficult child, they typically respond to novelty in mildly, rather than intensely, negative ways. For example, they may resist cuddling by looking away rather than by kicking or screaming. Apparently, these broader temperamental patterns may persist over time and influence a child's adjustment to a variety of settings later in life. For example, temperamentally "difficult" children are more likely than other children to have problems adjusting to school activities, and they are often irritable and aggressive in their interactions with siblings and peers (Rubin et al., 2003; Stams, Juffer, & van IJzendoorn, 2002; Chess & Thomas, 1999). By contrast, about half of all children who are "slow to warm up" show a different kind of adjustment problem, as their hesitancy to embrace new activities and challenges may cause them to be ignored or neglected by peers (Chess & Thomas, 1999).

Erickson's Psychosocial theory

Development as a series of challenges, with the outcome depending on the child's interactions with social partners How each stage is resolved provides a strong or weak psychological foundation that the child brings to subsequent challenges Development is life-long, but relies on the psychological foundation established early in life psychosocial theory Erikson's revision of Freud's theory, which emphasizes sociocultural (rather than sexual) determinants of development and posits a series of eight psychosocial conflicts that people must resolve successfully to display healthy psychological adjustment.

12. What does developmental behavioral genetics tell us about the influences of heredity and environment in human characteristics?

Hereditary differences are strongly influential in a variety of developing characteristics, including differences in intelligence, emotionality, sociability, and mental health. But gene expression is always in the context of environmental influences

Cognitive social learning

Learning occurs by observing and imitating the behavior of others! Cognitive processes: • motivation to attend and remember • interpretations of observed behavior! • expectations and beliefs about people! • does this behavior "fit"? observed behavior imitation! cognitive processes * Bandura observational learning learning that results from observing the behavior of others.

9. What are the immediate and long-term effects of divorce on children?

Marital conflict and divorce -- Divorce affects 40% - 45% of marriages -- Marital conflict is stressful to children of all ages, and accounts for some of the negative effects of divorce -- The first year after marital separation is the period of greatest stress for family members -- Most children of divorced families are psych- ologically well-adjusted, although they regard it as a negative, critical life event

5. What is Diana Baumrind's opinion on the "spanking debate"? In her view, when and how should spanking be used?

Mild to moderate spanking, administered in a calm and reasoned manner by parents, induces children's compliance and is not psychologically harmful

17. Does the security of attachment make a difference for the child's future? Why or why not?

Secure attachment makes children more likely to be confident, better at romantic relationships, and friendships, greater sense of self efficacy

15. Explain how caregiver sensitivity influences the attachment security of infants.

Sensitive caregivers are more likely to have securely attached children

Behavioral theory -behaviorism

The learning viewpoint, or behaviorism, originated with John B. Watson, who argued that infants are tabulae rasae who develop habits as a result of their social experiences. Development was viewed as a continuous process that could proceed in many different directions, depending on the kinds of environments to which a person is exposed. B. F. Skinner, who extended Watson's theory, claimed that development reflects the operant conditioning of children who are passively shaped by the reinforcers and punishments that accompany their behaviors. a school of thinking in psychology that holds that conclusions about human development should be based on controlled observations of overt behavior rather than speculation about unconscious motives or other unobservable phenomena; the philosophical underpinning for social-learning theories.

sociocultural theory

Vygotsky's perspective on development, in which children acquire their culture's values, beliefs, and problem-solving strategies through collaborative dialogues with more knowledgeable members of society. Basic assumptions: • development is guided by cultural values, expectations, and needs • focus is on thinking and understanding by developing skill in cultural tools • children develop understanding by the guidance of sensitive, older mentors • development is gradual

Understanding of fairness

What does fair mean to a child? when younger it means even and equal, as they develop it starts to mean people getting what they deserve, as they get older people get what they need, not just because they deserve it

attachment

a close emotional relationship between two persons, characterized by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximity.

Difficult temperament

a combination of temperamental characteristics including negative mood, irritability, intense emotionality, poor adaptability, and demandingness -- can be a risk factor for later psychological difficulty (such as conduct problems or anxiety)

3. Describe the changes that take place in children's understanding of friendship from early childhood to adolescence.

at age 3 to 5 a friend is a person that they are playing with at that moment by 6 to 7 a friend is someone who does nice things for me no sense of the mutality yet at about 12 years of age friends start to see friendship in terms of concrete terms of mutual goodwill 13 and on - a more abstract understanding of friendship

13. Describe how the security of attachment is measured in infants.

by their response to the stage situation. Are they easily soothed when reunited with their mother's, not easily soothed, avoidant etc. The most widely used technique for measuring the quality of attachments that 1- to 2-year-olds have established with their mothers or other caregivers is Mary Ainsworth's Strange Situation procedure (Ainsworth et al., 1978). The Strange Situation consists of a series of eight episodes (summarized in Table 5.1) that attempt to simulate (1) naturalistic caregiver/infant interactions in the presence of toys (to see whether the infant uses the caregiver as a secure base from which to explore); (2) brief separations from the caregiver and encounters with strangers (which often stresses the infant); and (3) reunion episodes (to determine whether a stressed infant derives any comfort and reassurance from the care- giver and can once again become involved with toys). By recording and analyzing an in- fant's responses to these episodes—that is, exploratory activities, reactions to strangers and separations, and, in particular, behaviors when reunited with the close companion—it is usually possible to characterize his or her attachment to the caregiver in one of four ways. Attachment Q-set alterative method of assessing attachment security that is based on observations of the child's attachment-related behaviors at home; can be used with infants, toddlers, and preschool children. Adult Attachment Interview clinical interview used with adolescents and adults to tap respondents' memories of their childhood relationships with parents in order to assess the character of respondents' attachment representations.

Constitutional

interaction of genes, maturation, & experience

stranger reactions stranger anxiety

(7-8 mos.) a wary or fretful reaction that infants and toddlers often display when approached by an unfamiliar person.

separation anxiety

(8-9 mos.) - a wary or fretful reaction that infants and toddlers often display when separated from persons to whom they are attached.

importance of secure attachment

Emotion regulation: caregiver's presence creates a "secure base" to manage fear Exploration: caregiver's company enables child to confidently explore, learn Learning about relationships: children develop expectations for what people are like, and how to relate to others Sense of control: caregiver's responsiveness gives child a sense of effectiveness

Sensorimotor period

(0-2 years). Over the first two years,infants come to "know" and understand objects and events by acting on them. The behavioral (or sensorimotor) schemes that a child creates to adapt to his surroundings are eventually internalized to form mental symbols (or symbolic schemes) that enable the child to understand object permanence, to display deferred imitation, and to solve simple problems on a mental level without resorting to trial and error. SENSORIMOTOR THINKING IS BASED ON SENSORY EXPERIENCE, AND (MOTOR) ACTIVITY ALONE (no concepts or symbols) (very practical) sensorimotor stage first stage of cognitive development, from birth to 2 years, when infants rely on behavioral schemes to adapt to the environment.

social referencing

(11-12 mos.) the use of others' emotional expressions to gain information or infer the meaning of otherwise ambiguous situations.

Preoperational period

(roughly 2-7 years. Symbolic reasoning becomes increasingly apparent during the preoperational period as children begin to use words and images in inventive ways in their play activities. Although 2- to 7-year olds are becoming more and more knowledgeable about the world in which they live, their thinking is quite deficient by adult standards. Piaget describes preschool children as highly egocentric: They view events from their own perspective and have difficulty assuming another person's point of view. And their thinking is characterized by centration: When they encounter something new, they tend to focus only on one aspect of it—its most obvious, or perceptually salient, feature. Consequently, these intuitive thinkers often fail to solve such problems as conservation tasks that require them to evaluate several pieces of information simultaneously. PREOPERATIONAL THINKING IS REPRESENTATIONAL (words, concepts, symbols) BUT ILLOGICAL AND EGOCENTRIC (easily fooled or misled) preoperational stage second stage of cognitive development, lasting from about ages 2 to 7, when children are thinking at a symbolic level but are not yet using cognitive operations.

2. How has the family changed during the past several decades? What are the implications of these changes for children's development?

