PSY 356 Exam 2

Instrumentality definition (chp 9, pg 297)

Instrumentality: the perceived relationship between the performance of a particular behavior and the likelihood that a certain outcome will result from that behavior. This is sometimes viewed as the performance-outcome link. In our school example, instrumentality is the extent to which getting an A on the test is likely to lead to other favorable outcomes, such as an A for the course or graduating with honors. In the workplace example, it is the extent to which getting a favorable performance review is likely to result in a pay raise or a promotion. In both examples, instrumentality is reflective of one outcome leading to another outcome.

The job characteristics model and recommendations supported by that model

More contemporary example of need-motive-value theory, the emphasis is on matching individuals to jobs or changing job to better fit individuals. In building on Herzberg's earlier work and proposing their "their job chracteristics theory," Richard Hackman and Greg Oldham (1980) argued that motivation is determined by the joint effects of individual differences in personality and characteristics of job; they developed a model (figure 9.3) that explains how jobs influence attitudes and behaviors. Any job, can be described by five core dimensions: skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback. Jobs vary along these dimensions;some have more of one and less of another. These dimensions influence the three "critical psychological states" that are necessary for motivation •Jobs that employees perceive as "meaningful" lead them to assume "personal responsibility" for the outcome they produce; in addition, these jobs are likely to motivate employees to put forth some effort by providing them with "knowledge of the results" of these efforts. Such jobs would be described as having high motivating potential For instance, employees are more likely to experience meaningfulness if their job requires skill variety (and thus doesn't involve the same old thing every day), provides task identity (such that employees can point to some aspect of their work as being the result of their own efforts), and provides task significance (such that employees' task appear to matter to coworkers or others in society at large) The final element of the model concerns the "personal work outcomes," that follows from the psychological states. These include high internal motivation to work hard and excel, high quality of work performance, high satisfaction with the work, and low absenteeism and turnover This model has at least two major implications/reccomendations? 1. Jobs should be designed with core dimensions in mind. Because positive outcomes are believed to follow from these core dimensions, it seems reasonable to design and redesign jobs to be high on skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback 2. Some thought should be given to the placement of employees in jobs Although the core dimensions are arguably positive for most employees, there are likely to be individual differences among them. For instance, autonomy may be much more important to one employee than to another, suggesting that the first employee should be placed in a job involving a great deal of autonomy, while the second employee should be given a job in which he simply follows someone else's direction According to Hackman and Oldham, growth need strength, or the extent to which individuals value higher-order needs or desire to fulfill them,moderates the relationships among the variables in the model. For instance, if fulfilling higher-order needs is not an important goal for a particular employee, then meaningfulness of work probably doesn't matter much for that employee

Personality test definition (chp 6, pg 179)

Tests in which numbers are systematically assigned to individuals' characteristics

Multiple regression- practical approaches to selection (chp 7, pg 214-216)

Regression analysis (chp 2) is an important technique for determining how we use predictor information to make selection decisions First, this is an compensatory approach, which means exceptional performance on one predictor can make up for a poor performance on another predictor- this is one obvious difference between the multiple regression approach and the multiple cutoff/ hurdle approaches, which are noncompensatory. As with earlier approaches, the compensatory nature can be an advantage or a disadvantage depending on the job situation and the concerns inherent in making poor selection decisions. The validity coefficient is an index of the strength of the relationship between a predictor and a criterion. For present purposes, we are interested in more than just relationship because the focus of selection is on prediction

Specific cognitive ability tests

Specific cognitive ability tests tests of specific cognitive abilities attempt to predict the likelihood that an individual will do well in a particular job given his or her specific abilities. E.G. tests of mechanical ability, a specific cognitive ability test, taps comprehension of mechanical relations, recognition of tools used for various purposes, and sometimes actual mechanical skills. The Bennett Mechanical Comprehension Test is probably the best known of this type. Sample items from the SRA (Science Research Associates) Test of Mechanical Concepts, another popular test are presented in Figure 6.3 A test of mechanical ability would be relevant for such jobs as machine operator, factory worker, and engineer, in which mechanical principles are important. Second specific cognitive ability test is Spatial Ability: plays an important role in many jobs. •Measures of spatial ability often deal with geometric relations, such as visualizing objects and rotating them spatially to form a particular pattern. Jobs for this which these types might be relevant include mechanic and architect Clerical ability: a third specific cognitive ability, is relevant for numerous important positions, such as secretary, administrative assistant, bookkeeper, and clerl. Most measures of clerical ability focus on both perceptual speed and accuracy in processing verbal and numerical data. The most frequently used test is probably the Minnesota Clerical Test, which was developed in 1933. The test compromises of 200 items, each of which consists of a pair of numbers or names; the responded is asked to place a check next to the pairs that are identical. The validity of measures of specific cognitive abilities tends to hover around .40 to .50 with some consistency across cultures. For instance, Salgado and colleagues (2003) found validity estimates for the European community to range from .35 to .56. Emotional intelligence: a newer and intriguing intelligence construct is emotional intelligence (EI). EI is the ability of individuals to generate, recognize, express, understand, and evaluate their own (and others') emotions, leading to effectiveness in the workplace and their own personal life. Some empirical research has indicated that EI may be an important predictor of performance at work. For instance, one study found significant correlations between EI and task performance (r=.47), altruistic citizenship behavior (r=.26), and compliance citizenship behavior (r-.21). An interesting study using undergraduate business students found that EI interacted with a conscientious personality to effectively predict college GPA, group performance, and public speaking effectiveness. The authors concluded that its not enough to be high on EI; you have to be motivated as well. This particular combination of ability and personality seems to predict performance well and, thus, suggests implications for organizations trying to select applicants who are likely to be effective employees. Recent work has also concluded that EI is a better predictor of social interactions with peers than general cognitive ability but general cognitive ability predicts academic performance best.

Informational justice

concerns explanations provided to people about decisions or outcomes that provide useful information

Practice and overlearning-Principles of Learning (chp 8, pg 251-252)

"Practice makes perfect" Although true perfection is rarely achieved, this phrase does suggest that practice is important in almost any learning situation. But "how" one practices-that is, the quality of the practice-also affects what one learns. This last point is an important one to make in a training context, as employees who either don't practice or practice in an inappropriate way do not learn very well. We all fall prey to some bad habits in our home lives as well as our work lives. Often those bad habits develop if we fail to practice good habits or continue to repeat a pattern of wrong behaviors. Bad habits-such as when UPS drivers lift heavy boxes using their backs, not their legs-can easily develop from faulty practice. Trainers must be aware of the practice sessions of trainees and make sure they are practicing appropriately because, although practice doesn't really make perfect, "perfect practice" is a near-guarantee of quality performance.

History of training and development in organization

1. Although a company may hire people who appear to be the most skilled and able of its applicants, they may still need job- or organization-specific training to do the job effectively For instance, Apple may hire the best and brightest graduates of computer programming departments worldwide, but if those new hires don't know the Apple infrastructure or computer networking system or aren't familiar with the culture, norms, and procedures that are part of the Apple way of doing business, they will not be effective performs until trained in those areas 2. Training is so important to organizations is that experienced employees must sometimes be retrained because of changes in job or orgranization This issue will continue to grow as continued advancements in technology change the nature of many jobs 3. Training is important for the continued development of employees. Experts believe that training programs can lead to increased organizational commitment and job satisfaction, resulting in increased productivity, decreased absenteeism, and less turnover

General cognitive ability tests (chp 6, pg 174)

General Cognitive Ability Tests General cognitive ability tests attempt to predict the likelihood that an individual will perform well in a particular job by measuring the individual's general capacity to learn, The Wonderlic Personnel Test has been one of the most frequently used measures of cognitive ability for many years.

Two types of structured interview formats that require discussion (chp 6, pg 192)

1. Situational interview focuses on future behavior Definition: An interviewing technique that relies on candidates sharing responses or intentions about job-related dilemmas or situations proposed to them with respect to the new job The job applicant is presented with dilemmas or situations that are embedded in a work context and asked how he or she would handle the situation. 2. Behavior description interview: an interviewing technique that relies on candidates sharing examples of past behaviors related to tasks required for the new job •focuses on past behavior-applicants are asked to describe specific ways in which they have addressed various situations in the past. Both situational and behavior description interviews are based on a job analysis, ask consistent questions of each candidate, and use a scoring guide to evaluate the applicant's performance on the interview. These features are positively related to the increased validity of the structured interview process. Early metal analysis found that interviews overall were predictive of job performance (r=.37) and, as expected, that structured interviews were more predictive (r=.44) than unstructured interviews (r=.33). These results suggested that interviews can be very useful in employee selection contexts and that practitioners should attempt to use structured rather than unstructured interviews when possible because they are better predictors of job performance criteria.

Work sample (chp 6, pg 183)

Although a cognitive ability test, a vision test, and a personality test may be useful predictors for the position of police officers, none of these tests actually measure on-the-job behaviors; rather, they are used as proxies or replacement for criteria because we don't have access to criteria at this stage in the selection process. To develop them, we create smaller standardized tests that measure the actual job performance criteria identified by the job analysis. When work samples are carefully developed, they demonstrate validities as high as the .50s. This means that an individual's performance on a work sample test is a very strong indicator of whether or not this person is likely to be promoted within the company. The results of these reviews make it clear that work sample tests are among the most valid predictors of criterion performance.

