PSY 301 exam #2
NBA great Michael Jordan once said...?
"Talent wins games, but teamwork wins championships"
Guidelines for Building Team Cohesion: Strategies for Group Members
- Get to know other members of the group. - Help group members whenever possible. - Give group members positive reinforcement. - Be responsible. - Communicate honestly and openly with leader. - Give 100% effort at all times.
Other Correlates of Cohesion
- Group goals are tied to group cohesion. - Gender: The relationship between cohesion and performance was stronger for females than males.
Subscales (measuring cohesion) (cont.)
- Group interaction—task - Group integration—social - Individual attraction to group—task - Individual attraction to group—social
Sport Orientation Questionnaire (SOQ)
-to provide a reliable and valid measure of competitiveness -using the SOQ Gill and Deeter found 3 types of competitive orientations -athletes scored higher than nonathletes
the Consequences of the response
-whether a person approaches or avoids an objective competitive situation (at the behavioral, physiological, and psychological levels) -positive= success -negative= failure
def. of teamwork
A dynamic process involving a collaborative effort by team members to effectively carry out the independent and interdependent behaviors that are required to maximize a team's likelihood of achieving its purposes
Sport psychology researchers have used ____ and ____ to explain how stereotypes and gender-related beliefs influence sport and physical activity involvement and performance...?
Bem's (1993) sex roles or Eccles and Harold's (1991) expectancy value models
Who developed the Sport Orientation Questionnaire?
Gill and Deeter (1988)
Personal Factors
Personal factors refer to the individual characteristics of group members.
What personal attribute factors might influence a persons responses in competition?
Previous experience, ability, motivation, and attitudes
Categories of Coaching Behavior Assessment System
Reactive behaviors: •Reinforcement •Mistake-contingent encouragement •Mistake-contingent technical instruction •Punishment •Punitive technical instruction •Ignoring mistakes •Keeping control
what happened to the New Orleans Saints (NFL team)?
in 2012 coaches and players were suspended from the New Orleans Saints for offering and receiving rewards for knocking players out of games
Figure skater Tonya Harding's suggested?
involvement in the attack on Nancy Kerrigan in 1994 at the U.S. Figure Skating Championships in Detroit, competition for the same spot might lead to one competitor deliberately injuring another
Acculturation (Culture and Cultural Influences)
involves attitudinal and behavioral changes associated with living in cultures that differ from one's own, or when one lives or works in a multicultural society where several cultures exist side by side
win orientation
is a focus on interpersonal comparison and winning in competition. It is more important to beat other competitors than to improve on personal standards
competitiveness
is an enjoyment of competition and a desire to strive for success in competitive sport settings
Inclusion
is the degree that people feel free to express their individuated self and have a sense of connectedness and belonging
Cooperative means-cooperative ends
players cooperate with each other from the outset to the end. Everybody works toward a common goal and shares the means as well as the ends ex; keeping a volleyball from hitting ground (modified volleyball)
ASD (autism spectrum disorder)
characterized by social and communication deficits and restrictive interests or patterns of behavior
Cognitive-Mediational Model
coach leadership behaviors are a function of their own personal characteristics, which are mediated by situational factors and the meaning athletes attribute to those coaching behaviors
Hilary Knight
considered the best player on the 2017 US Women's Hockey Team
Norman Triplett (1898) found that?
consulting the records of the Racing Board of the League of American Wheelmen, he found that cyclists were faster when racing against or with another cyclist than when racing alone against the clock
Management of team maintenance consists of two processes called...?
psychological support and integrative conflict management
Micro-level factors
focus on how individuals make meaning out of their experiences. These include their expectations, self-limiting behaviors such as low self-efficacy, and lack of understanding of power and procedures
How can competitive conflicts be resolved (Deutsch)?
from decades of research concluded it can be resolved by communication, coordination, shared goals, and control of threat
Martens definition and approach to competition was focused on what?
Social Evaluation
Team Factors
Team factors refer to group task characteristics (individual vs. team sports), group productivity norms, desire for group success, group roles, group position, and team stability.
Competition is a learned?
social process that is influenced by the social environment
Physical disabilities include?
spinal cord injuries, cerebral palsy, Parkinson's disease, and amputations
4 stages of competition
stage 1. the objective competitive situation stage 2. the subjective competitive situation stage 3. the response stage 4. the consequences of the response
team-building
strategies associated with increased cohesiveness, such as ensuring role clarity and acceptance, establishing team performance goals, and improving athlete-athlete and coach-athlete communication
Most oof today's sport for youths is...?
structured and organized
Turnnidge, Vierimaa, and Cote (2012)
studied a swimming program for athletes with physical disabilities and found it was successful in helping athletes redefine their capabilities, affirm their sense of self, strengthen social connections, and enhance feelings of acceptance because the coach demonstrated a strong belief in the athletes' abilities, held high expectations for them, helped them set goals, and created numerous competitive opportunities. Peer interactions and the team environment also contributed to the program's success.
Sport participation and self-esteem
study by Wagnsson, Linndwall, and Gustafsson (2014) found a relationship between sport participation self-esteem and perceived sport competence. Specifically, adolescents participating in organized sport demonstrated increased self-esteem over time and this relationship was mediated by perceived sport competence
What happened to Jackie Robinson West Little League Team in 2015?
team was stripped of its U.S. championship and its 2014 Little League Baseball International Tournament wins after an investigation found that the team had used players from outside its designated geographic area to build a superteam
Direction of causality
the circular relationship: Increased cohesion leads to greater performance and brings teams together, which in turn leads to still more cohesion
Passage of Title IX (1972)
the federal law that prohibits discrimination on the basis of sex in any education program or activity that receives federal funding
In youth sports feelings of hostility and aggression can spill over to?
the parents
Some coaches and athletes believe that...?
the path to optimal performance involves focusing on beating the opponent
What did Deutsch's call for in 1982?
the potential negative effects of competition were so destructive that in 1982 he called for a planned reduction of competitive situations in society because these often led to conflict
Enculturation (Culture and Cultural Influences)
the socialization process in which an individual acquires the skills and qualities needed to be a member of one's own group
cohesion (Festinger, Schacter, and Back)
the total field of forces which act on members to remain in the group
T or F? Administrators, coaches, and parents should know how to help performers feel more successful about sport experiences?
true
True or False? A person's competitive orientation affects how he perceives the competitive situation?
true
Kelly and Stahelski (1970)
used the prisoner's dilemma to investigate how effective competitive responses were compared to cooperative ones
Performance (Consequences of Leadership)
Losing teams need more social support from their leaders to sustain motivation
Cooperation in Business and the Military
- In business, cooperation is believed to be a collaborative behavior. - In the military, cooperation affects individual and group safety.
Storming (linear perspective)
- 2nd stage - Rebellion, resistance to the leader and to control by the group, interpersonal conflict - Great emotional resistance emerges, and infighting can occur as individuals and the leader establish their roles and status in the group. - communication is key in this stage
Norming (Linear Perspective)
- 3rd stage - hostility is replaced by solidarity and cooperation; group conflicts resolved - sense of unity forms - athletes work together to reach common goals - players strive for economy of effort and task effectiveness
Satisfaction (Consequences of Leadership)
- Coach-athlete compatibility in decision-making style, generous social support of the coach, rewarding, and democratic decisions are generally associated with higher satisfaction of athletes. - Team sport athletes find positive coaching behaviors even more important than individual sport athletes do.
Acculturation of Immigrant Athletes and Coaches
- Acculturation is a complex process in which the athlete is living in two worlds: trying to maintain some aspects of his or her original culture while fitting into and adapting to the new culture. - Acculturation not only involves adapting to a new sport or team environment but also to wider daily life issues. - Athletes adjusting to a new culture face a variety of challenges such as learning a new language, dealing with loneliness and loss, and adjusting to new styles of coaching and play. - Coaches and other support staff need educational training focused on developing cultural competence and deriving strategies for providing support for their immigrant and migrant athletes. - Athletic groups should provide athletes with cultural education and support to assist them in adapting to their new culture, help them feel like they belong, and deal with feelings of loneliness and isolation
Promoting Inclusive School Environments
- Acknowledge incidents of assault in the school community by communicating care and concern for, and directly to, those involved. - Abstain from questioning the merits of a victim's claim or dismissing it outright. These actions marginalize the victim and the experience. - Make teaching tolerance a routine part of the instructional decision-making process. - Create space and time for youth to discuss world events; expose youth to evidence of injustice. - Collaborate with school leaders, support staff, and colleagues to create a plan for responding appropriately to trauma at the classroom level.
Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)
- Acute and chronic physical activity shows benefits such as greater attentiveness and sustained attention, decreased impulsivity, decreased moodiness, decreased stereotypical mannerisms such as jerking or forward and backward rocking, and improved classroom behaviors for DHD/ASD participants. - Physical activity might play an important role in helping youth with ADHD and ASD better function both cognitively and socially. - create major educational and social problems for the children and youth who have them. They can also have major effects on families and caregivers, such as increased anxiety, conflict, and even depression. - Medication and behavior therapies have traditionally been used to treat these disorders
Why Diversity and Inclusion Are Important in Sport and Exercise Contexts
- Advances in technology have caused individuals from all parts of the world and backgrounds to be more interconnected. - Societies are more diverse than ever before (e.g., the United States is 63% white, 18% Hispanic, 13% African American, 5% Asian, and 3% multiracial). - Sports are more diverse than ever before. - Sport and physical activity settings are not free from bias and anti-inclusive practices - Socioeconomic status plays an important role in physical activity participation; the percentage of American adults who meet minimum physical activity guidelines is positively correlated with socioeconomic status. - Professionals in health, exercise, and sport science must be culturally competent and equipped to effectively work with people from diverse backgrounds. - Inclusion makes sense not only from a moral perspective, but from a performance perspective as well. - Gay and transgender athletes face prejudice, and in a highly publicized incident, a player on the Miami Dolphins team quit professional football because of bullying by some of his teammates in the form of homophobic name calling, racial slurs, and repeated sexual comments about female members of the player's family
Antecedents of Leadership
- Age and maturity: •Older, more athletically mature athletes prefer coaches who are more autocratic and socially supportive. •Preferences for training and instruction behavior decrease from early to senior year of high school but increase again at the university level. - Sex: •Males prefer training and instructive behaviors and an autocratic coaching style. Females prefer democratic and participatory coaching that allows them to make decisions. - Nationality: •Cultural background may influence leadership preferences (ex; United States, Britain, Canada, Japan). -Type of sport: •Participants in highly interactive sports (e.g., volleyball players) prefer an autocratic style more than participants in coaching sports (ex; bowling) do. - Psychological characteristics: •Athletes with internal locus of control show a strong preference for training and instruction, while athletes with external locus of control prefer more autocratic behaviors. •Females high in trait anxiety prefer more positive and social support behaviors than their counterparts with low trait anxiety.
why study "Groups"?
- Almost any position in the sport and exercise field requires understanding of the processes and dynamics of groups - We must consider the nature of sport and exercise groups.
Conditions That Increase Social Loafing
- An individual's output cannot be independently evaluated. - The task is perceived to be low in meaningfulness. - An individual's personal involvement in the task is low. - A comparison against group standards is not possible. - Other individuals contributing to the collective effort are strangers. - Teammates or coworkers are seen as high in ability. - Individual team members perceive their contribution to the outcome as redundant. - The individual is competing against what he or she believes to be a weaker opponent. - The group is larger rather than smaller
Culture and Cultural Influences
- As products of our cultures, we acquire certain values, beliefs, and practices based on where we were raised and live. - We exist in many different cultures (e.g., the college we attend, ethnic or religious background, sport teams we are on). - Our cultural identities make each of us unique - Culture is more than a listing of characteristics; it involves power and privilege (some groups are advantaged while others are oppressed - Enculturation - Acculturation
Cohesion (Consequences of Leadership)
- Coaches high in training and instruction, democratic behavior, social support, and positive feedback and low in autocratic behaviors have teams with greater cohesion. - Exercise leaders exhibiting more task-related behaviors and providing task-specific reinforcement were associated with more cohesive exercise groups.
Culturally Competent Communication and Welcoming Climates
- Becoming more self-aware through reflection and talking to others about our own views and practices is key. - Engage in communication practices that are effective for the cultures one works within (e.g., handshake versus bow). - Learn about the cultures you are entering by reading, talking to insiders from that culture, or carefully observing. - Be self- and situationally aware.
Gay athletes who came out?
- Billie jean king (tennis) - Martina Navratilova (tennis) - Greg Louganis (diving) - Brendan Burke (hockey) - John Amaechi (english basketball) - Scott Norton (bowling) - Glenn Burke (baseball) - Justin Fashanu (English football) - Robbie Rogers (soccer)
Guidelines for Balancing Competition and Cooperation
- Blend competition and cooperation when teaching and coaching physical skills. - Individualize instruction to meet each person's needs. - Structure games for children to include both competitive and cooperative elements. - When competition leads to fierce rivalry, use superordinate goals to get the groups together - Provide positive feedback and encouragement to students and athletes regardless of the outcomes of the competition. - Stress cooperation to produce trust and open communication. - Provide opportunities for both the learning of sport skills and the practice of these skills in competition.
Boys vs girls competition (Coakley 2014)
- Boys play competitive games more frequently than girls do. - Girls play in predominantly male groups more often than boys play games in predominantly female groups. - When boys are with friends, they play in larger groups than girls do. - Girls' games are more spontaneous, imaginative, and freer in structure than boys' games. - Boys see themselves as more physically skilled than girls see themselves, even though gender differences in actual skill levels are small or nonexistent. - Boys' games are more aggressive, involve taking greater risks, and reward individual achievement to a greater extent than girls' games do. - Boys play games that are more complex than the games girls play: They have more rules, a greater number of different positions (roles), and more interdependence (teamwork)
Sport-Oriented Interactional Approaches to Leadership
- Cognitive-mediational model - Multidimensional model
Guidelines for Building Team Cohesion: Strategies for Leaders
- Communicate effectively. - Explain individual roles in team success. - Develop pride within subunits. - Set challenging team goals. - Encourage team identity. - Avoid formation of social cliques. - Employ transformational leadership. - Avoid excessive turnover. - Conduct periodic team meetings. - Enhance team efficacy. - Know the team climate. - Get to know others⎯enhance personal disclosure.
Determining whether competition is good or bad
- Competition is neither inherently good nor bad. - It is neither productive nor destructive. - It is a neutral process; the environment determines its effects to a great degree.
Enhancing Cooperation: competitive games
- Cooperative games emphasize both cooperative means and cooperative ends. - Cooperation can be taught through cooperative games. - Cooperative games can be devised by changing the rules of traditional games -Cooperative games and cooperative learning have recently been used in physical education classes to help foster the acceptance of students with learning disabilities
Cultural Awareness and Acceptance of Differences
- Cultural awareness is more than noticing, understanding, and accepting differences in others. It requires considerable self-awareness - Everyone has cultural blind spots or implicit biases, the values, norms, cultural skills, and world-views shaped by one's own culture that we take for granted and assume others share. - Often we're unaware of these cultural blind spots
Culturally Competent Interventions
- Design interventions and use strategies that allow people of all backgrounds to feel welcomed and included in programs. - A culturally competent professional must value diversity, participate in diversity training, and work hard get to know those with whom he or she works. - Adopt strategies and interventions that align with the setting's cultural values (ex; First Nations swim instruction).
How to combat sexual prejudice
- Develop policies for organizations and teams that make it clear that discrimination will not be tolerated. These policies should also address how complaints are managed and what disciplinary action will result for policy violations. - Provide educational training for athletes, coaches, and administrators and support staff that addresses topics such as heterosexism, homonegativism, and transgender prejudice. These sessions should move beyond lectures by engaging participants in discussion on these issues. Educating team leaders such as sport captains is especially important. - Leaders and program participants should "break the silence" relative to the use of sexist language. This not only involves eliminating blatant sexist language (ex; athletes calling others fags or dykes) but more subtle language as well (ex; a coach asking a male athlete whether he has a girlfriend instead of asking whether he is dating anyone).