1. More single adults. More adults are living as singles today than in the past. Marriage isn't "out," however, as about 90 percent of young adults will eventually marry (Whitehead & Popenoe, 2003). 2. Postponed marriages. Many young singles are postponing marriage to pursue educational and career goals. Although the average age of first marriage actually decreased during the first half of the 20th century, it has risen again to about 25 for women and 27 for men (Whitehead & Popenoe, 2003). 3. Decreased childbearing. Today's adults are not only waiting longer after they marry to have children, they are having fewer of them—about 1.8 on average (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2006). The Baby Boom period after World War II was an unusual departure from an otherwise consistent trend toward smaller family sizes. Today, about 19 percent of 40- to 44-year-old women remain childless, many by choice, compared with 10 percent in 1980 (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2006). 4. More women are employed. In 1950, 12 percent of married women with children under age 6 worked outside the home; now the figure is 63 percent, a truly dramatic social change (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2006). Fewer and fewer children have a mother whose full-time job is that of homemaker. 5. More divorce. The divorce rate has been increasing over the past several decades, to the point where an additional one million children each year are affected by their parents' divorce (Hetherington, Bridges, & Insabella, 1998). Recent estimates are that between 40 and 50 percent of newly married couples can expect to divorce (Hetherington, Henderson, & Reiss, 1999; Meckler, 2002). 6. More single-parent families. Partly because of a rise in births by never-married parents and partly because of divorce, more children today spend at least some time in a single- parent family. In 1960, only 9 percent of children lived with one parent, usually a widowed one. In 2002, 28 percent of children under 18 lived with one parent, usually a divorced or never-married one (Whitehead & Popenoe, 2003). Father-headed single-parent homes are more common than they used to be, recently accounting for about 18 percent of all single-parent families (Fields, 2003). 7. More children living in poverty. Unfortunately, the increase in the number of single-parent families has contributed to an increase in the proportion of children living below the poverty line. Almost one in five children in the United States lives in poverty today, the highest rate of child poverty among Western industri- alized countries (Childstats.gov, 2007a). As seen in Figure 11.2, African-American and Hispanic-American children are about three times more likely to be living in poverty than European- American children. 8. More remarriage. Because more married couples are divorcing, more adults (about 66 percent of divorced mothers and 75 percent of divorced fathers) are remar- rying, forming blended (or reconstituted) families that involve at least one child, his or her biological parent, and a stepparent, and that often blend multiple children from two families into a new family system (Hetherington, Henderson, & Reiss, 1999). About 25 percent of American children will spend some time in a stepparent family (Hetherington & Jodl, 1994). 9. More multigeneration families. More children today than in the past know their grandparents and even their great-grandparents, and multigenerational bonds in American families are becoming more important (Parke & Buriel, 2006). With the trends toward dual-earner couples and fewer children, we see more beanpole families, characterized by more generations, but smaller ones, than in the past.

3. What are the general outcomes for children when their parents use: a. power assertion b. induction c. love withdrawal Which approach is best for obtaining the child's immediate compliance? Which approach is best for helping the child learn values and moral judgment?

A) Power assertion: parent relies on greater power (punishment, withholding privileges) to ensure child's compliance Children whose parents use power assertion tend to be least mature morally, denying responsibility, feeling less guilty, and seeking to avoid detection of wrong. B) Induction: parent uses explanation of why actions are wrong and their effects on others (induction of responsibility) Children whose parents use induction discipline tend to be more mature morally, accept responsibility for their behavior, and understand standards of conduct. C) Love withdrawal: parent withholds affection or approval, contingent on the child's compliance Children whose parents use love withdrawal are between the other two groups, showing guilt after wrongdoing, but also trying to avoid trouble by concealing wrong. Use of power assertion is best for immediate compliance induction is best for helping the child learn values and moral judgment.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of cross-sectional design in developmental research?

Advantages: An important advantage of the cross-sectional design is that the investigator can collect data from participants of different ages over a short time. Disadvantages: The cross-sectional method tells us nothing about the development of individuals because each person is observed at only one point in time and not individual differences in development

classical conditioning

An event becomes meaningful because of its prior association with meaningful events Classical conditioning (also Pavlovian or respondent conditioning) is a process of behavior modification in which an innate response to a potent biological stimulus becomes expressed in response to a previously neutral stimulus; this is achieved by repeated pairings of the neutral stimulus and the potent biological stimulus that elicits the desired response. Classical conditioning was made famous by Ivan Pavlov and his experiments conducted with dogs. used in behaviorism (Watson, Pavlov)

3. How does a cross-sectional design differ from a longitudinal design in developmental research?

An important advantage of the cross-sectional design is that the investigator can collect data from participants of different ages over a short time. The cross-sectional method tells us nothing about the development of individuals because each person is observed at only one point in time, in longitudinal design the same participants are observed repeatedly over time allowing researchers to see the stability of various attributes and the patterns of developmental change for each person in the sample. In addition, they can identify general developmental trends by looking for commonalities in development that most or all individuals share. Finally, the tracking of several children over time will help investigators to understand the bases for individual differences in development.

1. How do direct influences within the family system compare with indirect effects? Think of an example of each kind of influence on children.

An infant interacting with his or her mother is already involved in a process of reciprocal influence, as is evident when we notice that the infant's smile is likely to be greeted by the mother's smile or that a mother's concerned expression often makes her infant wary. These influences, in which any pair of family members affects and is affected by each other's behavior, are called direct effects. interactions between any two family members are likely to be influenced by attitudes and behaviors of a third family member—a phenomenon known as an indirect, or third party, effect. To illustrate, fathers clearly influence the mother/infant relationship: Happily married mothers who have close, supportive relationships with their husbands tend to interact much more patiently and sensitively with their infants than mothers who experience marital tension and feel that they are raising their children on their own direct effect instances in which any pair of family members affects and is affected by each other's behavior. indirect, or third party, effect instances in which the relationship between two individuals in a family is modified by the behavior or attitudes of a third family member. A highly impulsive child who throws tantrums and shows little inclination to comply with requests may drive a mother to punitive, coercive methods of discipline (a direct "child-to-mother" effect, which in turn may make the child more defiant than ever (a direct "mother-to-child" effect; . Alarmed by this state of affairs, the exasperated mother may then criticize her husband for his nonintervention, thereby precipitating an unpleasant discussion about parental obligations and responsibilities (an indirect effect of the child's conduct on the husband/wife relationship.

Erickson's Psychosocial Theory Stage: 1 to 3 years

Autonomy versus shame and doubt

2. What is meant by social learning as "reciprocal determinism"?

Bandura (1986) has proposed the concept of reciprocal determinism to describe his view that human development reflects an interaction be- tween the person (P), the person's behavior (B), and the environment (E) (see Figure 2.2). Unlike the early behaviorists, who maintained that the environment (E) shaped the child and his or her behavior. Bandura and others (most notably Richard Bell, 1979) propose that the links between the person, behaviors, and environments are bidirectional, so that children, for example, might influence their environments by virtue of their own conduct.

What are the basic assumptions of cognitive-developmental theory?

Basic assumptions: • children develop understanding not just through experience but by how they interpret it ("constructivism") • child is like a natural scientist • focus is on thinking and understanding • stages of cognitive growth (Piaget)

What are the basic assumptions of the sociocultural theory?

Basic assumptions: • development is guided by cultural values, expectations, and needs • focus is on thinking and understanding by developing skill in cultural tools • children develop understanding by the guidance of sensitive, older mentors • development is gradual

What are the basic assumptions of behavioral theory?

Basic assumptions: • development is shaped by environmental influences, regardless of internal characteristics or heredity • focus on behavior and its causes • growth is gradual, continuous • early and later experiences are each influential • child is like a ball of clay

Psychodynamic theory basic assumptions:

Basic assumptions: • development occurs in stages • unconscious influences are significant • self-awareness is limited • emotions are important determinants of thought and behavior • early experiences are significant • how the social world supports / conflicts with innate needs shapes development

5. How are children affected by their parents' divorce? What are the factors that contribute to their adjustment?

Before the Divorce: Exposure to Marital Conflict -The period prior to divorce is often accompanied by a dramatic rise in family conflict that may include many heated verbal arguments and even physical violence between parents. How are children influ- enced by their exposure to marital conflict? A growing body of evidence indicates that they often become extremely distressed and that continuing conflict at home increases the likelihood that children will have hostile, aggressive interactions with siblings and peers After the Divorce: Crisis and Reorganization -Most families going through a divorce experience a crisis period of a year or more in which the lives of all family members are seri- ously disrupted (Amato, 2000; Hetherington & Kelly, 2002). Typically, both parents expe- rience emotional as well as practical difficulties. The mother, who obtains custody of any children in about 82 percent of divorcing families, may feel angry, depressed, lonely, or oth- erwise distressed, although often relieved as well. Children's Age Younger, cognitively immature preschool and grade-school children of- ten display the most visible signs of distress as a divorce unfolds. Children's Temperament and Sex The stresses associated with parental conflict and di- vorce hit particularly hard at temperamentally difficult children, who display more im- mediate and long-range adjustment problems to these events than easy-going children do

Erickson's Psychosocial Theory Stages

Birth to 1 year - Basic trust versus mistrust 1 to 3 years - Autonomy versus shame and doubt 3 to 6 years - Initiative versus guilt 6 to 12 years - Industry versus inferiority 12 to 20 years - Identity versus role confusion 20 to 40 years (young adulthood) - Intimacy versus isolation 40 to 65 years (middle adulthood) - Generativity versus stagnation Old age - Ego integrity versus despair

9. How do primary emotions differ from secondary emotions? Provide some examples of each.

Emotional development begins with the emergence of primary emotions • early-appearing (some are innate) • universally identified • deeply rooted in our biological heritage happiness (social smiling) (6-8 weeks) anger and sadness (2 months) fear (stranger reactions at 7 months and separation anxiety at 8-9 months) Emotional development continues with the development of secondary emotions • develop late in the second year (with growth of a sense of self) • culturally defined and shaped • not as biologically basic embarrassment (18-20 months) pride, guilt, and shame (third year) (parental reactions are crucial)

Secondary emotions

Emotional development continues with the development of secondary emotions • develop late in the second year (with growth of a sense of self) • culturally defined and shaped • not as biologically basic embarrassment (18-20 months) pride, guilt, and shame (third year) (parental reactions are crucial) self-conscious or self-evaluative emotions that emerge in the second and third years and depend in part on cognitive development (sometimes called self-conscious emotions).