Antecedents of job satisfaction (chp 10, pg 320)

Antecedents of job satisfaction-the characteristics or factors that lead to job satisfaction 1. Job characteristics- the first category of antecedents consists of job characteristics, which include not only five core dimensions postulated by Richard Hackman and Greg Oldham's job characteristics theory but also workload The premise here is that one's satisfaction with a job is affected by the structure of the job and what it provides Figure 9.3 (pg 288) satisfaction is one of the hypothesized outcomes in job characteristics theory Research has demonstrated a consistent relationship between employees' perceptions of the characteristics of their job and their level of job satisfaction The more employees perceive that their jobs provide autonomy, task, identity, task variety, task significance, and job feedback, the more satisfied they report being with their jobs 2. Individual/Personal characteristics- A sizable body of research suggests that people have stable characteristics that predispose them to respond positively or negatively to job contexts In other words, some people tend to be satisfied with their jobs over the course of their careers Social Factors Other antecedents of job satisfaction can be considered social factors' these include interactional and relational variables at work For instance, employees' relationships with their supervisors and coworkers seem to be important indicators of whether these employees are satisfied with their jobs Growth opportunities: the employee's perception that there is potential to grow, advance, or be promoted within the organization The obvious antecedents here include whether someone is paid well, is provided excellent benefits, and is offered the opportunity for advancement . Each of these factors is related to job satisfaction.

Base rate (chp 7, pg 219)

Base rate definition: the percentage of current employees who are successful on the job The base rate reflects the percentage of current employees who are successful on the job. In part, this percentage reflects the quality of the previous selection battery (and, perhaps, is affected by other HR processes such as performance management and training) and provides a baseline against which the new selection battery can be compared Of course, the organization needs to set a cutoff on the criterion so that the base rate can be calculated In most colleges, for instance, a 2.0 GPA is thought of as the criterion cutoff, and the percentage of the current students who meet that cutoff is considered the base rate. Suppose that 30% of the current employees at CS&J perform at a level that CS&J has decided is acceptable The baseline would thus be 30% , and a new selection battery that resulted in an increase in this base rate would be an improvement over the old selection battery. Of course, if CS&J had a base rate of 90%, it is unlikely that we could develop a selection battery to improve on the current one, and the utility of our newly developed selection battery would be low.

Attitude, intentions

Because our goal is to understand human behavior, however, just knowing someone does what she intends to do is not that illuminating We need to be able to predict intention as well and this is where attitudes come into play The theory of planned behavior is useful here because it depicts the relationships among attitudes, intentions,and behaviors

Bandura's Social Learning Theory and its application to organizational training developed by Gary Latham and Lise Saari (1979) (chp 8, pg 266)

Because working well with others is so important for managers, developing interpersonal skills is of great interest to organizayions Based on Albert Bandura's (1986) work on social imitation, or social learning theory, behavioral modeling is one technique that seems well suited for improving interpersonal skills. The theory's main argument is that most social behavior is learned through observation An good example of the use of behavior modeling in organizational training is provided by Gary Latham and Lise Saari (1979), who developed nine training modules to train managers to interact effectively with their subordinates. The modules focus on, for example, socializing a new employee, motivating a poor employee, overcoming resistance to change, and dealing with a problem employee. The trainees met for two hours per week for nine weeks. The training format included: 1. an introduction to the topic 2. a film that demonstrated a manager modeling effective behaviors, which were highlighted in earlier and later films as well 3. a group discussion of the effectiveness of the model 4. practice in role-playing the desired behaviors in front of other trainees and the trainer 5. feedback from the training class regarding the effectiveness of each trainee's role-play Latham and Saari assigned half the supervisors to the training condition and hald to a control condition that did not involve the behavior modeling training (The later group did eventually receive training, but not until this segment of the study was completed). The training resulted in positive trainee reactions, better scores than the control group on a learning test given a few months after the training, and better on-the-job performance than the control group when measured one year later

Five broad dimensions that make up the Big Five Personality Model (chp 6, pg 180)

Big Five model: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism (OCEAN). The most used personality classification scheme by practitioners and researchers Much empirical research suggests that personality measures are valid predictors of job performance and organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs) Recent meta-analysis demonstrated stronger relationships between openness and and agreeableness and OCB than between openness and agreeableness and task performance. Meta-analyses estimates the size of validity coefficient of the relationship between personality and on-the-job performance (.23) to be significant Conscientiousness (being dependable and hardworking) and emotional stability (two dimensions received the most research attention) have been reported to be the best predictors of performance Another benefit of the Big Five model is that the factor structure and other relevant structural information as measured by the NEO Personality Inventory (Revised) hold up consistently across cultures. Some have argued that the five-factor model comprises dimensions that are too broad, adding that prediction will be improved to the extent that specific personality dimensions are used to predict targeted performance criteria such as effort and leadership, personal disclipline, and counterproductive behavior. For instance, a recent investigation demonstrated that those high on conscientiousness and low on agreeableness express greater intentions to be an entrepreneur and exhibit more success as an entrepreneur as predicted by theories outlined by authors. Again, it is strongly emphasized that no predictor works for all criteria and that job analysis has to allow for the appropriate match between predictor constructs and criterion constructs.

Equity Theory and concepts of distributive justice (chp 9, pg 292-293, 295

Brief Intro Cognitive Choice Theories Cognitive processed involved in decision making and choice are the focus of this next approach to motivation The assumption here is that people are neither passively driven by inner needs nor controlled by their environment. Rather, people are active decision makers who strive to be rational in choosing what to do, how much effort to exert, and so on. Two theories basedon this assumption are: Cognitive choice theories -Equity theory -Expectancy theory Equity theory In the early 1960s, J. Stacy adams proposed a model of motivation called equity theory that focus on social justice. According to this model, behavior is initiated, directed, and maintained by individuals trying to preserve some internal psychological balance. The idea behind equity theory is that people's perceptions and beliefs about the fairness of their treatment at work affect their motivation, attitudes, and behaviors. Equity theory is based on the notion that we compare the ratio of what we bring to a situation (i.e., inputs) and what we get out of it (i.e., outcomes) with what others bring to and get out of the same situation. Underlying these comparisons are four main postulates: 1. People strive to maintain a state of equity 2. When inequity is perceived, a state of tension results 3. When faced with this tension, people are motivated to reduce the tension 4. The greater the magnitude of the perceived inequity, the greater the motivation to act to reduce the tension. In an organizational setting, inputs can include abilities, effort, resources such as money or education level, and anything else employees possess that helps prepare them to do their jobs. Outcomes include wages, benefits, feelings of satisfaction, and anything else the employees receive as a result of their inputs Table 9.1 lists potential inputs and outcomes Inputs: education, effort, ability, skills, knowledge, experience, diversity, vision Outcomes: compensation, benefits, recognition, self-concept, experience, learning, opportunities, satisfaction Distributive justice: Adam's work on equity theory focused on fairness with respect to outcomes, which has become known as distributive justice.

Group tests (Definition and identification of testing format) (chp 6, pg 171)

Group tests: Tests in which many applicants can be tested at one time More frequently used in organizations are group tests For instance, it is typical for a police officer or firefighter promotion test to be given in a group context where all those who meet the requirements are given the test at the same time in the same location. These tests are more conductive to employee selection and, thus, more cost effective-especially in situations in which a company may have 50 or more applicants who need to be assessed for only a few job openings.

Consequences of job satisfaction (chp 10, pg 332-337)

Consequences-the outcomes or results of job satisfaction 1. Performance Satisfied worker may or may not be a productive worker-an outcome that depends on many other variables 2. Withdrawal behaviors The three most common withdrawal behaviors are absenteeism,tardiness, and turnover 3. Counterproductive work behaviors (CWBs) any behaviors that bring, or intended to bring, harm to an organization, its employees, or its stakeholders

Structured interview (chp 6, pg 191)

Consists of a series of standardized job analysis-based questions that are asked of all job candidates For instance, when interviewing someone for the job of camp counselor, an interviewer might use questions like "What is it about working with adolescents that attracts you?" "What kinds of nature experiences have you had that prepare you for this particular job?" "Which of your strengths match well with the social and physical requirements of this job?" Each candidate would be asked these questions in the same order, the responses would be noted by the interviewer, and the candidates would receive a score on the interview based on the responses. It is the score that would be used in the selection process. The key to a structured interview is that everyone is asked the same set of questions. This technique increases the reliability of the interview process and also allows for a fair comparison among the applicants.

Paper & Pencil Test (Definition and identification of testing format) (chp 6, pg 171)

Definition: Frequently used tests in which individuals respond to questions in a test booklet or mark answers on computer sheets to be scanned the ones we all most commonly experienced In such tests, we respond to questions in a test booklet or by marking computer sheets to be scanned. These questions can take several different forms, including essay, multiple choice, true-false, and short answer. Most cognitive ability tests are of this type Both the ACT and SAT are paper-and-pencil tests; so are most of your course examinations. However, computer technology has led to "paper-and-pencil" tests being available in computerized versions.

Performance Test (Definition and identification of testing format) (chp 6, pg 171)

Definition: tests that require the manipulation of an object or a pierce of equipment These tests include tests of manual dexterity or psychomotor skills Most of us would insist that our surgeons have a certain degree of manual dexterity with the instruments necessary for their surgical specialty This skill could not be evaluated with a paper-and-pencil test but, instead, would require some sort of performance test Similarly, manufacturing jobs and trades such as plumbing and electrical work often require manipulating of objects or pieces of equipment.