Benefits of Diversity and Inclusion
- Diversity can have a positive and meaningful effect on performance. (More diversity in groups and teams enhances performance by increasing the number of perspectives being considered, generating a greater number of options for action, and enhancing decision making) - Diversity when combined with proactive diversity strategies results in improved athletic success. - While diversity training can facilitate performance, alone it is not enough, nor is implementing such training an easy process. - Top-level program support and organizational commitment is needed. - Consistent proactive strategies need to be systematically and continuously emphasized so that deep organizational structural changes are implemented
Situational Approach
- Effective leadership is much more dependent on characteristics of the situation than on the traits and behaviors of the leaders in those situations. - This approach is not widely endorsed by itself, but it was important in facilitating our understanding of leadership because it showed that situational features have a major influence on leader success.
Eliminating Social Loafing
- Emphasize the importance of individual pride and unique contributions. - Increase identifiability of individual performances. - Determine specific situations in which social loafing occurs. - Conduct individual meetings to discuss social loafing. - Appreciate each teammate's responsibilities by assigning players to other positions. - Divide the team into smaller units. - Attribute failure to internal unstable factors
five ways to make Social Support most effective
- Especially important for those who are low in support - Depends on the match to the situation (ex; controllable versus uncontrollable events) - Depends on the context (ex; listening support is most effective in performance settings) - Timing of support is important - Level of knowledge and expertise of provider is important
Macro-level factors
- General societal expectations - Institutional practices that prevent opportunities for women - Less favorable leadership expectations for women - Sport leadership viewed as masculine - Men currently dominating leadership positions and looking for similar people to fill these positions - Institutional discrimination - Men perceived as powerful and women as compliant - Men having more access to networks of influential people within the sport system (social capital)
difference between groups and teams
- For both groups and teams, members may be attracted to each other and have some common goals. - A sport team is a special type of group. Teams have four key characteristics beyond mutual interaction and task interdependence
The Importance of Unstructured Play
- Informal and unorganized games (or play) are generally action-centered, while organized competitive sport is rule-centered. - Informal play or unstructured sport allows children to make decisions, manage relationships among peers, and learn important life lessons - Unstructured sport is characterized by action, especially scoring; personal involvement in the action; closely matched teams; and opportunities to reaffirm friendships. - Efforts need to be made to make unstructured sport more child-centered, focusing on skill development, fun, and personal growth.
Types of measures (relationship between cohesion and performance )
- It was once thought that a positive cohesion-performance relationship existed with task cohesion measures, but there was no cohesion-performance relationship with social cohesion measures. - However, the most recent research shows that increases in both task and social cohesion are associated with increased performance.
Steiner's Model of Actual Productivity
- Ivan Steiner (1972) developed a model to show the relationship between individual abilities or resources on a team and how team members interact - Actual productivity = potential productivity − losses attributable to faulty group processes - individual ability is probably the most important resource for sport teams - a team's actual productivity does not usually match its potential productivity. Only when a team effectively uses its available resources to match the demands of the task will its actual productivity or performance approach its potential performance. - Losses result from motivation and coordination - the role of any coach is to increase relevant resources (through training, instruction, and recruiting) while at the same time reducing process losses (by enhancing cohesion and emphasizing individuals' contributions to the team concept)
Handbook of Disability Sport and Exercise Psychology was published by?
- Jeffery Martin - book contains more than 40 chapters and covers a variety of topics, including athletic identity, participation motivation, quality of life, social and environmental barriers, and body image
Behavioral approach
- Key question: What are the universal behaviors (not traits) of effective leaders? - Leaders in nonsport setting results: Successful leaders use both consideration (focus on friendship, mutual trust, respect) and initiating (focus on rules, goals, and objectives) structures. - Leaders in sport—instruction and demonstration: Effective coaches focus on the positive while providing clear feedback and technical instruction. - Coaches versus peer leaders: -Coaches exhibit mostly training and instruction and autocratic behavior. -Peer leaders display social support, positive feedback, and democratic behavior.
trait approach
- Key question: What personality characteristics are common in great leaders? - Results: Leaders have a variety of personality characteristics. There is no particular set of personality traits that make a leader successful.
Multidimensional Model of Sport Leadership
- Leader effectiveness in sport can vary depending on the characteristics of the athletes, leader behaviors, and characteristics and constraints of the situation. Leadership scale for sport (LSS) dimensions: •Training (instructive behaviors) •Democratic behavior (decision-making style) •Autocratic behavior (decision-making style) •Social support (motivational tendencies) •Positive feedback (motivational tendencies) - Key prediction: Optimal performance and satisfaction are achieved when a leader's required, preferred, and actual behaviors are consistent. •Required leader behavior •Actual leader behavior •Preferred leader behavior
Theories of Group Development
- Linear perspective - Cyclical (life cycle) perspective - Pendular perspective
social support the 7 types
- Listening support (one is listening without giving advice or judging) - Emotional support (one is providing comfort) - Emotional-challenge support (one is challenging the support recipient to evaluate her attitudes and values) - Reality-confirmation support (one see things the same way as the support recipient) - Task-appreciation support (acknowledging the support recipient's efforts) - Task-challenge support (challenging the support recipient's way of thinking about a task in order to motivate) - Personal-assistance support (providing services or help)
Strategies for Working With People With Disabilities
- Make sport more inclusive and open for people with intellectual and physical disabilities; physical activity programs have been shown to result in a variety of psychological benefits. - Increase public awareness and education on the importance of sport and physical activity for these participants. - Be aware of potential biases (ex; people with disabilities will not be interested in participation). - Think creatively to overcome potential barriers that may block people with disabilities from participation.
list of cultural issues that practitioners should consider when delivering programs
- Norms (ex; men and women exercise separately) - Values and ideals (ex; family is a priority) - Beliefs (ex; regular physical activity is important) - Behaviors (ex; team uniforms may be immodest by the standards of some cultures or religions) - Clock-based time (ex; arriving late is accepted behavior in some cultures) - Interpersonal space (ex; distance between people when talking) - Eye contact (ex; lack of eye contact shows respect in some cultures) - Reluctance to state a firm opinion (ex; some cultures consider it disrespectful to disagree with others) - Silence (ex; being quiet does not signal disinterest)
Examples of teamwork/Groups
- One example is the Chicago Cubs; by winning Major League Baseball's 2016 World Series, the Cubs broke a drought of over 100 years without a championship. Many players discussed the "closeness" of the players and coaching staff as everyone sacrificed individual glory for team success. The notion of a cohesive unit is not reserved only for team sports. - Another example, Darren Clarke, from the victorious 2004 Ryder Cup European golf team noted, "We played as a team, we dined as a team, we talked as a team, and we won as a team."
task demands (relationship between cohesion and performance
- Original research argued that the cohesion-performance relationship was stronger with interacting teams (ex; volleyball) and that no relationship existed with coaching teams (ex; bowling). However, the most recent research has shown the task demands do not influence the cohesion-performance relationship
Enhancing Team Functioning: Peer Relationships
- Peer relations or relationships with teammates usually stand out as particularly important and meaningful for athletes. - Therefore, enhancing peer relations is an important aspect of improved group and team dynamics. - Generate cooperative goals in the sport setting. - Encourage young athletes to engage in their own problem solving rather than expect adults to solve problems for them. - Enable athletes to engage in shared decision making. - Design sport settings for small-group activities and maximum participation. - Select peer leaders on criteria other than athletic ability (e.g., leadership skills). - Schedule team-building activities into practice and outside of practice.
Disabilities
- People with disabilities experience vast physical, psychological, and social benefits from participating in sport and exercise. - Special Olympics participation not only positively influences the athletes involved but also their families. - Benefits of disability sport and physical activity include increased perceptions of competence, enhanced self-efficacy, and improved self-esteem - 50 million Americans have some sort of disability - people with any type of disability had few opportunities for sport and physical activity - large proportion of people with disabilities are overweight and obese (diabetes)
Interactional Approach
- Personal and situational factors need to be considered in order to understand effective leadership. Implications: - No one set of characteristics ensures successful leaders (but characteristics are important). - Effective leadership styles or behaviors fit the specific situation. - Leadership styles can be changed. Relationship- versus task-oriented leaders: - A relationship-oriented leader focuses on developing and maintaining good interpersonal relationships; a task-oriented leader focuses on setting goals and getting the job done. - The effectiveness of an individual's leadership style stems from its matching the situation and the athletes involved in those situations. - Task-oriented leaders are effective in very favorable or unfavorable situations. - Relationship-oriented leaders are effective in moderately favorable situations.