10. Describe some of the important changes that occur in emotion understanding in infancy and childhood.

Emotional understanding also develops: • responding to the facial expressions of another (early infancy) • social referencing (11-12 months) • understand that emotions are related to desires (2 years) • understand that emotions are evoked by particular situations (birthday party; barking dog) (3 years) • emotions can be concealed or disguised (display rules) (4-6 years)

How did Harlow's studies with baby rhesus monkeys contribute to a reevaluation of these theories? (Infant-parent attachment explained by psychoanalytic theory and learning theory i love you because you feed me, fulfill my needs )

Even if fed by the wire mother, infants clearly preferred the cloth mother, spending more than 15 hours a day clutching her, compared with only an hour or so (mostly at mealtimes) with the wire mother (see Figure 5.1). Furthermore, all infants ran directly to the cloth mother when they were frightened by such novel stimuli as marching toy bears. Clearly Harlow and Zimmerman's classic study implies that contact comfort is a more powerful contributor to attachment in monkeys than feeding or the reduction of hunger.

1. Describe the ways in which young infants are primed and ready for social interaction. How does this affect their caregivers?

Even new born infants respond preferentially to the sound of human voices and faces. • newborns preferentially look to people's faces and attend to human voices • smiling appears at 6 weeks -- most often to social stimulation • at 2 1/2 to 3 months, infants become more discriminating social partners in their smiling, soothing, and vocalizing • developing skills of social interaction: eye contact, visual "tracking", cooing, reaching • all this is extremely significant to parents

3. Describe the growth of children's capacities to regulate their emotions. What are the major changes that occur with development?

From infancy onward, an ability to successfully regulate one's emotions is a tremendously important skill that is not only crucial to achieving one's personal objectives but will also affect the character of social interactions a person is likely to have and the kinds of social relationships and alliances she is likely to form. Emotional self-regulation involves the capacity to control emotions and to adjust emotional arousal to an appropriate level of inten- sity to achieve one's aims. Appropriate regulation of emotion involves the abilities to manage our feelings, our physiological reactions associated with these feelings, our emotion-related cognitions

9. Describe an environment with a high degree of "goodness of fit" for a child with a cautious or shy temperament.

How well does the environment and temperament fit together. A shy or cautious child would benefit from patient parents who do not force the child into uncomfortable situations and help and interact with the child appropriately

16. Provide an example of how a change in a child's home life may affect the child's attachment security over time.

If a child's home becomes unstable or caregiver sensitivity changes the child's attachment security can change. Parents divorcing, a mother going to work, depression or illness etc. However the change can go both ways, stressed mothers can become better mothers with counseling and their child's attachment can change toward securely attached

7. How are young children affected by their experience of day care? Is the quality of care important (and if so, what are the characteristics of high-quality care)?

In fact, high-quality day care promotes both the social responsive- ness and the intellectual development of children from disadvantaged backgrounds, who are otherwise at risk of experiencing behavior problems and serious developmental delays Apparently there is far less risk that children will display insecure attachments (or any other adverse outcome) when they receive excellent day care—even when that care begins very early. Jerome Kagan and his associates (1978), for example, found that the vast majority of infants who entered a high-quality, university- sponsored day-care program at age 31⁄2 to 51⁄2 months not only developed secure attachments to their mothers but were just as socially, emotionally, and intellectually ma- ture over the first two years of life as children from similar backgrounds who had been cared for at home.

psychodynamic theory

In psychology, a psychodynamic theory is a view that explains personality in terms of conscious and unconscious forces, such as unconscious desires and beliefs. In the early 20th century, Sigmund Freud proposed a psychodynamic theory according to which personality consists of the id (responsible for instincts and pleasure-seeking), the superego (which attempts to obey the rules of parents and society), and the ego (which mediates between them according to the demands of reality). Psychodynamic theories commonly hold that childhood experiences shape personality. Such theories are associated with psychoanalysis, a type of therapy that attempts to reveal unconscious thoughts and desires. Not all psychologists accept psychodynamic theories, and critics claim the theories lack supporting scientific data.

Induction

Induction: parent uses explanation of why actions are wrong and their effects on others (induction of responsibility) *best for helping the child learn values and moral judgment Children whose parents use induction discipline tend to be more mature morally, accept responsibility for their behavior, and understand standards of conduct.

6. Describe the characteristics of peer relationships at the following development stages: a. infancy b. early childhood c. middle childhood d. adolescence

Infancy -- after age 1, much social interest and simple social interaction (e.g., turn-taking; back-and-forth imitation) -- toddlers behave differently with familiar peers Early Childhood -- flourishing of peer sociability: genuine interest in being with other children -- pretend play as a central social activity -- preschoolers attracted to peers who are like themselves; prosocial behavior as well as conflict Middle Childhood -- more complex sociability: pretend play decreases, but increasing concerns with peer acceptance & rejection; bullying; physical & relational aggression; support -- greater consistency in friendships -- emergence of stable peer groups Adolescence -- greater concerns with peer intimacy and loyalty; new ways of thinking about friendship -- integration of sexes into social groups

Erickson's Psychosocial Theory Stage: 3 to 6 years

Initiative versus guilt

6. What are the challenges for children when both parents work (i.e., dual-career families)? What kinds of influences contribute to the best outcomes for these children?

Maternal Employment and Father Involvement- One reason why many children of employed mothers experience favorable outcomes and tend to be socially mature is that a mother's work-related absences often cause the father to play a bigger role in children's lives. The Importance of Good Day Care - Aside from spousal (or partner) coparenting, one of the strongest supports workings parents could hope for is high-quality day care for their children. Recall that children who enter high-quality day care centers early in life tend to display positive social, emotional, and intellectual outcomes from infancy through early adolescence

Nonshared vs. shared environmental influences

Nonshared = environ. influences causing sibs to differ Shared = environ. influences causing sibs to be similar Nonshared Environmental Influences (NSE) These are experiences that are unique to the individual—experiences that are not shared by other members of the family and thus make family members different from each other Shared Environmental Influences (SE) These are experiences that individuals living in the same home environment share and that conspire to make them similar to each other.

Describe how personality characteristics are shaped by operant conditioning. Provide an example of how operant conditioning could lead to the development of an outgoing personality.

Operant conditioning . . . The frequency of behavior changes according to its consequences (rewards and punishments)! Personality characteristics are shaped by conditioning: looking, smiling, talking to others -----> social affirmation (positive reinforcer) over time, an outgoing personality is progressively reinforced!

Cognitive-developmental theory

PIAGET'S COGNITIVE-DEVELOPMENTAL VIEWPOINT ✦ Jean Piaget's theory of intellectual development has many important implications for social and personality develop- ment. According to Piaget, intellectual activity is a basic life function that helps the child to adapt to the environment. He describes children as active, inventive explorers (that is, constructivists) who are constantly constructing schemes to represent what they know and modifying these cognitive structures throughout the processes of organization and adaptation. Organization is the process by which children rearrange their existing knowledge into higher-order schemes.

7. What are the factors that contribute to child abuse? What are some of the best ways of preventing child maltreatment from happening?