Continuous learning definition (chp 8, pg 249)

Directed and long-term effort to learn; stems from an intense desire to acquire knowledge and improve results and from participation in activities that facilitate learning

Equity theory example (chp 9, pg 293)

Example Bill is a market researcher for NBC and works with three other researchers who are at the same level in the organization Bill has a masters degree and five years of experience with NBC; he puts in overtime and believes that he works really hard and is quite competent. He makes 69k a year, but feels that he doesn't get many benefits, accolades for his hard work, or sufficient appreciation He notices that no one else has a masters degree and that no one else has more than three years of experience; however, all four market researchers make the same salary In this situation, Bill perceives inequity because when he compares his input/outcome ratio to that of his coworkers, the ratio's aren't equal He brings more to the job but gets no more than others In fact, this is a case of inequity, not because Bill gets less than he deserves; rather, inequity has resulted because, compared with what others have to offer, what Bill has to offer gets him relatively less than they get

Empirical support for Equity Theory and research regarding outcomes from perceptions of overpayment and underpayment (chapter 9, pg 294-295)

Empirical support for equity theory is generally mixed. Underpayment According to some studies, when people who are paid on the basis of how much they produce (i.e., piece-rate system) feel that their rate of pay is not enough, they tend to produce more but at a lower quality There is some evidence, not at a great deal, that when individuals believe their hourly pay rate is too low, they tend to reduce their inputs-for example, by reducing their effort The authors of a meta-analysis on pay satisfaction couched their study in terms of equity theory and discrepancies. They reported that people's level of satisfaction with their pay was determined by the difference between what they were paid and what they felt they should be paid Overpayment One problem with equity theory is its prediction that if individuals believe they are paid too much, they will change their inputs to make the situation more equitable. In other words, if you believe you are getting more and better outcomes from your job than those received by your coworkers, all of whom have the same inputs as you, you will be motivated to make this situation more fair either by working harder to "earn your extra outcomes" or by telling your boss that you are being paid too much for what you do. There is not much research to substantiate this prediction Have you worked with people who thought they were overpaid and offered to take a cut in pain? Such situations are rare, but studies have shown that inequity in either direction (i.e., getting too little or too much) can lead to burnout and negative organizational outcomes

Counterproductive Work Behaviors; pg 337

Employees engage in various activities that are detrimental to an organization, including antisocial behaviors, dysfunctional behaviors, and workplace deviance Counterproductive work behaviors (CWBS): any behaviors that bring, or are intended to bring, harm to an organization, it's employees, or its stakeholders Counterproductive behaviors include arson, blackmail, bribery, sabotage, theft, fraud, psychological withdrawal, interpersonal violence, and sometimes absence and lateness Frustration is the centerpiece in one model of antisocial behavior It argues that when an employee is frustrated and thus dissatisfied (i.e., when something interferes with his goals or objectives), his potential for antisocial behavior increases Recent work has shown that abusive behaviors are driven by anger, whereas withdrawal is more related to boredom and depression This work argues that there are some different patterns in antecedents for the various CWBs

Relationship between attitudes and behaviors (chp 9, pg 295)

Equity sensitivity: An individual difference indicating the extent to which people are affected by overreward or underreward situations Newer construct called equity sensitivity was developed to account for the notion that people differ in terms of their sensitivity to overreward or underreward situations This construct has been quite useful in predicting attitudes and behaviors as a function of various inequitable situations Depending on how employees score on equity sensitivity measures, they are classified as benevolents, who tend to be more tolerant of underreward inequity; As entitleds, who always want overreward or equity-sensitives, who truly desire the state of equity or balance Some research has shown a relationship between these categories and such factors as job satisfaction, effort, organizational commitment,and turnover An interesting study of employees who were completing their MBAs found that more OCBs were exhibited when perceptions of organizational justice were high In addition, benevolents performed more OCBs than entitleds regardless of their justice perceptions-this makes some sense as benevolents tend to be less responsibe to inequity This finding is consistent with entitled's focus on overreward: With low justice, there isn't much likelihood of overreward, so these individuals withold their OCBs (organizational citizenship behavior)

Leon Festinger and the theoretical contribution that preceded Equity Theory;

Equity theory stemmed in part from the earlier work of Leon Festinger, who developed the theory of cognitive dissonance-a theory that explains how and why we change our behaviors or beliefs to be consistent with other behaviors or beliefs.

Five broad dimensions that make up the Big Five Personality Model (pg. 179-182, chp 6)

Few items from the International Personality Item Pool Extraversion •Am the life of the party •Start conversations •Keep in the background (R)* Am quiet around strangers Agreeableness •Am interested in people •Take time out for others •Am not interested in other people's problems (R) Insult people (R) Conscientiousness •Am always prepared •Pay attention to details •Make a mess of things (R) •Shirk my duties (R) Neurotocism (Emotional stability) •Get stressed out easily •Work about things •Seldom feel blue (R) •Am relaxed most of the time (R) Openness (Intellect) •Am quick to understand things •Spend time reflecting on things •Am not interested in abstract ideas (R) •Do not have a good imagination (R) *R indicate that the item's score is reversed before it is used to compute one's total score

*Decision Accuracy for hires

First element we need to focus on is the accuracy of the selection decision-or, more specifically, the gain in accuracy that is provided by our new selection battery *whether the hired applicants succeed or fail

Relationship between attitudes and behaviors

In I/O Psychology, when we talk of attitudes, we are usually interested in the relationship between attitudes and intentions or behaviors In this context, an intention is one's tendency or proclivity to act Attitude: the degree of positive or negative feeling or belief a person has toward a particular person, place, or thing Humans have many work-related attitudes. These have to do with supervisors, coworkers, the job environment, the work that is done on the job, and even the amount of respect received on the job Why study job attitudes? it has long been assumed that job attitudes influence work behavior, which explains why managers and executives are so interested in them 2. for humanitarian reasons, improving employees' job attitudes is desirable goal in and of itself 3. studying job attitudes can help us understand the complexities of our work lives as well as of our nonwork lives For this reason and others, researchers and practitioners alike have been, and continue to be very, interested in job attitudes Before exploring specific job-related attitudes, a popularmodel of the attitude-behavior relationship should be examined- the theory of planned behavior

Core Job Dimensions that are strongly correlated with job satisfaction;

In building on Herzberg's earlier work and proposing their "their job chracteristics theory," Richard Hackman and Greg Oldham (1980) argued that motivation is determined by the joint effects of individual differences in personality and characteristics of job; they developed a model (figure 9.3) that explains how jobs influence attitudes and behaviors. Any job, can be described by five core dimensions: skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback. Jobs vary along these dimensions;some have more of one and less of another. These dimensions influence the three "critical psychological states" that are necessary for motivation

Knowledge of Results (K.O.R) also known as Feedback (chp 7, pg 252)

In training situations, it is imperative that participants be given timely and useful feedback about how they are performing. Feedback also called knowledge-of-results (KOR) Serves three purposes in a training context: (1) It provides information that allows trainees to make whatever adjustments may be necessary in their behaviors during training (2) It makes the learning process more interesting for the trainees and increases their motivation to learn (3) It leads to goal setting for improving performance

Individual test (Definition and identification of testing format) (chp 6, pg 171)

Individual and group tests Individual tests: tests that are administered to one person at a time Individual tests are administered to one person at a time and, thus, are very costly in terms of time and money. Though often used for upper-level managerial positions, these tests tend to be avoided at lower levels because of the costs involved. Intelligence tests such as those developed by Wechsler (WAIS-IV and WISC-IV are good examples of individually administered tests in which an examiner assesses one individual at a time) Individual tests may take as long as two or three hours to complete and often have to be administered and scored by someone trained specifically on the test in question.

Problems with Personality tests (chp 6, pg 179)

Individuals can potentially guess the responses that are likely to result in high scores-known as faking •For instance, most applicants would know how to answer the following question in such a way as to "look good" to the organization: "I often think of ways in which I can outsmart my supervisor- strongly agree or strongly disagree?" •It has been argued that the motivation to fake is influenced by the demographic characteristics (e.g. age, gender), individual differences (e.g. integrity, manipulativeness), and perceptual variables (e.g., perceptions of others' behavior and perceptions of organizational justice). •Recent work suggests that about one-third to one-half of applicants fake and that these fakers engage in more counterproductive behavior than nonfakers, have lower integrity and self-efficacy, and lower job performance. Some argue that faking reduces the validity of personality measures for selection by 25% and that selection decisions are seriously affected because faking substantially affects the rank order of candidates,which can lead to the wrong people being hired. On the other hand, another study showed that rejected applicants' scores on personality measure did not improve when they back 6 months later to reapply for the job. The reasoners reasoned that not being hired the first time would result in motivation to score higher on the personality test the second time, but did this not happen, and these authors argue from their data that faking is not a serious problem in real-world selection contexts. This conclusions can be too strong given other research and data, but it makes clear that we are still unsure of the role faking truly plays in the selection context.