Creating an effective team climate
- Proximity: Closer contact between members promotes team interaction. - Distinctiveness: The more distinctive the group feels, the better the climate. - Fairness—or a lack of it—can bring a group closer together. - Greater similarity = closer climate. - Task interdependence: Outcome interdependence refers to the fact that all group members benefit (or suffer) from the group's performance.
Measuring Cohesion
- Questionnaires (ex; Group Environment Questionnaire) focus on how attractive the group is to the individual members and how the members perceive the group. - Most early research on cohesion used the Sport Cohesiveness Questionnaire developed by Martens, Landers, and Loy (1972). questionnaire has seven items that either measure interpersonal attraction or directly rate closeness or attraction to the group - account for the multidimensional nature of cohesion, Yukelson, Weinberg, and Jackson (1984) developed a 22-item tool called the Multidimensional Sport Cohesion Instrument. It includes four broad dimensions of team cohesion: attraction to the group, unity of purpose, quality of teamwork, and valued roles. - Widmeyer, Brawley, and Carron (1985) developed the Group Environment Questionnaire (GEQ), which distinguishes between the individual and the group and between task and social concerns
Consequences of Leadership
- Satisfaction - Cohesion - Performance
Attributes Related to Both Competition and Cooperation
- Sense of mission - Strong work ethic - Use of resources - Strong preparation ethic - A love of challenge and change - Great teamwork
Race and Ethnicity (cont.)
- Sociologists of sport study racially based inequities and discuss the societal changes needed to improve race relations and end racial inequities. They do this by looking at the structure of society and power relations - Athletics plays a major role in the African American community. More than 70% of current NFL and NBA players are African American - 50% of African American men go to college connected to athletics in some way - college graduation rates for black athletes are lower than they are for their white counterparts - sport is a vehicle for advancement needs to be questioned - Stereotypes significantly influence the motivation and performance of African Americans - in the US common stereotypes describing black athletes are that they are less intellectually capable and more talented in sports than their white counterparts - Blacks are also portrayed in the media as entertainers or athletes and, in more negative ways, as criminals - stereotype threat researchers contend that stereotypes have the greatest effects on minority group members who are motivated to achieve success.
Sexual Prejudice
- Some of the most severe incidents of discrimination and prejudice in sport and physical activity occur on the basis of sexual orientation (lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender community at risk) - Prejudice is often based on sexual stereotypes about gays and lesbians - 12 lesbian athletes reported many situations within their athletic teams and programs in which coaches and sport administrators promoted a feminine image more positively than a lesbian image. These lesbian athletes felt powerless to challenge homonegativism in sport
Team (definition)
- any group of people who must interact with each other to accomplish shared objectives - Becoming a team is really an evolutionary process - constantly developing and changing in their attempts to respond to both internal and external factors.
weight bias
- Sport and exercise professionals often hold the same implicit biases associated with physicality and weight as the general public does. - Stigmatization and negative stereotyping result in obese individuals being less likely to engage in physical activity and more likely to engage in unhealthy eating habits and behaviors. - Professionals must recognize their own biases and focus on the health benefits versus weight outcomes with overweight individuals
Gender and sexuality
- Sport and physical activity participation differences between men and women are influenced by gender-role stereotypes and expectations - Alternative models to traditional gender role stereotypes are needed
Does Sport Competition Transfer to Life Skills and Achievement?
- Sport participation is related to academic achievement, but only for school-sponsored sports. - Sport participation is not related to social or occupational mobility. - Sport participation has helped reduce delinquency, but research has not consistently indicated that competitive sport participation reduces delinquency. - Sport participation enhances self-esteem when individuals display high levels of perceived competence resulting from instructional feedback and practice.
creating an effective Team Climate through social support
- Team climate develops from how players perceive the interrelationship among the group members - Player perceptions and evaluations set the team climate - Social support: Mutual respect and support enhance team climate - coach has final say
Other Factors Associated With Cohesion
- Team satisfaction: Increased cohesion is related to increased satisfaction. - Conformity: The more cohesive a group is, the greater its pressure to conform to the attitudes and behaviors of the group. - Injury: When athletes become injured, it is likely to influence the group interaction processes between these injured athletes and the rest of the team. - Adherence: More cohesive exercise classes have better attendance, are more likely to arrive on time, are less likely to drop out, are more resistant to disruption, are more likely to experience positive affect related to exercise, and have stronger efficacy for exercise. This positive relationship between cohesion and adherence appears to remain constant regardless of the leader-to-participant ratio. - Social support: There is a positive relationship between the social support an individual receives and that person's evaluation of group cohesion. - Stability: Teams higher in cohesion can better resist disruption; teams staying together longer tend to be more cohesive.
How Individual Skills Relate to Group Performance
- The greater the need for cooperation and interaction in a task, the more the importance of individual ability decreases and the importance of group productivity increases. - Teams of equal ability tend to play best - Comrey and Deskin (1954) were two of the first researchers to investigate the relationship between individual and group performance to see how faulty group processes reduce productivity - Jones (1974) studied professional teams and players focusing on the statistics of individual players
Paralympic Elite Athletes
- The psychological needs, motives, characteristics, and mental approaches taken by elite athletes with disabilities are psychologically more similar to than different from those of their counterparts without disabilities. - Paralympians and other elite athletes with disabilities should be recognized for their capabilities rather than for their limitations! - Elite athletes with disabilities also face barriers that their counterparts without disabilities may not. These include a lack of knowledge about disabilities on the part of coaches and other support personnel, problems with access to training facilities, and the need for training modifications based on the disability an athlete has
Kohler Effect: Motivational Gains, Not Losses
- There are times when working together in teams might produce performance increases instead of decreases. This is called the Kohler effect and occurs when a team's score was equal to the least capable member. This can inspire the weak member to increase his or her effort so as not to let his or her teammates down. - When the goal is to maximize motivation and effort during training/exercise, individuals should select and train with a partner who is moderately more capable than themselves - One should create task conditions that maximize interdependence between group members to achieve group goals, and, in particular, one's indispensability to group process (ex; a relay race with other group members who are superior in ability or prior performance)
Approaches to Studying Leadership
- Trait approach - Behavioral approach - Situational approach - Interactional approach
Michael Sam (2014)
- all-american football player - from University of Missouri -gay
A Realistic Look at Diversity and Inclusion
- While groups of people representing different genders, races, or socioeconomic statuses often differ in their characteristics, there are almost always more differences within a group than between groups. - Discussing diversity issues is often difficult because they are often politically charged. The issues deal with (Power and access to resources and influence, or the lack of power and access to resources and influence) - There is a need to balance respect for others' views with advocacy for social change. - Becoming aware of our biases (especially implicit biases) is an important step in becoming a culturally competent professional.
Individual and Team Performance in Sport
- While individual ability is important, the individual abilities of team members alone are not good predictors of how a team will perform
Cohesion (Carron, Brawley, Widmeyer) (1998)
- a dynamic process that is reflected in the tendency for a group to stick together and remain united in pursuit of its instrumental objectives and/or for the satisfaction of member affective needs - multidimensional, dynamic, instrumental, and affective
Leaders Versus Managers
- a manager generally concerned with planning, organizing, scheduling, budgeting, staffing, and recruiting - leaders provide vision and is more concerned with the direction of an organization, including its goals and objectives.