Parental characteristics Younger - age (under 25); low educational level; depression or other psychological disturbance; history of rejection or abuse; belief in effectiveness of coercive discipline; general insecurity or low ego strength; alcoholism and/or illegal drug use Child characteristics- Irritable or impulsive temperament; hyperactivity; prematurity; inattentiveness; sickliness or other chronic developmental problems Family characteristics Financial- strain or poverty; job loss; frequent moves; marital instability; lack of spousal support; many children to care for; divorce Neighborhood High-risk areas characterized by few community services and little opportunity for informal social support from friends and relatives Culture Approval of coercive methods of resolving conflicts and use of corporal punishment to discipline children Let's first consider the task of preventing child maltreatment before it starts. This requires identifying high-risk families—a task that is greatly aided by the kinds of studies we have reviewed. For example, once neonatal assessment indicates that an infant may be at risk of abuse or neglect because he or she is particularly irritable or unresponsive, it makes some sense to help the child's parents to appreciate and evoke the baby's positive qualities. efforts to prevent abuse can be directed at the combination of a high-risk parent and a high-risk child. Daphne Bugental and her associates (Bugental & Beaulieu, 2003; Bugental et al., 2002) focused on parents who felt that they were locked in a power struggle with children who were deliberately trying to annoy or to get the best of them—parents who are likely to become abusive if their child is unresponsive or difficult. empowerment- a home visitation program aimed at empowering mothers as parents by teaching them to analyze the underlying causes of caregiving problems without blaming either themselves or their children and to devise effective solutions to these problems.

2. In what ways do parents influence peer sociability?

Parents influence their children's sociability with peers by virtue of the neighborhood in which they choose to live, their willingness to serve as "booking agents" for peer contacts, and their monitoring of peer interactions. Sensitive, responsive parenting promotes secure attachments, which are associated with positive peer relations. And authoritative parents tend to raise appropriately sociable children who establish good rela- tions with peers, whereas highly authoritarian or uninvolved parents—particularly those who rely on power assertion as a control tactic—tend to raise disruptive, aggressive youngsters whom peers often dislike.

10. How does poverty influence children's development? What are some of the reasons for these consequences?

Poverty and socioeconomic stress -- Poverty is often accompanied by stresses that affect children: parental anxiety & depression, poor housing, dangerous neighborhoods, difficult schools -- Poverty in early childhood may be more damaging than poverty at any later age -- Cycles in and out of poverty may be especially difficult for children's coping -- How socioeconomic assistance is provided is important Withdrawal of supportive behaviors. Following Berkowitz, we proposed that the depressed mood of the two adult caregivers for each target child in this study would be positively related to depressed mood as our measure of distress in the current study.

Power assertion

Power assertion: parent relies on greater power (punishment, withholding privileges) to ensure child's compliance *best for immediate compliance Children whose parents use power assertion tend to be least mature morally, denying responsibility, feeling less guilty, and seeking to avoid detection of wrong.

2. Describe how infant-parent attachment is explained by psychoanalytic theory and learning theory.

Psychoanalytic Theory: I Love You Because You Feed Me According to Freud, young infants are "oral" creatures who derive satisfaction from sucking and mouthing objects and should be attracted to any person who provides oral pleasure. Because it is usually mothers who "pleasure" oral infants by feeding them, it seemed logical to Freud that the mother would become the baby's primary object of security and affection, particularly if she were relaxed and generous in her feeding practices. Erik Erikson also believed that a mother's feeding practices will influence the strength or security of her infant's attachment. However, he claimed that a mother's overall respon- siveness to all her child's needs is more important than feeding itself. According to Erikson, a caregiver who consistently responds to an infant's needs will foster the infant's sense of trust in other people, whereas unresponsive or inconsistent caregiving breeds mistrust. He adds that children who have learned not to trust caregivers during infancy may come to avoid or to remain skeptical about close mutual-trust relationships throughout life. Before we examine the research on feeding practices and attachments, we need to con- sider another viewpoint that assumes that feeding is important—learning theory. Learning Theory: Rewardingness Leads to Love. For quite different reasons, some learning theorists have also assumed that infants will become attached to persons who feed them and gratify their needs. Feeding was thought to be particularly important for two reasons (Sears, 1963). First, it should elicit positive responses from a contented infant (smiles, coos) that are likely to increase a caregiver's affection for the baby. Second, feeding is often an occasion when mothers can provide an infant with many comforts—food, warmth, tender touches, soft reassuring vocalizations, changes in scenery, and even a dry diaper (if necessary)—all in one sitting. Over time, then, an infant should come to associate his mother with pleasant or pleasurable sensations, so that the mother herself becomes a valuable commodity. Once the mother (or any other caregiver) has attained this status as a secondary reinforcer, the infant is attached—he or she will now do whatever is necessary (smile, cry, coo, babble, or follow) in order to attract the caregiver's attention or to remain near this valuable and rewarding individual.

1. How does peer sociability change throughout childhood? What do you learn from this about how children change in their views of relationships?

Sociability between peers emerges by the middle of the first year. By age 18-24 months, toddlers' sociable interactions are becoming much more complex and coordinated as they reliably imitate each other, assume complementary roles in simple social games, and occasionally coordinate their actions to achieve shared goals. ✦ During the preschool years, nonsocial activities and parallel play become less common, whereas associative play and cooperative play become more common. Pretend play con- tributes in many ways to the growth of social skills, and the maturity of a preschooler's play activities predict his or her present and future popularity with peers. ✦ During middle childhood, more peer interactions occur in true peer groups—confederations that associate regularly, define a sense of group membership, and formulate norms that specify how group members are supposed to behave. By early adolescence, youngsters are spending even more time with peers—particularly with their closest friends in small cliques, and in larger confederations known as crowds. Cliques and crowds help adolescents to forge an identity apart from their families and pave the way for the establish- ment of dating relationships. Early dating relationships are more like friendships and often boost an adolescent's social standing and self-esteem. However, heavy dating early in adolescence can spell trouble, particularly for early-maturing girls who may be drawn by older boys into deviant or antisocial activities.

Can you think of an example that illustrates social learning as "reciprocal determinism"?

Suppose that a 4-year-old discovers that he can gain control over desir- able toys by assaulting his playmates. In this case, control over a desired toy is a satisfying outcome that reinforces the child's aggressive behavior. But note that the reinforcer here is produced by the child himself—through his ag- gressive actions. Not only has bullying behavior been reinforced (by obtain- ing the toy), but the character of the play environment has changed. Our bully becomes more inclined to victimize his playmates in the future, whereas those playmates who are victimized may become even more inclined to "give in" to the bully

Temperament

Temperament ---> Constitutionally- based individual differences in behavior that tend to be stable across situations and over time Constitutional: genes, maturation, & experience

8. Why are children rejected by their peers? Describe some of the factors that contribute to peer rejection.

Temperamental qualities Parenting practices Childrens interpretations of social situations and cues Self-image Peer reputations • more difficult temperament qualities can be one factor • children who have a hostile attribution bias tend to assume hostile intent even when the behavior of other people is ambiguous • withdrawn children also misinterpret cues, a child who experiences peer rejection may also assume rejection where there is ambiguity • aggressive children don't interpret rejection badly they attribute thieir socializing problems to others • rejected children • Peer reps hurt because they are hard to shake

zone of proximal development

The difference between the child's current developmental achievements as they are independently exhibited, and the higher level of skill that can be shown only with the guidance of a more experienced partner Vygotsky's term for the range of tasks that are too complex to be mastered alone but can be accomplished with guidance and encouragement from a more skillful partner. Vygotsky claims that collaborative (or guided) learning occurs most readily within the child's zone of proximal development—a term he uses to describe the difference between what a learner can accomplish independently and what he or she can accomplish with the guidance and encouragement of a more skilled partner.

1. What are the major ideas of the evolutionary perspective to development? What does this view contribute to our understanding of development that other perspectives do not?

The evolutionary viewpoint, as expressed in ethology, is that humans are born with a number of adaptive attributes that have evolved through natural selection and channel development in ways that promote adaptive outcomes. Ethologists recognize that humans are influenced by their experiences and even claim that certain adaptive characteristics are most likely to develop during sensitive periods, provided that the environment fosters this development. Modern evolutionary theorists have searched for preselected motives, such as altruism, and other behaviors that ensure the survival not of individuals, but of individuals' genes. Members of the human species share physical and psychological characteristics that are deeply- rooted in our biological heritage. These characteristics have helped humans to become better adapted to our environment -- that is, to survive and thrive -- and offspring inherit them. Human ethologists such as John Bowlby (1969, 1973) not only believe that children display a wide variety of preprogrammed behaviors, they also claim that each of these responses promotes a particular kind of experience that will help the individual to survive and develop normally. For example, the cry of a human infant is thought to be a biologically programmed "distress signal" that brings caregivers running. Not only are infants said to be biologically programmed to convey their distress with loud, lusty cries, but ethologists also believe that caregivers are biologically predisposed to respond to such signals. So the adaptive significance of an infant's crying is to ensure (1) the infant's basic needs (for example, hunger, thirst, safety) will be met, and (2) the infant will have sufficient contact with other human beings to bond with humans by forming social and emotional attachments Not only has their emphasis on biological processes provided a healthy balance to the heavily environmental emphasis of learning theories, but they have also convinced more developmentalists to look for the causes of development in the natural environment, where it actually occurs.