Interviews and their criterion related validity and what advantages an interview might provide (chp 6, pg 191-193)

Interviews are among the most population selection devices and are typically used across all job levels. An interview can be defined as a procedure designed to predict future performance based on an applicant's oral responses to a series of oral questions. The rationale is that the person conducting the interview can gather information through such questions that will allow the organization to make accurate predictions of successful job performance. An early meta-analysis found that interviews overall were predictive of job performance (r=.37) and, as expected, that structured interviews were more predictive (r=.44) than unstructured interviews (r=.33) Since 1990, interview techniques have been refined (e.g., situational and behavior description interviewing) and more sophisticated meta-analytic techniques have been developed. Reviews using these techniques have reported much better validity for the structured employment interview (r=.71) and less validity for the unstructured interview (r=.20) Another study demonstrated that structured interviews predict performance over and above general cognitive ability and conscientiousness, thus indicating the incremental validity of the interview These results suggest that interviews can be very useful in employee selection contexts and that practitioners should attempt to use structured rather than unstructured interviews when possible because they are better predictors of job performance criteria

Core Self Evaluations, self-esteem and self-efficacy (chp 10, pg 324)

Job satisfaction Antecedents Some attention has been paid to the idea that individuals with high self-esteem tend to be satisfied with their jobs. In one study, researchers examined the role played by core self-evaluations in both job satisfaction and life satisfaction By "core self evaluations," the authors mean the fundamental evaluations we make about ourselves- a concept that includes self-esteem and generalized self-efficacy Their results strongly support the link between self-esteem (and other core self-evaluations) and both job and life satisfaction. The authors concluded that core evaluations of the self have consistent effects on job satisfaction regardless of the job In other words, how people view (or evaluate) themselves directly affects how they experience their jobs and their lives. In some research that combines individual differences with job characteristics, studies of students and employees found that individuals high on core self-evaluations tended to choose more complex tasks and were more satisfied with their jobs as a result. This research shows very nicely how the interplay of both individual differences and job characteristics likely impacts job satisfaction, and other outcome variables

United States Employment Legislation (prohibiting job discrimination)

LE 7.8 Majc Equal Pay Act Year 1963 Prohibits discrimination in pay and benefits on the basis of sex for jobs in the same establishment that require equal skill, effort, and responsibility and that are performed under similar working conditions. 1964 Civil Rights Act 1964 Makes it unlawful for an employer with 15 or more employees to discriminate against individuals with respect to hiring, compensation, terms, conditions, and privileges of employment on the basis of race, color, religion, national origin, or sex Executive Order 1965 Prohibits job discrimination by employers holding federal contracts or subcontracts on the basis of race, color, sex, national origin, or religion and requires affirmative action to ensure equality of opportunity in all aspects of employment. Age Discrimination 1967 Makes it unlawful for an employer with 20 or more employees to discriminate against individuals who are 40 years or older with respect to hiring, compensation, terms, conditions, and privileges of employment on the basis of age Americans with Disabilities Act 1967 Makes it unlawful for an employer with 15 or more employees to discriminate against qualified individuals with disabilities with respect to hiring, compensation, terms, conditions, and privileges of employment Civil Rights Act 1991 Amends the 1964 act and the ADA to allow compensatory and punitive damages but places caps on the amounts that can be awarded. Also provides for jury trials in suits brought under these laws. Family and Medical Leave Act 1993 Allows eligible employees to take job-protected, unpaid leave for up to a total of 12 weeks in any 12 months because of(1)the birth of a child and the need to care for a newborn, (2) the placement of a child with the employee for adoption, (3)the need to care for a family member with a serious health condition, or (4)the employees own serious health condition

The utility of validity (chp 7, pg 218)

Maximizing hits and correct rejections while minimizing misses and false alarms will occur to the extent that the selection battery is valid. Thus, the first first factor that affects utility of the selection battery is validity Figure 7.2 depicts the outcomes of a selection battery with a validity coefficient of about .70 (compare it with the middle panel of figure 2.8) Given this degree of validity, the small number of false alarms and misses is not surprising; the selection battery depicted here certainly maximizes the hits and correct rejections By contrast, figure 7.3 depicts the outcomes of a selection battery with zero validity, as represented by a circle (compare this figure with the left panel of figure 2.8) What makes the lack of validity obvious is the same number of hits, correct rejections, misses, and false alarms. In this case, individuals who score high on the battery of predictors are just as likely to be unsuccessful on the job as they are to be successful; those who score low on the battery of predictors are just as likely to be successful on the job as they are to be unsuccessful Thus, making a selection decision with a battery that demonstrates zero validity is akin to random hiring and clearly provides no utility to the company.

Five dimensions of job satisfaction that are measured by the Job Descriptive Index (JDI) (chp 10, pg 328)

Measurement and dimension One of the most frequently used and best-validated measures ofjob satisfaction is the Job Descriptive Index, or JDI Developed in the 1960s, it measures satisfaction among five dimensions (and an overall dimensions): •satisfaction with the type of work itself •satisfaction with pay •satisfaction with coworkers •satisfaction with promotion opportunities •satisfaction with supervisors Figure 10.2 presents sample items from each facet,along with a sample item from the overall dimensions (i.e., "Job in General") The scale is so well established that it is often used today to validate and develop other measures of job satisfaction

Multiple regression

Multiple regression, a statistical technique will allow us to estimate how well a series of predictors forecasts a performance criterion. 1. We use our validation data (lets assume a predictive validity design) to generate a regression equation. This is done by regressing the criterion performance of those applicants who were selected on their predictor scores (work sample, assessment center, and interview). equation is on pg 214 X is the individual's score on a specific predictor, each b is the weight for that particular score, Y is the criterion, and bo is the intercept (i.e., the point at which the regression line crosses the y-axis). Computing the regression equation with our validation data yields the following result: Ypredicted = 1.043 + 1.548 (work sample score) + .752 (assessment center score) + .320 (interview score) This equation indicates the best prediction scheme, based on our validation data, for forecasting any individual's criterion performance. In other words, we use the predictor and criterion data from our validation study to determine the best weights for each predictor in arriving at a predicted criterion score. 2. We apply the prediction scheme (i.e. the regression equation) to our applicant data to arrive at selection decisions. The predicted criterion scores are derived by plugging each individual's predictor score into the regression equation (as presented in the bottom of the table). Table shows that Tomlin is predicted to be the best performer. 3. Final step is to rank-order all the applicants according to predicted criterion scores and then to select from the top until all the open positions are filled Th regression equation creates the best combination of the tests for maximizing the prediction of the criterion. Based on these data, if CS&J had two open positions, we would make offers to Tomlin and Strokes because, based on our validation study, these two applicants are predicted to be the best performers.

The ABC Model (chp 9, pg 304)

OBM has been applied to organizations across the globe and typically focuses on the ABC model: A stand for the antecedents of behavior B stands for the behavior itself C stands for the consequences of the behavior It is important that the antecedents for desired behavior be in place within the organization For instance, employees must have the equipment and training to be able to do the job well. But the consequences are perhaps the most important part of this approach, as they are the rewards that follow the desired behaviors These can range from seemingly small rewards such as verbal recognition to large rewards such as salary bonus or additional vacation days

Expectancy (V.I.E.) Theory (chp 9, pg 296)

One of the most popular theories of work motivation is based on the work of Victor Vroom and stems from much earlier work of Edward Tolman. Vroom's expectancy theory includes a model termed Valence-instrumentality-expectancy (VIE) The major premise of this model is that people's behaviors result from conscious choices among alternatives and that these alternatives are evaluated with respect to valence, instrumentality, and expectancy It's basic assumption, to which its critics have objected, is that individuals are rational and make rational decisions

Organizational analysis (chp 8, pg 246)

Organizational analysis is conducted to determine the organization's short and long-term goals and then to compare those goals to the organization's accomplishments. In this way, the organization can identify which goals aren't being reached, as these areas likely to be targets for training. Example: I myself have done some training work with a manufacturing company whose organizational analysis indicated that the organization had not been able to achieve one of its important goals-to generate a "team-oriented" relationship among managers and subordinates. The organization believed that a stronger working relationship among supervisors and subordinates would improve productivity So Paul Levy targeted improvement in that area by developing and implementing a training program designed to improve communication among employees, thus creating a shared sense of the organization's purpose and mission Organizational analysis should also consider the culture of the organization Is it an organizational culture that sees training and development as important? If not, this suggests the need to overcome some potential obstacles to training, necessitating careful thought about how best to proceed.

Organizational justice (chp 9, pg 295, chp 10, pg 326)

Organizational justice: the study of people's perceptions of fairness in organizational contexts Equity theory has served as the foundation for one of the hottest topics in 21st-century organizations-organizational justice, the term used to refer to the role of fairness in the workplace The term was coined by Jerald Greenberg in the 1980s to describe individuals' interest in and concern with fairness-related activities that take place at work. Organizational justice is viewed as a class of motivated behaviors or attitudes that are engaged by different individual and contextual characteristics Justice perceptions result in both affective and cognitive responds that determine ensuing behaviors. chp 10 Organizational justice: the role of fairness in the workplace Studies have examined the role of this variable in determining employees' levels of job satisfaction and other work-related attitudes In a study that developed and validated a measure of just interpersonal treatment, justice was correlated with various job satisfaction measures even after controlling for affective disposition, indicating that justice is an important predictor of job satisfaction regardless of one's affective disposition.

Applied Behavior Analysis (chp 9, pg 304)

Organizations can impact the motivation of their employees Observational Behavior Management Behavioral science is a science that seeks to understand the behavior of individuals by analyzing environmental influences It has two main branches: experimental behavior analysis and applied behavioral analysis Applied behavioral analysis has emerged from the basic experimental scholarship and has had considerable success in helping psychologists understand behaviors of social or personal importance *Scientific discipline concerned with applying techniques based upon the principles of learning to change behavior of social significance. It is an applied form of behavior analysis; the other two forms are radical behaviorism and the experimental analysis of behavior. *Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) is a type of therapy that focuses on improving specific behaviors, such as social skills, communication, reading, and academics as well as adaptive learning skills, such as fine motor dexterity, hygiene, grooming, domestic capabilities, punctuality, and job competence.