group norms
- a norm is a level of performance, pattern of behavior, or belief - can be formally established or informally developed by a group - Individuals usually receive pressure to adhere to their group's norms, whether the norm is seen as relevant or irrelevant - ex; men who play sports such as football and hockey, there is a strong social norm to be tough, aggressive, and competitive - On a sport team, the norm might involve practice behaviors, dress and hairstyle, the interactions between rookies and veterans, or who takes control in critical situations. -Deviation from the expected behaviors might result in informal or formal sanctions - ex; the movie "Chariots of Fire", the British sprinter Harold Abrahams, who was training for the 1924 Olympics, was chided by his Cambridge colleagues for hiring a professional trainer because this meant he was too serious about his running and not really an amateur any longer - Leaders need to establish positive group norms or standards - Positive norms are important to establish
Ringelmann Effect
- a rope-pulling task conducted by Ringelmann nearly 100 years ago - is the phenomenon by which individual performance decreases as the number of people in the group increases - The task is based on a person giving 100% effort and thus pulling 100 pounds. - If no losses attributable to faulty group processes occurred, then one could assume that each individual pulled 100 pounds. Therefore, groups of two, three, and eight would be able to pull 200, 300, and 800 pounds, respectively
Role acceptance
- a salient perception among intercollegiate athletes and reaffirmed its distinctiveness from other related role concepts - general related to role performance but not always the case - athletes may accept a role even though the assigned responsibilities may exceed their capabilities, leading to subpar performance - Coaches can help players accept their roles by minimizing the status differences among roles and emphasizing that the success of the team depends on each individual's contribution - Role acceptance appears to depend on 4 conditions: 1. opportunity to use specialized skills or competencies 2. feedback and role recognition 3. role significance 4 . autonomy (the opportunity to work independently) - players are more willing to accept and carry out their roles when they perceive that their responsibilities contribute to team success.
cyclical (Life Cycle) theory (perspective)
- assumption that groups develop in a manner similar to the life cycle of individuals experiencing birth, growth, and death - Emphasis is on the terminal phase of the group's existence. - (the main element) As the group develops, it psychologically prepares for its own breakup - This model is especially relevant for groups and teams in physical activity that last 10 to 15 weeks - recreational teams play for a season then break up
Ingham and colleagues (1974)
- attempted to replicate Ringelmann's findings while extending the work - groups of two, three, four, five, and six persons - Groups of two performed at 91% of their potential and groups of three at 82% of their potential. - contrary to what Ringelmann found, increases in group size did not lead to corresponding decreases in efficiency.
regulation of team performance
- comprises behaviors devoted to the achievement of team goals - Preparation, Execution, Evaluation, and Adjustments
Social-level Barriers
- dependence on others to facilitate involvement (ex; provide transportation, physically help person in and out of vehicle) - Lack of understanding of how to adapt games and activities for people with disabilities - Lack of equipment (ex; auditory balls for the deaf) - lack of friends who participate - attitude by some caregivers that exercise is harmful
Understanding Group structure
- every group develops its own structure which emerges at the first group meeting - depends largely on the interactions of its members, how they perceive one another, and what they expect of themselves and others - two of the most important structural characteristics for an effective team is group roles and group norms
informal roles
- evolve from interactions among group members (ex; mediator or enforcer) - 11 informal roles: 1. Comedian: An athlete who entertains others through the use of comical situations, humorous dialogue, and practical jokes. 2. Spark plug: An athlete who ignites, inspires, or animates a group toward a common goal. 3. Cancer: An athlete who expresses negative emotions that spread destructively throughout a team. 4. Enforcer: An athlete who is physically intimidating or willingly belligerent and who is counted on to retaliate when rough tactics are used by the opposing team. 5. Mentor: An athlete who acts as a trusted counselor or teacher for another athlete on the team.
formal roles
- dictated by the nature and structure of the organization (ex; Athletic director, coach, team captain, exercise leader, Point guard in basketball, setter in volleyball, goalie in hockey) - each role carries specific associated expectations - study by Benson, Eys, and Irving found athletes who approached and exceeded their role contribution expectations, reported higher levels of task cohesion. The same results were shown with social involvement
pendular perspective
- emphasizes the shifts that occur in interpersonal relationships during the growth and development of groups - a group does not move progressively through stages in a linear fashion from the instant it forms - 5 stages of group development: 1. Orientation: cohesion and feelings of unity are high 2. Differentiation and conflict: teams subdivide into smaller groups and conflicts arise as players compete for positions 3. Resolution and cohesion: cohesion increases as group members share common concerns and feelings 4. Differentiation and conflict: team unity is weakened as some individuals are rewarded while others are punished 5. Termination: with team success, feelings of cohesion are high. If the season was unsuccessful, then feelings of cohesion are low
Morrow and Gill (2003)
- empirical study found that public school physical education teachers and their students reported high levels of homophobic behaviors in their schools - most of the teachers wanted to create safe and inclusive environments, more than half indicated that they never address the topic of homophobia
Sartore and Cunningham (2009)
- examined gender and sexual prejudice as perceived by U.S. athletes and parents - Results revealed prejudicial attitudes toward gay and lesbian coaches - athletes indicated they would be unwilling to play for a gay or lesbian coach - parents indicated they would not let their children play for a homosexual coach
Gender differences in team norms
- female teams had a better understanding of norms for competition, practice, and social settings than male teams - females have demonstrated that they hold stronger perceptions for social values such as belongingness than males do - coaches of male teams in particular should consider strategies such as team goal setting and team building to help set appropriate team norms
Performing (Linear Perspective)
- final stage - team members band together to channel their energies for team success - team's focus is problem solving, using group processes and relationships to work on tasks and test new ideas - Structural issues are resolved, interpersonal relationships stabilize, and roles are well defined
Forming (Linear Perspective)
- first stage - Familiarization, formation of interpersonal relationships, development of team structure - team members familiarize themselves with other team members - Members of a team engage in social comparisons, assessing one another's strengths and weaknesses.
Organizational Sport Psychology
- focuses on understanding and evaluating what creates a positive and satisfying working environment in sport organizations - Key concepts include: Leadership (Leader behaviors can be categorized into inspirational leadership) , Organizational, resilience ("the maintenance of positive adjustment under challenging circumstances such that the organization emerges from those conditions strengthened and more resourceful) , Organizational stress ( an ongoing transaction between an individual and the environmental demands associated primarily and directly with the organization within which he or she is operating), and Optimal organizational environments (Creating an organizational environment where teams and individuals can function effectively is critical to success)
group sturcture
- group roles - formal roles - informal roles - Both role clarity and role acceptance are critical for team success. - role conflict - group norms - pressure of social norms
Linear theory (perspective)
- groups develop in stages or a linear fashion - groups move progressively through different stages. - Critical issues arise in each stage - the most popular example of a linear model was advanced by Bruce Tuckman (1965) - Tuckman proposed that all groups go through 4 stages as they develop and prepare to carry out the group's tasks: 1. forming 2. storming 3. norming 4. performing
Enhancing Cooperation: General Principles of Cooperative Games
- maximize participation - maximize opportunities to learn sport and movement skills - do not keep score in games - give positive feedback - provide opportunities for youngsters to play different positions
Using sport & physical activity to help veterans with disabilities
- in the US 5.5 millions veterans have self-related disabilities - Participation in sport and physical activity is associated with important psychological outcomes such as optimism and providing direction in the veterans' lives - sport and physical activity participation can do the following: - Reaffirm the veteran's athletic or exercise identity. - Provide mastery experiences that enhance self-efficacy both generally and related to specific tasks (ex; moving from one's bed to chair) - Provide sources of social support - Help manage the chronic pain that often accompanies many of these disabilities -Enhance mood states, especially exercising in natural, green environments
Paralympic Games and Special Olympics
- increased awareness of the capabilities of those with disabilities as well as the beneficial effects participation has for those involved - Paralympic Games participation has increased 11 fold since its inception in 1964 with 400 participants to 4,350 in the 2012 Rio Games - Special Olympic movement is perhaps the largest and best known sport program for people with intellectual disabilities - Individuals with intellectual disabilities who are at least 8 years old can participate in more than 30 summer and winter sports. Special Olympics involves more than 3 million athletes and offers programs in over 180 countries - 1980s the organization added Unified Sports in which individuals with intellectual disabilities could participate with people without intellectual disabilities
social laboring
- increasing group size can increase effort and performance - Social laboring is most likely to occur when a group is lead by a transformational leader because team members are motivated to go the extra mile for the team
Major Barriers for the physically disabled
- individual-level Barriers, social-level barriers, and environmental barriers - barriers can be overcome through education and planning
Cultural competence
- involves recognizing culturally based differences as well as interacting and working effectively with people from cultures different than your own. It deals with action and advocacy - 3 components: 1.Cultural awareness 2.Cultural knowledge 3.Cultural skills - involves understanding one's implicit biases or blind spots
Diversity
- is the presence of socially meaningful differences among members of a dyad or group - deals with differences or the lack of differences based on such factors as race, national origin, ethnicity, gender, social class, religion, age, and marital status
Environmental Barriers
- limited number of places to participate - built-environment barriers - lack of accessible facilities
Findlay and Coplan (2008)
-supported Fraser-Thomas and Cote idea -who found that children involved in sport were more likely to participate in cooperative behavior than were those not involved in sport
two kinds of Losses
- motivation losses: when team members do not give 100% effort. Perhaps players believe that one or two stars can carry the load; thus, the other players slacken their efforts - coordination losses: when the timing between teammates is off or when ineffective strategies are used - Sports that require complex interaction or cooperation are more susceptible to coordination losses than are sports requiring fewer interactions and less coordination ex; Basketball, soccer, and volleyball coaches typically spend much time and effort on fine-tuning coordination, timing, and team movement patterns. Swimming coaches, in contrast, spend most of their time developing individual swimming technique
positive norms
- norms can have powerful effects on behavior, it is imperative for a coach, teacher, or exercise leader to establish positive group norms or standards - effective method for creating positive norms is to enlist the formal and informal leaders of a team to set positive examples (ex; LeBron James, Tom Brady, Simone Biles, Novak D. create high standards for their teammates through work ethic and practice regimens) - coach or teacher needs to encourage leaders to set high standards of achievement - include all team members in decision making about norms adopted by the team - Van Bussel and Gregg (2014) note that norms must be clear if conformity to the norm is to be enhanced
Teamwork info.