Operant conditioning

The frequency of behavior changes according to its consequences (rewards and punishments) Personality characteristics are shaped by conditioning: looking, smiling, talking to others -----> social affirmation (positive reinforcer) over time, an outgoing personality is progressively reinforced operant learning a form of learning in which voluntary acts (or operants) become either more or less probable, depending on the consequences they produce.

2. Summarize the basic "fact-finding strategies" of developmental research (e.g., interviews and questionnaires, clinical method, observations, etc.)

The most common methods of data collection in the field of social and personality development are self-reports, observational methodologies, case studies, and ethnography. Self- reports include standardized procedures, such as structured interviews or structured questionnaires (including diary studies), that allow direct comparisons among research participants, and flexible approaches like the clinical method, which yields an individualized portrait of each participant's feelings, thoughts, and behaviors. Self-Report Methodologies structured interview or structured questionnaire: a technique in which all participants are asked the same questions in precisely the same order so that the responses of different participants can be compared. If the procedure is a structured interview or structured questionnaire, all who participate in the study are asked the same questions in the same order. clinical method a type of interview in which a participant's response to each successive question (or problem) determines what the investigator will ask next. ✦ Naturalistic observations are obtained in the natural environ- ments of children or adolescents, whereas structured observations take place in laboratories where the investigator cues the behavior of interest. naturalistic observation: a method in which the scientist tests hypotheses by observing people as they engage in everyday activities in their natural habitats (for example, at home, at school, or on the playground). observer influence: tendency of participants to react to an observer's presence by behaving in unusual ways. time sampling: a procedure in which an investigator records the frequencies with which individuals display particular behaviors during the brief time intervals that each participant is observed. structured observation an observational method in which the investigator cues the behavior of interest and observes participants' responses in a laboratory. ✦ Case studies allow investigators to obtain an in-depth understanding of individual children or adolescents by collecting data based on interviews, observations, and test scores of the individual in question, as well as information about that per- son from such knowledgeable sources as teachers and parents. case study a research method in which the investigator gathers extensive information about the life of an individual and then tests developmental hypotheses by analyzing the events of the person's life history. ✦ Ethnography, used originally by anthropologists, is a descriptive procedure in which the researcher becomes a participant observer within a cultural or subcultural context. He or she will carefully observe the community members, make notes from conversations, and compile such information into a detailed portrait of the group's values and traditions and their impacts on developing children and adolescents. ethnography method in which the researcher seeks to understand the unique values, traditions, and social processes of a culture or subculture by living with its members and making extensive observations and notes. ✦ Psychophysiological methods measure the relationship between physiological responses and behavior. They are often used to reveal the biological underpinnings of children's perceptual, cognitive, or emotional responses. psychophysiological methods methods that measure the relationships between physiological processes and aspects of children's physical, cognitive, social, or emotional behavior and development.

Molecular genetics

The study of genetic influences on behavior, including gene-environment interactions. • Relevant to understanding origins of psychological disorders, and to social and personality development • Many identified genes are associated with psychological characteristics -- dopamine D4 receptor gene (DRD4 7-repeat allele) with novelty-seeking and externalizing (e.g., conduct) problems -- monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) gene with aggression and antisocial behavior (low MAOA -->higher aggression)

development as universal or particularistic

Whether the most noteworthy aspects of development are universal (that is, normative outcomes that everyone is said to display) or particularistic (trends or outcomes that vary from person to person). Stage theorists typically believe that their developmental sequences apply to all normal people in all cultures and are therefore universal. universal development - normative developments that all individuals display. particularistic development - developmental outcomes that vary from person to person.

1. What are some of the unique social skills that children acquire from peer relationships? Why are these important skills?

Why are peer relationships important? • Contribute to unique social skills Initiation skills Social maintenance skills Play -- pretend and otherwise Managing conflict and aggression Sharing, caring, and support skills Managing peer social networks Developing psychological intimacy Why are peer relationships important? • Social understanding Friendship Social problem-solving Understanding fairness and rights • Social comparison processes • A distinct identity

8. What is "difficult temperament"? Why is it important?

a combination of temperamental characteristics including negative mood, irritability, intense emotionality, poor adaptability, and demandingness -- can be a risk factor for later psychological difficulty (such as conduct problems or anxiety) more likely to face challenges in years to come

The Strange Situation

a series of eight separations and reunion episodes to which infants are exposed in order to determine the quality of their attachments. consists of a series of eight episodes (summarized in Table 5.1) that attempt to simulate (1) naturalis- tic caregiver/infant interactions in the presence of toys (to see whether the infant uses the caregiver as a secure base from which to explore); (2) brief separations from the caregiver and encounters with strangers (which often stresses the infant); and (3) reunion episodes (to determine whether a stressed infant derives any comfort and reassurance from the care- giver and can once again become involved with toys).

What is required to be a wise consumer of psychological research?

a solid understanding of research methodology be skeptical and to evaluate media (and journal) reports using the methodologi- cal information presented in this chapter. You might start by asking, "How were the data gathered and how was the study designed? Were appropriate conclusions drawn given the limitations of the method of data collection and the design (correlational versus experi- mental; cross-sectional versus longitudinal) that the investigators used? Were there proper control groups? Have the results of the study been reviewed by other experts in the field and published in a reputable academic journal?" And please don't assume that published articles are beyond criticism. Many theses and dissertations in the developmental sci- ences are based on problems and shortcomings that students have identified in previously published research. So take the time to read and evaluate published reports that seem especially relevant to your profession or to your role as a parent. Not only will you have a better understanding of the research and its conclusions, but any lingering questions and doubts you may have can often be addressed through a letter, a phone call, or an e-mail message to the author of the article. In sum, one must become a knowledgeable consumer in order to get the most out of what the field of social and personality development has to offer. Our discussion of research methodology was undertaken with these objectives in mind, and a solid understanding of these methodological lessons should help you to properly evaluate the research you will encounter, not only throughout this text, but from many, many other sources in the years to come.

6. Describe the following dimensions of temperament: a. activity level b. emotionality c. sociability d. attention span / persistence

a) hyper, mellow b)dominant mood soothability - how readily restored to a good mood fearfulness, anger, irritability approach / withdrawal -when faced with something new is this child's initial reaction to approach or withdrawl c. how out going are they socially vs. more reserved d. attention span/persistence - how much they invest themselves in a sustained manner vs. moving on from one thing to the other

14. Describe the type of infant behavior associated with each of the following attachment classifications: a. avoidant (Group A) b. secure (Group B) c. resistant (Group C) d. disorganized / disoriented (Group D)

a. avoidant (Group A) an insecure infant/caregiver bond characterized by little separation protest and a tendency of the child to avoid or ignore the caregiver. b. secure (Group B) an infant/caregiver bond in which the child welcomes contact with a close companion and uses this person as a secure base from which to explore the environment. c. resistant (Group C) an insecure infant/caregiver bond characterized by strong separation protest and a tendency of the child to remain near but resist contact initiated by the caregiver, particularly after a separation d. disorganized / disoriented (Group D) an insecure infant/caregiver bond characterized by the infant's dazed appearance on reunion or a tendency to first seek and then abruptly avoid the caregiver.

natural selection

an evolutionary process, proposed by Charles Darwin, stating that individuals with characteristics that promote adaptation to the environment will survive, reproduce, and pass these adaptive characteristics to offspring; those lacking these adaptive characteristics will eventually die out.

Avoidant attachment

an insecure infant/caregiver bond characterized by little separation protest and a tendency of the child to avoid or ignore the caregiver. These infants (about 20 percent of l-year-olds) also display an "insecure" attachment. They often show little distress when separated from the mother and will generally turn away from and may continue to ignore their mothers, even when she tries to gain their attention. Avoidant infants are often rather sociable with strangers but may occasionally avoid or ignore them in much the same way that they avoid or ignore their mothers.

Resistant attachment

an insecure infant/caregiver bond characterized by strong separation protest and a tendency of the child to remain near but resist contact initiated by the caregiver, particularly after a separation About 10 percent of 1-year-olds show this type of "insecure" attachment. These infants try to stay close to their mothers but explore very little while she is present. They become very distressed as the mother departs. But when she returns, the infants are ambivalent: They remain near her, although they seem angry at her for having left them and are likely to resist physical contact initiated by the mother. Resistant infants are quite wary of strangers, even when their mothers are present.

disorganized/disoriented attachment

an insecure infant/caregiver bond characterized by the infant's dazed appearance on reunion or a tendency to first seek and then abruptly avoid the caregiver. Disorganized/disoriented attachment. This recently discovered attachment pattern characterizes the 5-15 percent of American infants who are most stressed by the Strange Situation and who seem to be the most insecure (NICHD Early Child Care Research Network, 2001b). It appears to be a curious combination of the resistant and the avoidant patterns that reflects confusion about whether to approach or avoid the caregiver (Main & Solomon, 1990). When reunited with their mothers, these infants may cringe and look fearful, freeze, or curl up on the floor; or they may move closer but then abruptly move away as the mother draws near.