Person-environment fit (chp 7, pg 203)

Other studies have demonstrated that organizational values affect recruits' attraction to the organization. Researchers have also shown that individual's aren't attracted to organizations just because of the job attributes (compensation, work environment, etc)' they also strongly consider their subjective evaluation of the organization (e.g. is it an innovative, cool, prestigious place to work?) These subjective evaluations appear to be more important. Research demonstrates the importance of perceived person-environment (PE) fit in recruiting. Individuals seem increasingly interested in jobs and organizations that seem well suited to them. The internet has added a new dimension to recruiting because it reaches an incredibly large audience-one that knows no geographic boundaries.' There have been two elements to this: 1. the general job boards such as monster.com, linkedin.com, and USAjobs.gov, which have board appeal 2. organizations' own employment websites, which focus on attracting recruits for their particular job openings. Some researchers have proposed a model suggesting that applicant attraction is a function of such variables as the aesthetics and usability of the organization's employment website, affective reactions to the website, perceptions of organizational image, and individual applicant differences. Pieces of this model have been tested, and some of the results suggest that, as predicted, a website's informational content, aesthetic quality, and usability all affect organizational attraction.

Situational judgment tests (SJTs) definition (chp 6, pg 184)

Paper-and-pencil test or video vignette that provides hypothetical scenarios for candidates to respond to by choosing the best alternative

Situational Judgment Tests (SJT's) (chp 6, pg 184)

Paper-and-pencil tests or video scenarios that measure applicants' judgement in work settings. For instance, applicants might be asked how they would handle a situation in which an employee seemed unable to understand how to solve a particular problem, and they would have to choose from the following response options: 1. continue explaining the problem to the employee 2.ask someone else to get involved and explain the problem to the employee 3. disclipline the employee for his or her deficiency 4. place the employee in a remedial training program Typically, one of these response options would be scored as the correct answer based on subject matter expert (SME) judgments regarding the best response. In one study, score on an SJT predicted both the task performance and contextual performance of 160 employees. Furthermore, SJTs demonstrated incremental validity over measures of personality, job experience, and cognitive ability. In a study over 1,700 medical school candidates in Belgium, researchers found an SJT to demonstrate incremental validity for predicting overall GPA beyond cognitive predictors The most recent meta-analysis published to date found that SJTs measuring teamwork skills and leadership had strong validities for predicting job performance. The researchers also found stronger validities for video-based SJTs than paper-and-pencil ones In an earlier meta-analysis, researchers found situational judgment tests that were developed on the basis of a job analysis to be more valid (r=.38) than were those not based on job analysis (r=.29)

Personality tests (chp 6, pg 179)

Personality tests have received a great deal of attention Personality measurement involves procedures that systematically assign numbers to such characteristics. The most typical measures are self-report questionnaires such as the NEO Personality Inventory, the Hogan Personality Inventory, and the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire. The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) and other measures have been used in employee selection even though scholars have criticized the use of measures for employee selection that were normed, like this one, on a clinical sample and developed for clinical purposes.

Power test (Definition and identification of testing format) (chp 6, pg 171)

Power test: A test with no fixed time limits and relatively difficult items Power test has no fixed time limit and tends to be more difficult Test takers are expected to be able to complete all the items on a power test, but not on a speed test. Most college exams are power tests; although the items are somewhat difficult, students are given what is believed to be enough time to complete them all. In our typing example, however, test takes are not expected to have time to type the entire written sample in the five minutes allowed

BioData Test (Definition and identification of testing format) (chp 6, pg 188, 189 table 6.3

Predictors There are two ways where biographical information is typically collected: application blank and biodata Biodata: Personal history information obtained through a biographical information blank (BIB) that asks respondents about their attitudes, hobbies, experiences, and so on. BIBS are different from applications banks in that: 1. They usually have a multiple choice, yes-no, or Likert-scale format (the last contains answers ranging from "strongly agree" to "strongly disagree"). 2. They ask questions in much broader areas, such as health, hobbies, family history, interests, and social experience 3. They contain more questions (up to 150) than do application blanks (10-15) Table 6.3 Presents some items for the job of customer service representative, a person who responds to service complaints or requests from customers over the phone. In the left column of the table are seven predictor dimensions; in the right column are biodata items related to each of those dimensions. Refer to table 6.3 Biodata items for the Position of Customer Service Representative In a real-life situations, of course,both the predictor dimensions and criterion dimensions would be developed on the basis of a job analysis. The premise here is that past behavior is a good predictor of future behavior. Thus, for instance, someone with a history of exhibiting patience in socially frustrating situations is likely to respond to patiently to customers who are yelling about the lack of quality service the have received from the company. Similarly, someone with a history of helping strangers is not only more likely to be satisfied with a customer service job but also more likely to perform better than someone who has never considered it important or rewarding to help others. In short, biodata items should predict on-the-job performance

Application Blank (chp 6, pg 188(

Predictors There are two ways where biographical information is typically collected: application blank and biodata The application blank is one of the most frequently and widely used selection devices Typically this form will request historical (as well as current) information such as educational background, work experience, experience relevant to the job in question, and the names and addresses of previous employers. Most of us have filled out such forms at one time or another Unfortunately, many companies spend little time developing their application blanks. Some even hand out generic ones, which are available at office supply stores if these are being used for selection purposes, all the same ethical and legal rules that apply elsewhere to personnel issues apply to the application blank as well Many companies get themselves into legal skirmishes by using off-the-shelf application blanks rather than developing their own or at least validating the off-the-shelf predictors For instance, some application blanks routinely include a blank for date of birth, but this information could be used to discriminate in hiring based on age.

Cognitive ability tests (sometimes called intelligence tests) (definition and two classes) (chp 6, pg 174-178)

Predictors •Many predictors are used for selection purposes The definitions and the two classes of cognitive ability tests (sometimes called intelligence tests); Tests of cognitive ability are among the most frequently used predictors in selection contexts (e.g. employee selection, college admissions) because of the common belief that mental functioning or intelligence is important for most jobs, as well as for success in school. •Type of predictor Two classes: general cognitive ability test, specific cognitive ability test

Psychomotor tests (pg 178-179 chp 6)

Psychomotor tests Psychomotors tests are often used in the selection of applicants for such positions: packer, machine operator, computer assembler, and electrician, which require great hand, arm, and finger dexterity, and air traffic controller, nuclear plant operator, and fighter pilot, require sensory abilities known as superior vision and hearing. Psychomotor: tests that measure both the speed and accuracy of motor and sensory coordination. Best-known tests of psychomotor ability is the Purdue Pegboard Purdue Pegboard: measures an individual's ability to make controlled movements with the hand, arms, and fingertips. Test takers are placed in front of a pegboard on a table and asked to manipulate pegs, washers, and collars in and around the pegboard.

procedural justice (chp 9, pg 295)

Recently, researchers and practitioners alike have become interested in procedural justice Procedural justice: the extent to which the procedures and processes used at work are perceived to be fair by employees An interesting pair of studies recently demonstrated that procedural justice affected task performance through intrinsic motivation Across two studies and varied measures, the researchers found that the use of fair decision-making procedures is one potentially useful way to improve both students' and employees' levels of intrinsic motivation and resulting performance.

Recruitment and selection landscape (chp 7 pg 203)

Recruitment definition: the process of encouraging potentially qualified applicants to seek employment with a particular company, This has often been an ignored of I/O Psychology, but it has widespread implications. We could have a large enough budget to make job offers to five lawyers just coming out of law school, but if the applicant pool is weak and the new lawyers are not qualified, selection doesn't really matter very much. Many organizations report that they have more challenges related to recruiting than to selection. There are many ways to entice individuals to apply for jobs. Traditionally, jobs have been advertised through college placement offices, newspaper advertisements, employee referrals, job fairs, and, recently, internet ads. Newer work in the recruiting area has begun to enhance our understanding of this process a great deal. For instance, research has shown that recruits use the organization's reputation as an indicator of what they expect their job to be like;this reputation also affects recruits' expectations about the pride they will experience working for a particular company.

Selection ratio in personnel selection batteries (chp 7, pg 219)

Selection ratio: the number of job openings divided by the number of applicants If CS&J had 20 open positions and 20 applications, the selection ratio would be 1.00, suggesting that the cost and effort involved in developing and implementing a selection battery are unnecessary because the company would have to hire all available applicants in order to fully staff its organization On the other hand, if CS&J has 5 open positions and 20 applicants, the selection ratio would be 25% (5/20)- a situation in which the selection battery could prove useful, especially if tough hiring decisions have to be made. Typically, the smaller the selection ratio, the greater the potential utility of the selection battery

Bandura's concept of self-efficacy expectations (chp 9, pg 300)

Self-efficacy expectations: individuals perceptions of their ability to successfully complete a task or attain a goal Bandura has argued that strengthening one's self-efficacy enhances motivation to attain a particular goal; other researchers view self-efficacy as being intimately related to the expectancy component of VIE theory. Indeed, people do tend to be more motivated to take on a particular task when they feel competent to do that task and expect that they can do it well Although self-efficacy is an individual-level construct, organizations can certainly play a role in developing employees' levels of self-efficacy. For instance, organizations can help an employee develop a health level of self-efficacy through training and feedback that is focused not just on weaknesses, but also on strengths, as suggested by positively psychology approach Bandura's social cognitive theory specifically views motivation as resulting from the joint influence of self-efficacy expectations and self-reactions to discrepancies between current performance and some standard or goal. Bandura and Locke argue that a strong belief in one's performance efficacy or ability is essential with plans and strategies for carrying out our intentions. As self-regulators, we adopt personal standards (i.e., goals) and monitor our actions by self-reactive influence