- often see talented teams perform poorly, failing to use the resources of their individual members, whereas other teams with less talent and fewer resources succeed - Teamwork and group dynamics play an important role in the success of teams and groups - Team members in sport and exercise settings must interact, work toward shared goals, adapt to environmental demands, and balance individual needs with those of other team members - part of teamwork and group dynamics is what is called group (team) cohesion. Forming a cohesive unit appears to contribute to success on the field. - NBA coach Pat Riley: "Teamwork is the essence of life."
Sport for people with physical disabilities
- over the last few decades the visibility of Wounded Warrior- type programs (i.e., programs that provide services to wounded veterans of the military) and the Paralympic movement have provided more opportunities than ever before to individuals with physical disabilities - Participation also minimizes the influence of the disability and provides opportunities for participants to make friends and interact with other young people of varying disability status - Sport and physical activity participation has also been linked to participant increases in enjoyment, an increase in positive and a decrease in negative mood states, less pain, and overall enhancement of quality of life
race and ethncity
- race is correlated with socioeconomic class, educational access, and belief in the judicial system - black Americans are more likely to be poor, have less education and fewer opportunities for education, and are less likely to believe in the equality of the justice system - Jackie Robinson breaking the color barrier in baseball, and John Carlos and Tommie Smith engaging in a protest at the Mexico City Olympics in 1968 and bringing worldwide attention to the plight of blacks in America - the issue of STACKING, in which players of a similar race were placed in the same position in an effort to limit the number of black players on the field - basketball and football, both at the major college and professional levels, have high percentages of black athletes, there are very few black head coaches and managers - In many ways sport acts as a microcosm of the larger American society when it comes to race relations and ethnicity. - Athletics plays a major role in the African American community. However, the idea that sport is a vehicle for advancement needs to be questioned because the perception that it is does not match the reality of what actually occurs. - Stereotypes significantly influence the motivation and performance of African Americans. - While stereotypes of blacks being superior athletically might work favorably for African Americans at times, black athletes are also stereotyped as being less intellectually capable. This has led to research on stereotype threat. - Intergroup conflict, stereotypes, and prejudice may arise between two marginalized groups (e.g., African Americans and Hispanics).
social support (team climate)
- refers to an exchange of resources between at least two individuals perceived by the provider or the recipient to be intended to enhance the well-being of the recipient - social support can have a positive effect on a variety of behaviors and feelings such as recovery from injury, coping with stress, burnout, youth physical activity, and performance - linked to increases in feelings of team cohesion and team climate - Social support: (Provides appraisal, information, reassurance, and companionship, Reduces uncertainty during times of stress, Aids in mental and physical recovery, Improves communication)
integrative conflict management
- refers to teams working through interpersonal problems to prevent prolonged conflict, which often leads to decreased team performance - resolving intrateam conflict include conducting team-building exercises, establishing clear player roles and expectations, holding structured team meetings, and addressing conflicts immediately
psychological support
- refers to the voluntary assistance that team members provide to reinforce a sense of well-being for teammates and is similar to social support - essential to create a supportive team environment so that team members can feel comfortable asking for support and taking the initiative to support other teammates - teams should work together to provide communal support instead of simply one-on-one support
social cohesion
- reflects the degree to which members of a team like each other and enjoy one another's company - often equated with interpersonal attraction
Vikki Krane (2014)
- researcher who outlined steps that could be taken to combat prejudice and create more inclusive environments for LGBT sport and physical activity participants
Cooke, Kvussanu, McIntyre, and Ring (2011)
- revealed that participants performed best in the competitive condition - took a variety of psychological and physiological measures. - Results indicated that participants in the competitive condition exhibited greater effort, more enjoyment, increased muscle activity, and decreased heart rate variability compared with participants in the noncompetitive condition. It appears that participants felt the need to try harder because their partners depended on them, and their increased anxiety positively influenced their performance in this task
Group roles
- set of behaviors required or expected of the person occupying a certain position in a group (ex; teachers, parents, athletic trainers, health professionals). Head athletic trainers are expected to perform such behaviors as assigning and evaluating student trainers and to provide clinical evaluations for serious injuries.
Intellectual Disabilities
- significant limitations in both intellectual functioning (ex; general mental capacity, learning, problem solving) and in adaptive behavior, which covers many everyday social and practical skills (American Association of Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 2017) Ex; disorders as intellectual disability, attention deficit disorders, and severe forms of autism - from a study results revealed many positive outcomes from the integration of the two populations including better health; development of social, cognitive, and motor skills; improved self-esteem; experiencing fun; and increased social inclusion
Women and Sport Leadership
- sport participation for girls and women has increased dramatically in the United States since the passage of Title IX in 1972 - women in leadership positions has lagged far behind - in the United States 43% of women's athletic teams are coached by women and even fewer are represented in athletic administration positions - women are underrepresented in athletic leadership - A lack of women in sport leadership results from macro-level or societal factors (e.g., sport leadership viewed as masculine) and micro-level factors such as low self-efficacy
Stuntz and Garwood (2012)
- study provides a good example of the effects of different competitive or cooperative goals on performance where the competition directions would not necessarily produce poorer performance when compared with the cooperative or individualistic instructions. - participants were given three types of instructions: cooperative, where the goal was for each group of two to score the most points; competitive, where the goal was for each person to score more points than his or her partner; or individualistic, where the goal was for each person to improve his or her performance over the series of trials. Results revealed that the cooperative instructions produced the best performance by far
social loafing
- term psychologists use for the phenomenon in which individuals in a group or team put forth less than 100% effort because of losses in motivation due in large part to a diffusion of responsibility (expecting others to pick up the slack) - similar to bystander effect, which is generally focused on people acting (or not acting) in helping others - research began after the repeated stabbing of Kitty Genovese in 1964 at her apartment building in the stairwell
Individual-Level Barriers
- the disability itself - lack of knowledge - fear of falling - pain
leadership
- the process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal - getting individuals to collaborate in the pursuit of a common goal - modern leaders create a sense of vision or mission for the group, motivate others to join them in pursuit of that mission, create social architecture for followers to operate, generate optimism and trust in followers, develop other leaders in the group, and achieve results - In sport and exercise, dimensions of leadership also include making decisions, motivating and inspiring participants, giving feedback, establishing interpersonal relationships, and directing the group or team confidently. - knows where the group or team is going and helps provide direction and resources
norm for productivity (group norms)
- the standard for effort and performance accepted by the team - Hilary Knight - best player is putting in this effort, then the rest of the team often follows - associated with being part of a special team, as noted by University of North Carolina soccer player Angela Kelly - norm for productivity was the norm most frequently cited for competitions, practice, and the offseason
What is a Group?