"paradox of the discipline encounter"

as a parent you are bigger stronger, presumably psychologically more sophisticated, you have control over all of the resources your child depends on, there is nothing in your child's life that you don't control, except the child itself. Yet, given all the advantages the parent faces, most parents do not act as tyrants towards their children.they do not pushily coerce them into obedience. There is no relationship where the power relationship is more uneven, but in which parents do not simply exert their control over their children. Because balanced against the parents need to exert control as the children grow older is the need to maintain a nurturing, warm and positive relationship with their child. Because if we were to force them to comply it would damage the warm and positive relationship with the child.

3. What are the four major patterns of parenting identified in Baumrind's research? What are their effects on children, and why?

authoritarian parenting a restrictive pattern of parenting in which adults set many rules for their children, expect strict obedience, and rely on power rather than reason to elicit compliance. -Average cognitive and social competencies Average academic performance and social skills; more conforming than adolescents of permissive parents authoritative parenting flexible, democratic style of parenting in which warm, accepting parents provide guidance and control while allowing the child some say in deciding how best to meet challenges and obligations. -High cognitive and social competencies High self-esteem, excellent social skills, strong moral/ prosocial concern, high academic achievement permissive parenting a pattern of parenting in which otherwise accepting adults make few demands of their children and rarely attempt to control their behavior. -Low cognitive and social competencies Poor self-control and academic performance; more drug use than adolescents of authoritative or authoritarian parents uninvolved parenting a pattern of parenting that is both aloof (or even hostile) and overpermissive, almost as if parents neither cared about their children nor about what they may become. -By age 3, children of uninvolved parents are already relatively high in aggression and such externalizing behaviors as temper tantrums. Furthermore, they tend to be disruptive and to perform very poorly in the classroom later in childhood, and often become hostile, selfish, and rebellious adolescents who lack meaningful long-range goals and are prone to commit such antisocial and delinquent acts as alcohol and drug abuse, sexual misconduct, truancy, and a wide variety of criminal offenses

continuity vs. discontinuity continuity/discontinuity issue

continuity/discontinuity issue debate among theorists about whether developmental changes are best characterized as gradual and quantitative or, rather, abrupt and qualitative. Do you think that the changes we experience occur very gradually? Or would you say that these changes are rather abrupt?

Activity versus Passivity activity/passivity issue

debate among developmental theorists about whether children are active contributors to their own development or, rather, passive recipients of environmental influence. Are children curious, active creatures who largely determine how agents of society treat them? Or are they passive souls on whom society fixes its stamp?

How is Erikson's psychosocial theory similar to and different from Freud's theory?

he differed from Freud in two important respects. First, Erikson (1963) stressed that children are active, curious explorers who seek to adapt to their environments, rather than passive slaves to biological urges who are molded by their parents. Erikson has been labeled an "ego" psychologist because he believed that at each stage of life, people must cope with social realities (in ego function) in order to adapt successfully and show a normal pattern of development. So in Erikson' theory, the ego is far more than a simple arbiter of the opposing demands of the id and superego. A second critical difference between Erikson and Freud is that Erikson places much less emphasis on sexual urges and far more emphasis on cultural influences than Freud did.

How does "mind-mindedness" contribute to parental sensitivity?

mind mindedness is responding with an awareness of the baby's internal states (feelings, intentions, desires, thoughts) the ability to assess the baby's internal states and assess their needs which then allows for parents to respond to their needs

3. How is the concept of "imprinting" relevant to understanding why close emotional attachments evolved in humans?

imprinting an innate or instinctual form of learning in which the young of certain species will follow and become attached to moving objects (usually their mothers). Attachment in Humans Although human infants do not imprint on their mothers in the same way that young fowl do, they have inherited a number of attributes that help them to maintain contact with others and to elicit caregiving. Lorenz (1943), for example, sug- gested that a baby's "kewpie doll" appearance (that is, large forehead, chubby cheeks, and soft, rounded features (see Figure 5.2) makes the infant appear cute or lovable to caregivers. In sum, human infants and their caregivers are said to have evolved in ways that predispose them to respond favorably to each other and form close attachments, thus enabling infants (and ultimately, the species) to survive. many of their inborn, reflexive responses may have an endearing quality about them (Bowlby, 1969). For example, an infant's sucking and grasping reflexes may lead parents to believe that their baby enjoys being close to them. Bowlby insists that under normal circumstances, adults are just as biologically predisposed to respond favorably to a baby's signals as the baby is to emit them. It is dif- ficult, he claims, for parents to ignore an urgent cry or fail to warm up to a baby's big grin.

4. What is the quality of care that promotes secure attachment in young children? Who is at risk of becoming an insensitive caregiver?

insightfulness caregiver capacity to understand an infant's motives, emotions, and behaviors and to take them into account when responding to the infant; thought to be an important contributor to sensitive caregiving. that is, they understand the causes of the child's emotions and the motives underlying his behavior—abilities that help them to respond in an appropriate way to his needs and concerns (Koren-Karie et al., 2002). So if a caregiver has a positive attitude toward her baby; understands, appreciates, and is sensitive to his needs and goals; has established interactional synchrony with him; and provides ample stimulation and emotional support, the infant will often derive comfort and pleasure from their interactions and is likely to become securely attached. Babies who show a resistant rather than secure pattern of attachment often have parents who are inconsistent in their caregiving—reacting enthusiastically or indifferently depending on their moods and being unresponsive a good deal of the time There are at least two patterns of caregiving that place infants at risk of developing avoidant attachments. Ainsworth and others (for example, Isabella, 1993) find that some mothers of avoidant infants are often impatient with their babies and unresponsive to their signals, are likely to express negative feelings about their infants, and seem to derive little pleasure from close contact with them. Ainsworth (1979) believes that these mothers are rigid, self-centered people who are likely to reject their babies. In other cases, however, avoidant babies have overzealous parents who chatter endlessly and provide high levels of stimulation, even when their babies do not want it Finally, Mary Main believes that infants who develop disorganized/disoriented attach- ments are often drawn to their caregivers, but also fearful of them because of past episodes in which they were frightened by the caregiver's actions, neglected, or physically abused insecure attachments of one kind or the other are the rule rather than the exception when a child's primary caregiver has been diagnosed as clinically depressed insensitive caregivers are those who themselves felt unloved, neglected, or abused as children. whose pregnancies were unplanned and their babies unwanted can be particularly insensitive caregivers whose children fare rather poorly in all aspects of development.

6. What are "internal working models" resulting from attachment relationships? Why are they important?

internal working models cognitive representations of self, others, and relationships that infants construct from their interactions with caregivers. John Bowlby (1980, 1988) and Inge Bretherton (1985, 1990) have proposed an interesting explanation for both the stability and any en- during effects of early attachment classifications. They believe that as infants continue to interact with primary caregivers, they will develop internal working models—that is, cognitive representations of themselves and other people—that are used to interpret events and form expectations about the character of human relationships. Sensitive, responsive caregiving should lead the child to conclude that people are dependable (positive working model of others), whereas insensitive, neglectful, or abusive caregiving may lead to insecurity and a lack of trust (negative working model of others).

10. Describe how temperament can increase the child's vulnerability or resiliency to later behavior problems.

it simply can make life more challenging or easy

What are the advantages and disadvantages of longitudinal design in developmental research?

longitudinal design: advantages: In longitudinal design the same participants are observed repeatedly over time allowing researchers to see the stability of various attributes and the patterns of developmental change for each person in the sample. In addition, they can identify general developmental trends by looking for commonalities in development that most or all individuals share. Finally, the tracking of several children over time will help investigators to understand the bases for individual differences in development. disadvantages: selective attrition: nonrandom loss of participants during a study, resulting in a nonrepresentative sample. non-representative sample: a subgroup that differs in important ways from the larger group (or population) to which it belongs. cross-generational problem: the fact that long-term changes in the environment may limit conclusions of a longitudinal project to that generation of children who were growing up while the study was in progress.