Mr. Warren story and the overjustification effect

Some researchers have reported that SDT is especially relevant in describing the motivation of older workers. The focus groups employed in this study reported that older workers tend to achieve when given more responsibility, more face time with their boss, and greater autonomy. Research in this area continues to examine when and how individuals become intrinsically motivated, as well as when providing external reinforcement reduces intrinsic motivation. This latter phenomenon is called the overjustification effect and is illustrated in the following story: story passage on pg 291 Although, this story certainly makes the point that extrinsic motivation can get in the way of, or reduce the effect of, intrinsic motivation (i.e., self-determination), extrinsic motivation doesn't always have this negative effect. *China study

Speed Test (Definition and identification of testing format) (chp 6, pg 170)

Speed test: a test containing relatively easy items with a short time limit in which individuals must complete as many items as they can Example: Typing test for a word-processing job Applicants are instructed to type as much of a writing sample as they can in five minutes, and they are scored on the basis of how much they finished and the number of errors they made

Psychomotor tests (more examples) (pg 178-179 chp 6)

The Project A study reported a validity of .53 for a psychomotor test battery predicting core job performance across nine jobs. John Hunter and Ronda Hunter also reported validities of psychomotor tests averaging about .40 across several jobs-a figure that varied according to the type of job. Combining these data, we find that psychomotor tests predict between 16% and 28% of the variance in job performance. Another example of psychomotor testing was a study that examined the incremental validity of a perceptual speed test over general cognitive ability in a sample of warehouse workers whose main job was the unloading of trucks and organizing of shipments. The perceptual speed test required individuals to identify names that exactly matched names they had seen earlier, much as they would when unpacking their shipments and organizing them by food item and restaurant name. Results showed that perceptual speed predicted warehouse performance above what was accounted for by general cognitive ability. Prediction improved by 15%. A Psychomotor test used for the wrong job would likely result in a validity of zero, as a result a careful job analysis is recommended here also. Perceptual speed test or the Purdue Pegboard would not likely predict the success of a waitress or an insurance sales agent. A more recent use of psychomotor tests is to examine employees as they work to make sure that they are able to work effectively and are not suffering from excessive fatigue. According to a paper by Caterpillar mining company, psychomotor vigilance tests that tap reaction times and hand-eye coordination in working employees are being used to ensure that the employees are not suffering from a level of fatigue that would render them unable to function safely.

Theory of Planned Behavior;

The Theory of Planned behavior was developed from an earlier model called the theory of reasoned action by Icek Ajzen and his colleagues It is a rational choice model much like expectancy theory and equity theory (chp 9) These researchers subscribe to the view that people consider the implications of their actions before deciding whether to engage in a particular bheavior From this perspective, the determinants of an action are one's intentions to perform the action Thus, predicting behaviors is not that difficult; if we want to predict whether an employee will work hard on a particular project, the most efficient approach is to ask her whether she intends to work hard. All else being equal, there should be a fairly strong relationship between her intention and her behavior

Grutter vs. Bollinger (2003)

The University of Michigan Law school was sued by a Caucasian female who also argued that she was denied admission due to racial preferences (Grutter v. Bollinger, 2003) The Supreme Court saw this case very differently and ruled for the university. 1. The opinion noted that diversity is a compelling interest for the law school. In other words, the Court said that diversity in graduate education, such as law school, can provide educational benefits to the entire student body and is important; it did not make the same statement regarding the undergraduate admission process (see Gratz v. Bollinger, 2003) 2. The Court noted that the law school system, which considered race as a "plus" in the admission process (and did not allocate a fixed number of points based on one's race) and which considered various elements of diversity on an individualized basis, did not make race the defining feature of its decisions.

Person-environment fit definition

The agreement or match between an individual's KSAOs and values and the demands of a job and characteristics of an organization

Cost and other considerations of using a selection battery (chp 7, pg 220)

The cost associated with the development and implementation of a selection battery certainly factors into its utility. Even assuming that our selection battery is valid and would improve the workforce dramatically, would CS&J be interested in it if the costs are so high as to be greater than the increased revenue received from hiring better employees? In a dollars-and-cents world, this is really the ultimate comparison in terms of utility for CS&J and thousands of other companies like it. Cost is important in another way, too Many organizations are willing to spend thousands and thousands of dollars on a selection battery because, in the long run, it will save them money. Organizations such as the military and the upper reaches of the federal government, where a great deal of money is invested in the selection and development of new employees, are willing to invest in selection For instance, because it is costly to train an astronaut, the false-alarm rate is very significant Think of it this way: For every new recruit who is selected to be an astronaut, million of dollars are invested; thus, a great deal of money would be wasted in the training of someone who fails. This is the reason NASA prefers to invest considerable money up front in the selection system.

Utility

The degree to which a selection battery is useful and cost efficient

Learning context and the definition of continuous learning (Chp 8, pg 249)

The learning context is very important to the success of any training program The context, which includes the principles of instructional design, basic principles of learning, and characteristics of the trainee and trainer, largely determines the success of training intervention In fact, there has been a great deal of focus on "learning organizations," companies in which there is an organization-wide concern with and valuing of knowledge acquisition and continuous learning. Continuous learning is more than just taking lots and lots of courses; it's about learning how to learn. The management guru and scholar Peter Senge (2006) has written extensively about continuous learning, noting that it's about having a personal vision, taking an active role in one's world of work, reflecting on one's experiences, being open to feedback, and making adjustments to how one approaches one's work. It is much easier for employees to embrace this attitude when they are working for an organization that promotes continuous learning

Major premise behind the use of biographical information for selection (chp 6, pg 189

The major premise behind the use of biographical information for selection is that past behavior is the best predictor of future behavior. Biographical information can be thought of as any information that is descriptive of any individual's personal history. The idea is that if I want to predict how you will respond in a certain situation, one of the best ways for me to do so is to find out how you responded in similar situations in the past. Those who work with biographical information often go one step further in considering any information about a person's history as potentially useful-even information about hobbies or other activities that are not directly related to the job In the selection context, biographical information is typically collected in one of two ways: through an application blank or biodata questionnaire.

Overall Job Satisfaction, its measurement and dimensions (Job Diagnostic Survey) (chp 10, pgs 327-331)

The measurement of job satisfaction needs to be considered in a from a multidimensional standpoint Traditionally, job satisfaction has been assessed at the global level with questionnaire items like "In general, I like my job" or at the facet level with items determining how satisfied employees are with their pay, supervisor, and so on. Both approaches seem reasonable, so the choice may depend on the organization's purpose It is argued that including measures at the facet level provides more fine-grained, specific, data that can be useful in diagnosing organizational problems and developing organizational interventions. A scale along similar lines was developed in connection with Job Diagnostic survey, or JDS, which measures job characteristics. This latter scale measures satisfaction as a function of pay, security, social factors, supervision, and growth There are many other measures of fact satisfaction, but JDI and JDAS are well known and psychometrically sound Overall, measures of job satisfaction are plentiful well. e.g. Both JDI and the JDS include a measure of overall job performance. figure 10.5 for JDI. Another large-scale approach to measuring job attitudes is related to L.H Lofquist and R.V Dawis's (1969) theory of work adjustment, which proposes that employee's seek to maintain correspondence with their environment. The idea here is that employees want their jobs to fulfill their needs and desires. The Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire, developed on the basis of this theory, totals 100 items that measure 20 different facets of satisfaction. However, a short form of the scale (with just 20 items) has also been used very successfully for measuring overall satisfaction. Three versions of the Faces Scale, which measures the affective component of job satisfaction rather than the cognitive component, (figure 10.6) have also been frequently used to measure overall satisfaction The Faces Scale can be used in many different situations because it is largely nonverbal and thus easier for verbally unskilled employees to complete it. It is easily adapted for measuring various facets of satisfaction as well.

Organizational Behavioral Management (OBM) (chp 9, pg 304, 305)

The organizational behavior management (OBM) approach to improving motivation and performance in organizations is one application area or approach within the broader domain of applied behavior analysis Organizational behavior management (OBM): the application of the principles of behavioral psychology to the study and control of individual and group behavior within organizational settings OBM has been applied to organizations across the globe OBM has been used extensively in organizations. E.g. area of safety improvement An injury prevention model was applied in a large industrial plant to reduce lost time due to injuries and to increase safety behaviors Three departments with the highest injury rates were identified; the number of employees totaled about 250. The researchers identified behavioral targets for each department and observed behaviors such as safe lifting of heavy materials, use of safety glasses and appropriate areas In addition, they recorded accident data, including medical visits and lost time due to injuries or accidents.

Interactional justice (chp 9, pg 295)

Third dimension of organizational justice has received considerable interest in the recent years- interactional justice interactional justice: the way in which decisions and procedures are communicated to employees

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs pg 284

Theoretical perspectives -Need-Motive-Value Theories Maslow's theory assumes that we are all aroused by biological and instinctive needs and that people behave as they do in order to satisfy those needs For example, an individual who is hungry is experiencing a hunger need; the behavioral pattern that follows that experience of hunger (which may include walking to the refrigerator and grabbing a snack) is exhibited to reduce or satisfy that hunger need. Hunger is one of the physiological needs at the bottom of Maslow's Hierarchy of needs Physiological needs: are those for food, shelter, and water-the basic needs for existence. Safety needs, one level up, are the needs to be free from threat and danger Then love needs (sometimes called social needs): has to do with out needs for affiliation, belonging, and friendship. The esteem need:, at the next level, are those for respect from others, self-confidence, and belief in oneself Self actualization: at the top of the hierarchy is the need for self-actualization, the need to fulfill one's potential Recent analysis of Maslow's later writings concludes that he actually considered a level above self-actualization called self-transcendence: focuses on causes beyond the self, such as social justice, art, and faith Maslow argued that humans are motivated first by lower-order needs and that when these needs are met, higher-order needs become more important as motivators of behavior. Thus, if someone is dying of hunger, the need for food will take precedence over all the other needs above it; but once this need is satisfied, the safety needs become more important, and then the love needs, and so forth up the hierarchy One organizational implication of this theory is that different employees are likely to be at different places in the hierarchy, such that no one thing can be assumed to motivate "all" employees For instance, one employee may be motivated to earn money that he needs right now to pay for his wife's cancer surgery, whereas a second employee may be focused on gaining the respect of her peers because she is at a different stage in her life. The second employee then would be motivated to behave in ways that result in her being respected and appreciated by her colleagues-she would be motivated by self esteem needs-whereas the first employee would be focused on physiological and safety needs. We can't see or touch them, or manipulate them, or measure them. This makes it very hard to empirically test whether needs are important causes of human behavior at work.