- two or more people who interact and exert mutual influence on each other and share the following characteristics: 1. A collective sense of identity ("we" instead of "I") 2. Distinctive roles (all members know their job) 3. Structured modes (lines of communication) of communication 4. Group norms (social rules that guide members on what to do and not do) - sense of mutual interaction or interdependence for a common purpose distinguishes a group from a mere collection of individuals - a collection of individuals is not necessarily a group - a group is not necessarily a team
role clarity
- understanding one's role is critical to being effective in that role - Unclear roles hurt a team's performance - People in a specific role usually have a different perspective on the role's requirements than do other members of the group. - An effective goal-setting program can clarify roles. Helps give players direction and focus
Gender
- viewed in a cultural context, focusing on the societal norms associated with one's sex - gender is often used to refer to both sex and gender
Jason Collins
- was in Sports Illustrated - 34 yr old NBA center - African American - gay -1st athlete to announce being gay
Sex
- when discussed in literature it is viewed in the biological sense - one is born male or female
relationship between cohesion and performance
-Cohesion is positively related to performance. -Research has shown the cohesion-performance relationship depends on several factors: (Types of measures and Task demands)
sherif and sherif summer camp studies (1969)
-Competition can be reduced through cooperative efforts to achieve superordinate goals -conducted 3 field studies with 11 and 12 year old boys in isolated camps
competition and aggression
-Competition is not good or bad; it is neutral -Whether it leads to aggression or cooperation depends on the social environment and the way the performers view competition -In his book "They Call Me Assassin", former pro football player Jack Tatum (1980) describes premeditated, deliberate attempts at injuring opposing players to take them out of commission
Deutsch's Puzzles
-Competition-group students were self-centered, directed efforts at beating others, had closed communication, and exhibited group conflict and distrust; cooperation-group students communicated openly, shared information, developed friendships, and solved more puzzles -Morton Deutsch's classic study (1949), college students were required to solve puzzle problems during a 5-week span, using both competitive and cooperative instructions. -Students in the cooperative condition were told that they would be evaluated by their group's ranking in relation to four other groups who were also solving puzzles and would receive a reward as a team -Students in the cooperative group, however, communicated openly, shared information, developed friendships, and actually solved more puzzles than their competitive counterparts
Prisoner's dilemma
-Competitors draw cooperators into competition. -a game that demonstrates why two completely rational people might not cooperate, even if it is in their best interest to do so.
Effect of competition and cooperation on performance
-Cooperation as opposed to competition produces superior performance, although results may depend on the nature of the task. -Competition can serve as a positive source of motivation to improve and refine skills. -Sport can lead to cooperative teamwork and behavior. -65 studies cooperation seen to produce higher achievement + performance than was competition (8 showed the opposite) -108 studies cooperation promoted higher achievement than independent or individualistic work (6 showed the opposite)
Triplett's Cyclists
-Cyclists were faster in competition than alone racing against the clock -first experiment that addressed the effects of competition on performance was documented in 1898 by Norman Triplett -face-to-face competition against fellow competitors was shown to potentially enhance performance
The Coaching Behavior Assessment System
-Leaders in sport—reactive and spontaneous behaviors •CBAS (Coaching Behavior Assessment System). •Facilitating positive coaching behaviors (frequent use of reinforcement and mistake-contingent encouragement) ensures greater enjoyment, higher self-esteem, and lower dropout rates in young athletes.
competition versus decompetition
-Partnership is the essence of competition as one's competitor enables the other to compete. -True competitors value fairness and strive with each other to reach new levels of excellence. -Decompetition occurs when opponents see each other as rivals, with winning as the ultimate goal.
what does RISE stand for?
-The Ross Initiative in Sports for Equality - RISE uses sports to promote understanding, respect, and equality -It provides leadership and education programming for student-athletes, coaches, and administrators at every level to equip them with the knowledge and skills to stand up against racism and advance the conversation about race relations
The Special Olympics
-a carefully controlled competition where, in addition to outcome, the focus is on fellowship and pride in one's own physical accomplishments -The parents of the participants judge their children on the basis of effort and personal progress—not on the basis of wins and losses, medals, trophies, or championships -unconditional support from everyone
Johnson and Johnson (1985) (2005)
-analyzed 122 studies conducted between 1924 and 1981 for the effects of competitive and cooperative attitudes on performance -concluded that in no type of task are cooperative efforts less effective than competitive or individualistic efforts. Cooperative efforts are more effective in promoting achievement -(2005) appropriate competition has the following characteristics: It is voluntary, the importance of winning is not so high that it causes disabling stress, everyone must have a reasonable chance to win, the rules are clear and fair, and relative progress can be monitored.
Component Structure of Games
-defined by Orlick -Competitive means (competitive ends), cooperative means (competitive ends), Individual means (individual ends), cooperative means (individual ends), and cooperative means (cooperative ends)
Pat Summitt
-developed the Definite Dozen principles -coached the University of Tennessee women's basketball team from 1974-2012 -most successful female collegiate basketball coach
Kohn (1992)
-his book No Contest: The Case Against Competition -effectively argued against the following competition myths: that competition builds character that competition motivates us to do our best, that competition is the best way to have a good time, and that competition is part of human nature -competition has a number of negative consequences, including the following: creating stress, which interferes with optimal performance; focusing attention on beating others rather than on performing well; fostering insecurity and undermining self-esteem; fostering interpersonal hostility, prejudice, and aggression; and creating undue envy, humiliation, and shame.
subjective competitive situation
-how the person perceives, accepts, and appraises the objective competitive situation (influenced by personality factors such as competitiveness) -individuals unique background and attributes become important -factors as perceived ability, motivation, the importance of the competitive situation, and the opponent may well influence the subjective appraisal of the competitive setting Ex; one runner in an adult fitness class may want to turn every jog into a race, whereas another seeks to avoid comparisons with other runners in the class.
Definite Dozen Principles
-respect yourself and others -take full responsibility -develop and demonstrate loyalty -learn to be a great communicator -discipline yourself so no one else has to -make hard work your passion -don't just work hard, work smart -put the team before yourself -make winning an attitude -be a competitor -change is a must -handle success like you handle failure
Fraser-Thomas and Cote (2006)
-stated that "youth sport programs have long been considered important to youth's psychosocial development, providing opportunities to learn important life skills such as cooperation, discipline, leadership, and self-control
Largest areas of diversity and inclusion research in sport and exercise psychology is...?
Gender and Sexuality
response
-whether a person approaches or avoids an objective competitive situation (at the behavioral, physiological, and psychological levels) -response to compete can occur at the behavioral, physiological, or psychological level, or at all three -internal factors: motivation, confidence, and perceived ability -external factors: facilities, weather, time, and opponent ability
Strategies for Diversifying Sport and Physical Activity and Creating Inclusive Environments
1. Become culturally aware. 2. Become a culturally competent communicator. 3. Use strategies to create welcoming environments and culturally competent interventions
4 Key and Unique Characteristics of a Team
1. Collective sense of identity: "we-ness" rather than "I-ness" 2. Distinctive roles: all members know their job 3. Structured modes of communication: lines of communication 4. Norms: social rules that guide members on what to do and not do
Four Components of Leadership Development
1. Development of high skill 2. A strong work ethic 3. Good rapport with people 4. Enriched tactical knowledge - These components were primarily developed through feedback and interactions with parents, coaches, and peers
Acculturation Transition Model (Ryba, Stambulova, and Ronkainen, 2016)
1. Pre-transition phase: The athlete physically and psychologically prepares to move to the new culture by dealing with issues such as the effect of the move on one's family and the benefits versus detriments of moving. 2. Acute acculturation phase: Athletes work to fit in with their new team and try to understand the norms of fitting in and belonging in the new team and culture. 3. Sociocultural adaptation phase: Athletes come to terms with themselves and their previous cultural identity and reposition themselves in the new culture.
Two distinct types of forces act on members in a group
1. attractiveness of the group: refers to the individual's desire for interpersonal interactions with other group members and a desire to be involved in the group's activities. 2. means control: refers to the benefits that a member can derive by being associated with the group
informal roles (cont.)