4. What are the different contexts (or "systems") of development within Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory? Identify an example of each one.

microsystem the immediate settings (including role relationships and activities) that the person actually encounters; the innermost of Bronfenbrenner's environmental layers, or contexts. - For most young infants, the microsystem may be limited to the family mesosystem the interconnections among an individual's immediate settings, or microsystems. The second of Bronfenbrenner's environmental layers, or contexts. - school, family, peers, neighborhood exosystem social systems that children and adolescents do not directly experience but that may nonetheless influence their development; the third of Bronfenbrenner's environmental layers, or contexts. - For example, parents' work environment is an exosystem influence macrosystem the larger cultural or subcultural context in which development occurs; Bronfenbrenner's outermost environmental layer, or context. - cultures, governments chronosystem in ecological systems theory, changes in the individual or the environment that occur over time and influence the direction development takes. - For example, even though a divorce hits hard at youngsters of all ages, adolescents are less likely than younger children to experience the strong blow of feeling that they were the cause of the break-up

gene-environment interactions

monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) gene with aggression and antisocial behavior (low MAOA -->higher aggression) when combined with maltreatment equals much higher aggression than maltreatment and high levels of MAOA

3. What is the "genotype," and how is it associated with "phenotype"?

one's genotype (the set of genes one inherits) comes to be expressed as a phenotype (one's observable characteristics and behaviors),

1. How do primary (or basic) emotions differ from secondary (or complex) emotions? What is necessary for children to develop a capacity for self-conscious emotions? How do parents influence the emergence of self-conscious emotions?

primary (or basic) emotions the set of emotions present at birth or emerging early in the first year that some theorists believe to be biologically programmed. primary (or basic) emotions that emerge between age 2 and 7 months are anger, sadness, joy, surprise, and fear. These so-called primary emo- tions may have deep biological roots in that they emerge at roughly the same age in all normal infants and are displayed and interpreted similarly in all cultures secondary (or complex) emotions self-conscious or self-evaluative emotions that emerge in the second and third years and depend in part on cognitive development (sometimes called self-conscious emotions). self-conscious emotions - see secondary (or complex) emotions. From later in the second year until well into the third, infants begin to display such secondary or complex emotions as embarrassment, shame, guilt, envy, and pride. These emotional re- sponses are often called self-conscious emotions because each involves some damage to or enhancement of the sense of self. Michael Lewis (1998) believes that embarrassment, the simplest self-conscious emotion, will not emerge until the child can recognize herself in a mirror or a photograph Parents can clearly influence a child's susceptibility to particular self-conscious emotions. For example, Allessandri and Lewis (1996) observed mothers' reactions as their 4- and 5-year-olds succeeded or failed at a variety of puzzles. As expected, children generally showed some signs of pride over their successes and shame over their failures. Yet the amounts of pride and shame they displayed largely depended on their mothers' reactions to these outcomes. Mothers who accen- tuated the negative by being especially critical of failures tended to have children who displayed high levels of shame after a failure and little pride after successes. By contrast, mothers who were more inclined to react positively to successes had children who displayed more pride in their accomplishments and less shame on those occasions when they failed to achieve their objectives.

Sociometric techniques

procedures that ask children to identify those peers whom they like or dislike or to rate peers for their desirability as companions; used to measure children's peer acceptance (or nonacceptance).

Mind-mindedness

responding with an awareness of the baby's internal states (feelings, intentions, desires, thoughts)

3. Provide two examples of infant-elicited social behaviors that adults may use when interacting with infants. In other words, what things do adults naturally do when interacting with a baby? Why do they do them?

responses that are unique to interaction with an infant -- exaggerated facial expressions -- exaggerated vocal expressions ("parentese") -- looming close to the baby -- dramatic approach and withdrawal

Infant-elicited social behaviors

responses that are unique to interaction with an infant -- exaggerated facial expressions -- exaggerated vocal expressions ("parentese") -- looming close to the baby -- dramatic approach and withdrawal

Pretend play

role playing themes of power and strength making them feel powerful rather than powerless rehearsing the familiar roles at home adult roles danger and rescue regulating themselves and others to make sure they are all enacting the script

Describe an example of emotional conditioning as a form of classical conditioning.

scary sounds, shadows! in the dark -------------------> fear! (unconditioned stimulus) ----->(unconditioned response)! darkness -------------------------> fear! (conditioned stimulus) ------->(conditioned response)!

12. Why is a secure attachment important? Describe the relevance of a secure attachment for: a. emotion regulation b. exploration c. learning about relationships d. developing a sense of effectiveness in interacting with the social world

securely attached children children do better in romantic and platonic relationships, have more insight to other peoples feelings, are more compliant and have a greater sense of self efficacy this happens because securely attached children feel more confidence to separate form their parents and explore

Piaget's Four Stages of Cognitive Development

sensorimotor stage first stage of cognitive development, from birth to 2 years, when infants rely on behavioral schemes to adapt to the environment. preoperational stage second stage of cognitive development, lasting from about ages 2 to 7, when children are thinking at a symbolic level but are not yet using cognitive operations. concrete-operational stage Piaget's third stage of cognitive development, lasting from about ages 7 to 11, when children are acquiring cognitive operations and thinking more logically about tangible objects and experiences. formal-operational stage fourth and final stage of cognitive development, from age ll to l2 and beyond, when the individual begins to think more rationally and systematically about abstract concepts and hypothetical events.

2. What is "social referencing"? What does this behavior reveal about the growth of emotional understanding?

social referencing the use of others' emotional expressions to gain information or infer the meaning of otherwise ambiguous situations. Early suggestions of a smile or expressions of interest may convince caregivers that their babies are willing and even eager to strike up a social relationship with them. At the same time, the infant's emerging ability to recognize and interpret others' emo- tions is an important achievement that enables him to infer how he should be feeling or behaving in a variety of situations. The beauty of this "social referencing" is that children can quickly acquire knowledge in this way. For example, a sibling's joyful reaction to the family dog should indicate that this "ball of fur" is a friend rather than an unspeakable monster. A mothers' pained expression and accompanying vocal concern might imme- diately suggest that the knife in one's hand is an implement to be avoided. And given the frequency with which expressive caregivers direct an infant's attention to important aspects of the environment or display their feelings about an infant's appraisal of objects and events, it is likely that the information contained in their emotional displays will con- tribute in a major way to the child's understanding of the world in which he lives

5. How is Vygotsky's sociocultural theory an example of the sociocultural perspective that we discussed in class?

sociocultural theory Vygotsky's perspective on development, in which children acquire their culture's values, beliefs, and problem-solving strategies through collaborative dialogues with more knowledgeable members of society

5. How do fathers contribute to early social development? Are fathers important?

that toddlers who were securely attached to both parents were the most socially responsive group. Equally important is the finding that toddlers who were securely attached to at least one parent were more friendly toward the clown and less emotionally conflicted than those who had insecure relationships with both parents. recent research has shown that, compared to children who are securely attached to only one or neither parent, those who are secure with both parents are less anxious and socially withdrawn and make better adjustments to the challenges of attending school. Children who are secure with fathers who are involved with them also display better emotional self-regulation, greater social competencies with peers, and lower levels of problem behaviors and delinquency throughout childhood and adolescence. Indeed, the positive benefits of having a secure, supportive relationship with one's father often occur even if he may no longer be residing in the home. So not only are fathers potentially important contributors to many (perhaps all) aspects of child development, but it seems that a secure attachment to one's father may help to compensate for the potentially harmful effects of an insecure mother/child attachment relationship

Why is it important to the "goodness of fit" with the baby's temperament?

the "goodness of fit" between temperament and environment guides development either positively or negatively (illustrates nature - nurture interaction)

How does the concept of the "zone of proximal development" illustrate the ideas of sociocultural theory?

the "zone of proximal development" is the difference between the child's current developmental achievements as they are independently exhibited, and the higher level of skill that can be shown only with the guidance of a more experienced partner.

Initiation skills

the skill of initiating play and or socialization with others children will tend to join other kids in play by hanging out in their peripheral, talking to them and or picking up a toy

7. What are the general conclusions about parenting that were discussed in lecture? How should "optimal" parenting be defined?

• "Optimal" discipline may vary depending on the circumstances • "Optimal" discipline may depend on the child: children's characteristics affect parental strategies • Children's interpretations are important • Parental flexibility is necessary • A warm, mutually cooperative parent- child relationship is an essential resource

Anterior cingulate

• Helps people inhibit a dominant response in favor of a secondary, subdominant response (inhibition) • Has an extended developmental timetable: roughly 12 months to 25 years The anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) is the frontal part of the cingulate cortex that resembles a "collar" surrounding the frontal part of the corpus callosum

14. Contrast the shared environment with the nonshared environment. Which kind of environment has the greatest influence on children's development?

• Important environmental influences tend to be nonshared rather than shared! Nonshared = environ. influences causing sibs to differ Shared = environ. influences causing sibs to be similar!