Alderfer's Existence, Relatedness, Growth (E.R.G.) Theory (chp 9, pg. 285-286)

Theoretical perspectives -Need-Motive-Value Theories Maslow's theory was rooted in his own clinical observations, Alderfer set out to empirically generate a theory of motivation that focused on the subjective states of need satisfaction and desire. He proposed that satisfaction is an internal state resulting from the attainment of one's goals. Desire is similar to such concepts as want or intensity of need strength. Alderfer developed three categories of needs 1. existence needs (analogous to Maslow's physiological and safety needs) (e.g. pay and fringe benefits) 2. Relatedness needs: (correspond to Maslow's love needs) focused on social relationships 3. Growth needs: (parallel to Maslow's esteem and self-actualization needs) the focus here is on interacting successfully with one's environment through exploration and mastery of it. One difference from the two theories is that ERG (existence-relatedness-growth) theory suggests that all three categories of needs can operate simultaneously rather than in the sequence suggested by Maslow. For instance, an employee can be motivated at the same time by existence, relatedness, and growth needs. A second difference is that Alderfer posited a frustration-regression hypothesis: which allows for situations in which an individual who is frustrated at a higher level of need then refocuses energy on satisfying a lower-level need. For instance, someone who is frustrated over not being able to satisfy her growth needs at work may take a step back and focus instead on continuing to satisfy her relatedness needs.

Frederick Hertzberg's Two-Factor Theory (chp 9, pg 284-285)

Theoretical perspectives -Need-Motive-Value Theories Two-factor theory suggests that "motivators"- like recognition, interesting work, responsibility, reinforcement for work well done, and potential advancement-are what lead employees to be satisfied with and motivated by their jobs. •Motivators have to do with job content: Their presence results in job satisfaction and motivation, but their absence results only in neutrality. Hygienes are related to job context. •Examples include supervision, salary, and working conditions. •The presence of hygienes results in only a minimal level of satisfaction or neutrality True job dissatisfaction results from not having hygienes: true satisfaction only results from having motivators. Figure 9.2 shows Herzberg's two-factory theory of needs maps onto the Maslow and Alderfer theories Motivators: self actualization, esteem, love Hygienes: safety, physiological? The implication from two factor theory: To ensure that your workforce will be satisfied and motivated to perform, it is not enough to provide for a reasonable context by altering working conditions and pay The content of job, such as interpersonal relationships and recognitions for one's contributions to the workplace, must be taken into account as well.

Need

Theoretical perspectives -Need-Motive-Value Theories Need: a force that organizes perceptions, beliefs, cognitions, and actions, giving rise to behaviors that reduce the force and bring about a steady rate Approaches to motivation from the need-motive-value perspective emphasize the role of personality traits, stable dispositions, needs,and values. In other words, individuals are motivated to perform a particular behavior as a result of these four factors The most frequently cited theories of work motivation in this category focus on need. There are four need-motive-value theories of work motivation: Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, Alderfer's ERG theory, Herzberg's Two-Factory Theory, and Job Characteristics theory

Interpersonal justice (chp 9, pg 295)

This dimension focuses more on the extent to which individuals are provided information about the rationale and purpose of organizational decisions This dimension has been further divided by some scholars and researchers into interpersonal and informational subdimensions Interpersonal justice: the extent to which people are treated with respect and politeness by supervisors or others

Principles in delivering feedback (three important) (chp 7, pg 252)

Three important principles regarding how feedback is best delivered to individuals: (1) Feedback works best when it is given immediately following the individual's behavior (2) Immediate and frequent feedback tends to result in the best performance (3) Both positive and negative feedback have value when delivered in a sensitive yet clear manner

Recent supreme courting rulings (chp 7, pg. 227-231)

Three post-Grutter lawsuits are worth noting here 1. Petit v. City of Chicago (2003) the Seventh Circuit Court ruled that there is an even more compelling need for diversity in a large metropolitan police force charged with protecting a racially diverse and divided population than there is in a university Furthermore, it included that the city demonstrated this compelling need and met the Grutter standard 2. Parents v. Seattle School District, the issue was about admission and transfer into elementary and high schools in Seattle, Washington Few things emerged The Supreme court was split down the middle on the legality of comparing the race of a student to the racial composition of the school in relating to the racial composition of the entire district The court also ruled that diversity is a compelling government interest, similar to the earlier Grutter ruling regarding school admissions Finally, any plan that is based on race alone and does not consider individual evaluations of the students will remain illegal, similar to the ruling in Gratz 3. Fisher v. University of Texas at Austin, in which Abigail Fisher sued the university, claiming that she was rejected for admission due to an unconstitutional affirmative action policy The court again supported narrowly tailored AAPs and argued that there is a compelling government interest in achieving diversity in the undergraduate programs at the University of Texas ALthough Fisher appealed to the Supreme Court in 2013, it ruled that the lower courts needed to revisit the case because they didn't follow procedures as they should have The appeals court then ruled that the affirmative action policy was a holistic, narrowly tailored plan, and therefore rejected Fisher's arguments Fisher appealed once more to the Supreme Court and that court heard the case once again in December 2015 At the time of publication the court had not yet decided the case, however there should be a "final" ruling by the time you read the chapter. Although it appears that the courts are recognizing diversity as a compelling government interest and are somewhat open to AAPs that seem focused on meeting the goals of this compelling interest, the Fisher v. Texas decision may have a great deal to say about the use of affirmative action in universities going forward

Computer-Aided Instruction (C.A.I.) (chp 8, pg 257-258)

Training Delivery -General Approaches •Lecturing, On-the-job training, Self-directed Techniques Self-directed techniques A self-directed technique Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) stems largely from the PI approach just discussed, but with one difference: Trainees interact with a computer. Custom-designed software, similar to computer-based testing you have encountered in an educational setting, presents training information, asks questions to determine what trainees have learned or not learned, and monitors and captures trainee performance. Both information and questions can be presented on the basis on the basis of the trainees' responses to previous questions-this is very similar to computer adaptive testing in chp6 Thus, fast learners can move through the training program quickly, and slower learners can move at a more deliberate rate with additional practice and tests as needed Although this individualized approach to training has great potential, careful evaluations of it are lacking

Programmed instruction (chp 8, pg 257)

Training Delivery -General Approaches •Lecturing, On-the-job training, Self-directed Techniques Self-directed techniques Self-instructional techniques allow trainees to work at their own pace and to remedy identified weaknesses. Programmed Instruction (PI) is the most establishing of this training type, it presents information to the learner while using learning principles to reward and motivation Steps in programmed instructions 1. Present material broken down into small elements 2. These elements are arranged in a logical sequence from simple to complex 3. Following completion of each element, a short test is administered to see if the learners have mastered the material at some criterion level 4. The learners are given immediate feedback (KOR) If they answer questions correctly, they are asked to move on to the next stage of the PI. If they answer questions incorrectly, they are given additional information to think about and then asked to revisit those questions until a performance criterion is met

Transfer of training, its goals and results (chp 8, pg 254-255)

Transfer of training is the extent to which the material,skills, or procedures learned in training are taken back to the job and used by the employee in some regular fashion. From the organization's perspective, this principle is integral to the success of the training program. This is the reason that training experts and organizations alike are always concerned about transfer of training Positive transfer is the organization's goal-the hope is that what is learned in the training program will improve performance back on the job Negative transfer is when performance declines as a result of training Irwin Goldstein and Kevin Ford's (2002) classic text on training provides a summary of the literature in this area, as well as some guidelines on how to increase the likelihood of positive transfer 1. Trainers should maximize the similarity between the training situation and the job situation 2. Providing employees with an adequate amount of active practice is essential for positive transfer 3. Trainers should provide different contexts in which employees can practice the desired behaviors. 4. The trainers, trainees, and the manager should work together throughout this entire process 5. Expectations for the trainers, trainees, and manager should be made clear up front 6. Trainers need to provide on-the-job maintenance programs that are focused on helping employees continue their learned behaviors-a maintenance program may be a "refresher course" on how to use the hospital's updated medical software

Gratz vs. Bollinger (2003)

Two court cases have began to play a central role in how AAPs are viewed and implemented by organizations. However, both of these cases are about college admissions; thus, it is still unclear to what extent these rulings will affect traditional organizational AAPs. The University of Michigan was sued by two Caucasian applicants who argued that they were denied admission to the College of Literature, Science, and the Arts, because, even though they were both qualified, preference was shown to candidates who were classified as "underrepresented minorities" (Gratz v. Bollinger, 2003). The Supreme Court ruled for the plaintiffs, citing an admission policy that automatically distributed 20 points (one-fifth of the points needed to guarantee admission) to every underrepresented minority as too global in form. Ignoring individual differences and qualifications among these minority applicants seemed to go against the purpose inherent in diversity initiatives, which is to consider all that individuals bring to the situation and to choose those who are likely to diversify the educational environment.