6. Informal leader (nonverbal): An athlete who leads the team by example, hard work, and dedication. 7. Informal leader (verbal): An athlete who leads the team both on and off the court through verbal commands. This role is assumed through social interactions. 8. Team player: An athlete who gives exceptional effort and is willing to sacrifice his or her own interests for the good of the team. 9. Star player: An athlete who is distinguished or celebrated because of his or her personality, performance, or showmanship. 10. Malingerer: An athlete who prolongs psychological or physical symptoms of injury for some type of external gain (ex; sympathy, attention). 11. Social convener: An athlete who is involved in the planning and organization of social gatherings for a team to increase group harmony and integration. - cancer and malingerer were perceived as having a detrimental effect on team functioning, whereas the others had a positive effect - The degree to which these roles manifested on teams varied based on the type of team, the team's win-loss record, and other situational variables
competition
A social process that occurs when rewards are given to people for how their performance compares with the performances of others during the same task or when participating in the same event
cooperation
A social process through which performance is evaluated and rewarded in terms of the collective achievement of a group of people working together to reach a particular goal
What Russian figure skaters skated at the 2018 Winter Olympics?
Alina Zagitiova (took Gold) and Evgenia Medvedeva (took Silver)
3 types of competitive orientations
Competitiveness, Win orientation, and Goal orientation
Sport participation and deviant behavior
Correlational analyses have not shown higher rates of deviance among athletes than among nonathletes, and this finding has been replicated across sports, societies, sexes, and socioeconomic status
Strategies for Enhancing Cohesion
Exercise settings: - Classes with feelings of high group cohesion have fewer dropouts and late arrivals than do classes low in cohesion. - Intervention strategies: Facilitate group distinctiveness, create individual positions, develop group norms, facilitate group members making individual sacrifices, and enhance interaction and communication. Sport settings: - Teams with feelings of high group cohesion have fewer dropouts and late arrivals than do classes low in cohesion. - Intervention strategies: Enhance team structure (facilitate role clarity and acceptance, use participatory leadership, encourage conformity to social and task norms), enhance the team environment (feelings of togetherness and distinctiveness), and enhance team processes (encourage group members to make sacrifices, set goals and objectives, and enhance cooperation). Shared team values: - Team values need to be developed and understood because values clarify the path to achieving goals as well as being critical to building trust among players and coaches.
who defined Cohesion
In 1950, Festinger, Schacter, and Back defined cohesion
First Athlete in a major sport in US to announce he's gay while still playing was?
Jason Collins
leadership factors
Leadership factors include the leadership style and behaviors that professionals exhibit and the relationships they establish with their groups
who invented the 4 stages of competition?
Martens
Who identified the major barriers for those with physical disabilities?
Martin (2013)
Outcomes
Outcomes occur at both the team and individual levels. At the team level, outcomes are seen in terms of team stability (how well the team stays together, especially during adversity) as well as absolute and relative effectiveness. At the individual level, outcomes are seen in terms of behavioral consequences (ex; how much effort is put forth to work together), satisfaction, and relative and absolute effectiveness.
Cooperative means-competitive ends
Participants cooperate in their group but compete outside their group ex; soccer, basketball
Race and Ethnicity (cont.) HISTORY!!!!!
Race relations have been a difficult issue dating back to British colonial days and the slave trade in which hundreds of thousands of Africans were taken against their will to be made slaves in the New World (South America, the Caribbean, and the United States). The U.S. Civil War was fought partly over the issue of slavery. After the end of the war and the abolition of slavery, African Americans slowly gained some rights; however, it wasn't until protests in the 1960s that important civil rights legislation was passed.
Sport participation and social or occupational mobility
Research has shown that former athletes, as a group, have no more and no less career success than others from comparable backgrounds
Categories of Coaching Behavior Assessment System (cont.)
Spontaneous behaviors: •General technical instruction •General encouragement •Organization •General communication
Sport participation and academic achievement
Studies have shown in general that varsity athletes have higher grade point averages and higher educational aspirations than those who do not participate on varsity teams
Group Environment Questionnaire (GEQ): Sample Items
The GEQ has been successfully used in numerous studies of group cohesion in sport as well as fitness settings. For example, using the GEQ, researchers have shown level of cohesion to be related to team performance, increased adherence, group size, attributions for responsibility for performance outcomes, reduced absenteeism, member satisfaction, and intrateam communication. - based has two major categories: a member's perception of the group as a totality and a member's personal attraction to the group
An example of blending competition with cooperation to produce an optimal learning environment would be?
The Special Olympics
Competitive means—competitive ends
The goal is to beat someone else or everyone else from the outset to the end ex; king of the mountain, 100-yard race
What happens when people that there are gender specific sports?
These beliefs then drive behavior, motivation, and self-perceptions and result in more men participating in sport and physical activity than women
T or F? Competition itself does not produce negative consequences; rather it is the overemphasis on winning that is counterproductive
True
T or F? taking a participant-centered approach by modifying rules, facilities, and equipment to provide more action, more scoring, closer games, and more personal involvement can create positive experiences for all participants?
True
Goal orientation
a focus on personal performance standards. The goal is to improve one's own performance, not to win the competition
Individuals in competition are likely to develop? (Deutsch)
a negative view of the competitor, have heightened anxiety, display a poor use of resources, exhibit lower productivity, act in hostile or aggressive ways toward the opponent, and exhibit a disruption of effective communication
sociogram
a tool for measuring social cohesion
Appointed or prescribed leaders
are individuals appointed by some authority to a leadership position (ex; health club manager, coach, head athletic trainer
Emergent leaders
are individuals who emerge from a group and take charge (ex; captain of an intramural team, student leader of an exercise class).
Gandhi viewed political opponents as what?
as teachers b/c they forced him to do his best
ADHD (Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder)
characterized by inattention, distractibility, and overactivity and impulse control issues
Anshel (1990) (race and ethnicity)
examined black athletes' racial concerns in sport. 26 black NCAA Division I football players were interviewed about their needs, behavioral styles, and interactions with their white head coaches. The players felt that there was a lack of sensitivity on the part of their coaches regarding their sociocultural and individual needs
role conflict
exists when the role occupant does not have sufficient ability, motivation, time, or understanding to achieve the goal (ex; "wearing too many hats" and having diff. people expect diff. things from you)
role ambiguity
has been found to have an effect on coach-athlete relationships
competitive sport can?
help athletes learn to work together to strive for mutual goals and reduce the overemphasis and pressure on winning
Botterill (2005)
highlighted the notion that competition and cooperation should be viewed as complementary
Cooperative means-individual ends
individuals cooperate and help each other achieve their own goals ex; helping each other individually improve
Using the word gay or lesbian sends a message to gay individuals that they are...?
invisible
Blindness and Deafness are considered...?
major disabilities
decompetition
occurs when opponents see each other as rivals with winning as the ultimate goal
Individual means-individual ends
one or more players pursue an individual goal without cooperative or competitive interaction ex; calisthenics, cross-country skiing
Terry Orlick (1978)
originally argued that the design of a game largely influences the predominant behavioral response, be it competitive, individualistic, cooperative, or some combination of these
Gender-related beliefs that women are less competent and place less value on sports than men do result from...?
parent socialization
People without disabilities view athletes with disabilities more favorably when they...?
participate with them, and participants' families have noted increases in quality of life
Potential productivity
refers to a team's possible best performance, given each player's ability, knowledge, and skill as well as the demands of the task
team maintenance
refers to behaviors that function to keep the team together
task cohesion
reflects the degree to which members of a group work together to achieve common goals
coactive sports
require much less, if any, team interaction and coordination for the achievement of goals
interactive sports
require team members to work together and coordinate their actions.
Professionals must make efforts to increase their knowledge of LBGT issues by attending...?
seminars, participating in online training, and reading in the area
environmental factors
which are the most general and remote, refer to the normative forces holding a group together. Environmental factors are present when, for example, players are under contract to the management, athletes hold scholarships, family members have expectations of athletes, geographical restrictions exist (ex; having to play for a certain high school because of where you live), regulations specify the minimum playing time in a youth sport program, and exercisers pay an extra fee for their class.
intergroup competition
which involved both cooperation within groups and competition between groups
objective competitive situation
which performance is compared with some standard of excellence in the presence of at least one other person who is aware of the comparison ex; if you ran with a friend and told her about your goal to run 3 miles in 21 minutes