Security of Attachment

• In typical conditions, infants develop enduring emotional ties to those who care for them • Although virtually all infants form attachments, they vary in the security of those attachments • Differences in the security of attachment are important to early psychological development

13. People commonly note how similar parents and offspring are, and they attribute this to how children were raised by their parents. What alternative explanation is offered by researchers in developmental behavioral genetics?

• Many of the characteristics we attribute to parenting practices may instead be due to the genetic similarity of parent and child

2. What does a behavioral genetics perspective contribute to our understanding of development? How are nonshared environmental influences different from shared environmental influences? What kinds of genotype/environment correlations exist, and how do they influence development?

• Many of the characteristics we attribute to parenting practices may instead be due to the genetic similarity of parent and child

Describe the parent as a model for aggressive conduct.

• Parental conduct may be imitated by children in their behavior with others spanking provides children with a model of violence that heightens aggression and contributes to family violence children who are physically disciplined are more likely to behave aggressive at school, with peers and with siblings

15. What is molecular genetics? Provide an example of gene-environment interaction.

• The study of genetic influences on behavior, including gene-environment interactions. • Relevant to understanding origins of psychological disorders, and to social and personality development • Many identified genes are associated with psychological characteristics -- dopamine D4 receptor gene (DRD4 7-repeat allele) with novelty-seeking and externalizing (e.g., conduct) problems -- monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) gene with aggression and antisocial behavior (low MAOA --->higher aggression)

Friendship understanding

• at age 3 to 5 a friend is a person that they are playing with at that moment •by 6 to 7 a friend is someone who does nice things for me no sense of the mutality yet • at about 12 years of age friends start to see friendship in terms of concrete terms of mutual goodwill • 13 and on a more abstract understanding of friendship

constructivism

• children develop understanding not just through experience but by how they interpret it ("constructivism") Piaget viewed children as constructivists who actively create new understandings of the world based on their own experiences. How? By being the curious and active explorers that they are. constructivist one who gains knowledge by acting or otherwise operating on objects or events to discover their properties. Piaget describes children as active, inventive explorers(or scientists) (that is, constructivists) who are constantly constructing schemes to represent what they know and modifying these cognitive structures throughout the processes of organization and adaptation. Organization is the process by which children rearrange their existing knowledge into higher-order schemes. ✦Adaptation is the process of adjusting successfully to the envi- ronment, and it occurs through two complementary activities: assimilation and accommodation.

2. Why is early social interaction so important?

• developing skills at sociability • developing emotional attachments to familiar people • "repairing" interactions that don't go well • developing a sense of effectiveness in influencing the behavior of another • developing a sense of self

2. What are the basic assumptions of psychodynamic theory?

• development occurs in stages • unconscious influences are significant • self-awareness is limited • emotions are important determinants of thought and behavior • early experiences are significant • how the social world supports / conflicts with innate needs shapes development

Primary emotions

• early-appearing (some are innate) • universally identified • deeply rooted in our biological heritage happiness (social smiling) (6-8 weeks) anger and sadness (2 months) fear (stranger reactions at 7 months and separation anxiety at 8-9 months) the set of emotions present at birth or emerging early in the first year that some theorists believe to be biologically programmed.

1. Why are theories valuable for understanding development?

• identify major developmental influences and how they affect children's growth • make critical assumptions about development (e.g., stages? characteristics of the child? universal or local processes of development? Importance of early experiences?) • tell scientists where to focus their research • generate interest in particular issues

Emotion regulation -

• infants and young children rely on others to manage their feelings • preschoolers use simple strategies of avoidance, hiding eyes, seeking nurturance • older children understanding internal strategies (altering thoughts, distraction, changing goals) • self-regulation is also associated with growth in brain functioning

11. Describe how children's capacities for emotion regulation develop in infancy and childhood? How is the development of the anterior cingulate relevant to emotion regulation?

• infants and young children rely on others to manage their feelings • preschoolers use simple strategies of avoidance, hiding eyes, seeking nurturance • older children understanding internal strategies (altering thoughts, distraction, changing goals) • self-regulation is also associated with growth in brain functioning Anterior cingulate - emotional regulation • Helps people inhibit a dominant response in favor of a secondary, subdominant response (inhibition) • Has an extended developmental timetable: roughly 12 months to 25 years!

What are the weaknesses of the psychodynamic view?

• many abstract, poorly-defined concepts (e.g., id, ego; "integrity vs. despair") • weak in explaining the causes of development (e.g., what contributes to the growth of "initiative" ?) • deterministic: early experiences shape the life course • limited to western cultures? men?

What are the weaknesses of behavioral theory?

• oversimplified account of social and personality development (importance of heredity? neurobiology? unconscious influences?) • development occurs through children's active give-and-take with others, not as passive observers or responders • children are interpreters of their experiences

Temperament dimensions differ in two ways:

• reactivity (emotionality, irritability, activity level) • self-regulation (soothability, adaptability, persistence) -- that reflect the organization of brain processes relevant to temperament

7. What are the two basic ways that temperament dimensions differ (reflecting the organization of brain processes relevant to temperament)?

• reactivity (emotionality, irritability, activity level) - how much children react to new events • self-regulation - how much children can manage their own behavioral tendencies (soothability, adaptability, persistence) -- that reflect the organization of brain processes relevant to temperament - cognitive paths to how we react and how we control that reaction

Emotion understanding

• responding to the facial expressions of another (early infancy) • social referencing (11-12 months) • understand that emotions are related to desires (2 years) • understand that emotions are evoked by particular situations (birthday party; barking dog) (3 years) • emotions can be concealed or disguised (display rules) (4-6 years) • understanding that emotions can be provoked by mental events (reminders of past feelings) (5 years) • the same situation can evoke two different emotions (mixed feelings or ambivalence) (8 years)

8. What are the benefits -- and challenges -- of sibling relationships? How do they contribute to social and personality development?

• sources of comparison and contrast • emotional support • siblings as models and teachers • sources of social and emotional understanding • forums for learning negotiation, provocation, conflict resolution, and other social skills

What are the weaknesses of cognitive-developmental theory?

• the growth of understanding may be more gradual, less stage-like • underestimating the cognitive capabilities of young children (such as egocentrism in preschoolers) • much intellectual growth derives from the guidance of others, not just the child's own discoveries

Concrete operations

✦ (roughly 7-11 years). During the period of concrete operations, children can think logically and systematically about concrete objects, events, and experiences. They can now perform arithmetical operations in their heads and mentally reverse the outcomes of physical actions and behavioral sequences. The acquisition of these and other cognitive operations permit the child to conserve, seriate, and make transitive inferences. However, concrete operators still cannot think logically about hypothetical propositions that violate their conceptions of reality. CONCRETE-OPERATIONAL LOGICAL, OBJECTIVE THINKER AND PROBLEM-SOLVER (but conceptually concrete) (easily educated) concrete-operational stage Piaget's third stage of cognitive development, lasting from about ages 7 to 11, when children are acquiring cognitive operations and thinking more logically about tangible objects and experiences.

4. Why is friendship important?

✦ Close supportive friendships appear to promote positive developmental outcomes by (1) providing children and adolescents with security and social support, (2) promoting the growth of social problem-solving skills and an ability to compromise, and (3) fostering a strong sense of self-worth and caring and compassionate attitudes that are the foundation of intimate love relationships later in life. Yet excessive co-rumination with close friends can promote anxiety and depression. What's more, friendships clearly differ in quality, and children with conflictual, nonsupportive friendships may benefit little from them; in fact, associations with deviant friends often constitute a form of deviancy training that can exacerbate maladaptive or antisocial conduct.

Formal operations

✦ Formal operations (age 11-12 and beyond). Formal- operational thinking is rational, abstract, and much like the hypothetico-deductive reasoning of a scientist. At this stage, adolescents can "think about thinking" and operate on ideas as well as tangible objects and events. These newly emerging cognitive powers may help to explain why adolescents are so idealistic and display such thinking as the imaginary audience and the personal fable. FORMAL-OPERATIONAL THINKING CAN BE ABSTRACT AND HYPOTHETICAL (thinking about life's meaning) sensorimotor stage first stage of cognitive development, from birth to 2 years, when infants rely on behavioral schemes to adapt to the environment. formal-operational stage fourth and final stage of cognitive development, from age ll to l2 and beyond, when the individual begins to think more rationally and systematically about abstract concepts and hypothetical events.

3. What can be done to assist children who are rejected by their peers?

✦ Programs to improve the social skills of rejected children include reinforcement and modeling therapies, such social-cognitive interventions as coaching and social problem-solving training, and even academic remediation, which keeps children on track at school and reduces their exposure to hostile, antisocial peers. Social-skills training programs work better (1) with younger children than with adolescents and (2) when the target children's teachers and classmates also participate in the intervention.