Unstructured interviews (chp 6, pg 191)

Unstructured interview: more traditional, constructed haphazardly, with no consistency of questioning across applicants. One candidate may be asked what his particular strengths are and why he is interested in the job, while a second candidate may be asked what her particular weaknesses are and whether she's had any experiences that are especially relevant for the job. It is considered a less useful technique than the structured interview approach.

Usefulness of Selection Processes (Utility)

Usefulness of selection processes Is it worth it? The executives at CS&J aren't satisfied with knowing that we have developed a valid selection system for them; they also want to know how much better it is than their current system and how expensive (in time and dollars) it will be to switch to and use this new system. These questions all deal with the utility of the selection battery-that is, with how useful and cost efficient it is.

Valence definition (chp 9, pg 297)

Valence: literally means "value," is the expected level of satisfaction to be derived from some outcome. An outcome is positively value if an individual expects to be satisfied by obtaining it As Vroom noted, an outcome is more likely to be valued if other positive outcomes are likely to stem from it If one outcome is instrumental for other outcomes, that first outcome is likely to be positively valued E.g. In school example, getting an A on the test may be valued in and of itself because it makes a student feel as though she has accomplished something important. In addition, if getting an A on the test is likely to lead to an A for the course (instrumentality), and if getting an A for the course is important to her (value), then getting an A on the test is positively valued as well The computer programmer may value a positive performance review because it makes him feel that he is doing a good job In addition, he is likely to value a positive performance review if he believes that the review will result in a large pay raise (instrumentality) and if the pay raise is important to him (value)

Usefulness of Selection Processed

Various elements of the selection process that allow us to answer these questions for the organization Decision accuracy, validity, base rate, selection ratio, cost, putting it all together

Expectancy definition

We know that rational decision making doesn't always occur, but it certainly does some of the time Expectancy: an individual's belief about the likelihood of achieving a desired performance level when exerting a certain amount of errfot E.g. from Fig 9.4 A student might ask how likely it is that studying three hours for a test will result in getting an A on the test, whereas a computer programmer might ask how likely it is that working 60 hours a week for the next three months will result in performance that is good enough to receive a favorable performance review. Expectancy is sometimes referred to as the effort-performance link-a link that should be clear from these two examples

Work sample definiton (chp 6, pg 183)

Work sample tests take a very different approach; instead of measuring constructs that hope will predict performance criterion, work sample tests attempt to duplicate the performance criterion measures and use them as predictors, thus forming miniature replicas of the job.

Affirmative Aciton

a practice employed in many organizations to increase the number of minorities or protected class members (i.e., African Americans, Asian Americans, Hispanic Americans, Native Americans, and women) in targeted jobs

Selection battery

a set of predictors, or tests, that are used to make employee hiring decisions

Multiple regression definition

a statistical technique that, when used in the selection context, allows us to estimate how well a series of predictors forecasts a performance criterion

Perceived behavioral control

definition: an individual's belief about how easy or difficult performance of a behavior is likely to be Although an individual may be favorably disposed to a particular act and perceive the social norms as being in favor of the act, she may not perceive that she has any control over performance of the act For instance, a factory worker may recognize the norm is to produce 200 units of product per eight-hour shift; she may also want to achieve this level of performance. But, if she believes that this action is out of her control because of equipment breakdown, this perceived behavioral control should be considered when predicting her behavior. In effect, she won't produce 200 units because of lack of control.

subjective form

definition: an individuals perception of the social pressures to perform or not perform a particular behavior The theory of planned behavior maintains that a person's intention to act is a function of both the subjective norm for that act and his attitude toward that act E.g. he will attend to meet his deadline if meeting deadlines is the norm at his office and if he has a positive attitude about meeting deadlines This theory also maintains that his intention to meet the deadline is the best predictor of whether his actions will result in him actually meeting the deadline

Training

definition: the formal procedures that a company utilizes to facilitate learning so that the resultant behavior contributes to the attainment of the company's goals and objectives

Age discrimination act (chp 7, pg 229, 235-236)

pg 229 The Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADA) 1990 Makes it unlawful for an employer with 15 or more employees to discriminate against qualified individuals with disabilities with respect to hiring, compensation, terms, conditions, and privileges of employment Individuals who are 40 years of age or over are protected from discrimination by the Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA, signed into law by President Lyndon Johnson on December 15, 1967) According to the ADEA, it is unlawful to discriminate against a person who is 40 or older because of his or her age with respect to any employment-related decision. In addition, it is illegal to indicate any age preferences or limitations in job ads or notices. Exceptions are possible, but only when the company can demonstrate that age is BFOQ necessary to the conduct of its business. Cleverly v. Western Electric (1979) is a classic example of a typical ADEA case. Cleverly, an engineer, was fired six months before his pension benefits were to become fully vested-despite many years of distinguished service. In any ADEA case, plaintiffs must demonstrate that they (1) are members of a protected class (i.e., 40 or over), (2) were doing satisfactory work, (3) were discharged despite satisfactory work, and (4) were replaced by younger persons. Cleverly was able to meet each of these requirements and was awarded back pay. (Western Electric had even made direct statements to him indicating that he was being let go to make way for young engineers)

Overlearning (chp 8, pg 252)

the process of giving trainees continued practice even after they have appeared to master the behavior, resulting in high levels of learning You may think this is a waste of time, but, in fact, practicing something so much as to overlearn it increases the likelihood that one will be able to exhibit the behavior quickly, easily, and consistently when called on to do so. Thinking back to the subject of bad habits. If I stop practicing the use of my turn signal when I drive, eventually I won't be using it at all. However, if I have overlearned this behavior to the point where it becomes second nature to me, I',m likely to use that turn signal forever. The same principle holds true in the workplace. If a secretary is trained to save his document after every page is typed, actually doing so during the training sessions themselves, he is likely to practice because the behavior is overlearned. ER physicians must be trained in such a way that they overlearn certain behaviors because, given the stress and severity of the situations they find themselves in, thesebheaviors have to be second nature. Family member rushed to the ER because cannot breath, no one wants the ER physcian to think through the steps involved in intubating him, these behaviors must be so overlearned that they happen automatically.

Test-retest reliability (chp 2, pg 51)

the stability of a test over time; often called a coefficient of stability To demonstrate a test-retest reliability, we might give our mechanical comprehension test to a group of participants and then administer the same test to the same group six weeks later. Assuming that the participants did not somehow improve their mechanical comprehension in the interim (e.g., by taking a training course or gaining additional job experience), their scores at the first test administration should be about the same as their scores at the second administration. Scores that varied, however, would reflect measurement error indicating that our measure was not perfectly reliable. Virtually no measure we would use in I/O Psychology is perfectly reliable.

What Hunter & Hunter (1984) found from a meta-analysis of various studies pg 174, 184, 191, 192, pg 195 there is a bunch on table 6.5,

•The wonderlic Personnel Test has been one of the most frequently used measures of cognitive ability for many years. It's even used (with some controversy) to assess the cognitive ability of professional athletes (NFL, NBA players) and to attempt to predict how these athletes will perform on and off the field. Figure 6.2 presents a few examples of items similar to those found on the Wonderlic test (as well as other tests of general cognitive ability). •A debate over the importance of general cognitive ability in employee selection contexts continues to rage. Their's a fair amount of evidence suggesting that general cognitive ability accounts for a large proportion of variance in criterion performance. For instance, a meta-analysis of various studies in this area indicates that the validity coefficient for measures of general cognitive ability is .53. This means that over 25% of the performance variance in people (i.e., the differences in performance across people) is accounted for or can be predicted by measures of cognitive ability (.53 squared equals .25->25%) General cognitive ability predicts performance similarly across countries such as the United Kingdom, and in general, the European community, where the validity has been estimated at .62. Notice, however, that if 25% (.53 SQUARED) or 36% (.62 squared) of the criterion variance is accounted for by this measure, 75% or 64% is left unaccounted for. It is reasonable to ask if we can do better? Researchers are continually working to determine what other predictors might help account for a greater percentage of the criterion variance, or what is called incremental validity. A recent-meta analysis used more sophisticated statistical techniques to support our knowledge that general cognitive ability accounts for up to 25% of the variance in performance. This study also found that general cognitive ability wasn't always the most important predictor and that specific cognitive ability sometimes plays a more important role in predicting performance.

Integrity tests (two types, sometimes called honesty tests): (chp 6 182-183)

•Type of predictor Among the newest tests used in employee selection are integrity tests (also called honesty tests), which attempt to predict whether an employee will engage in counterproductive or dishonest work-related behaviors such as cheating, stealing, or sabotage. Overt integrity tests: might ask respondents to report how often they have stolen from previous employees, whether they believe that lying is okay if one doesn't get caught, and the extent to which they perceive theft to be easy. The personality-type integrity test: measurers personality characteristics believed to predict counterproductive behaviors (e.g., risk taking, emotional instability, dishonesty, and irresponsibility). The purpose of these tests is more hidden from respondents than is that of overt tests. One investigation found that test takes perceived overt integrity tests to have greater face validity (i.e., they appear more believable and useful) and predictive validity than do personality-type integrity tests. Some recent work has aimed at reducing the concerns that some have about self-report nature of overt integrant tests by developing conditional reasoning tests designed to implicitly measure the extent to which one rationalizes or justifies counterproductive behaviors or other low-integrity behaviors. This research has potential but is still in the very early stages.