Psy 4220 test 3 study guide

3. Conclusion

Reached at the end of something, usually like a research paper, or the result of a study . . . (I have NO clue what she is looking for here)

2. Conjunction fallacy

Reasoning that a conjunction is more likely then either premise alone. Simple terms: you think that two options are more likely than just one of the options. (slides, reasoning) 3. Consequent (affirming or denying)

Area under the Curve (and why it is used!)

Area under the curve is used by basically averaging out the indifference points, making it standardized, so that every person gets a score from 0 to 1. Smaller areas under the curve reflect greater discounting by delay and impulsivity.

5. Framing effect

Aspects of how a decision is phrased that are, in fact, irrelevant to the decision but that influence people's choices nonetheless. Layman terms it is the effect that how you spin something will effect peoples choices. Lecture notes: How you ask a question will affect the answer.

1. Chinese room argument

Study done by Searle, Main goal of the argument: Can computers "think"? Conclusion: 1. syntax does NOT equal semantics 2. performance does NOT equal awareness. In simple terms, computers can't think, they just simulate intelligence, but are NOT intelligence.

3. Sensorimotor

The first stage in Piagets cognitive development theory. Birth to 2 years old, and is the stage where infants learn to modify reflexes, integrate actions, learn about object permanence, making an A not B error and imitation of others.

Formal Operational Stage (12 and onward) -

Adolescents and adults think about abstractions and hypothetical concepts and reason analytically, not just emotionally. They can be logical about things they have never experienced. Gains: Ethics, politics, and social and moral issues become fascinating as adolescents and adults take a broader and more theoretical approach to experience. Hypothetical Thinking, Systematic Reasoning (Scientific method)

N400

Time-based marker that reflects postlexical processes involved in lexical integration of words in a sentence. If a word is used in a strange context, experiences negative spike (up) . If word appears on page differently, creates positive spike (down).

Denying

To argue validly that, given that if p then q and given not-q, we can infer not-p. 'If the leg is broken this will hurt, it does not hurt, so the leg is not broken.'

Grammatical errors

A P600 may be elicited by several kinds of grammatical errors in sentences, such as problems in agreement, such as "the child *throw the toy".[4] In addition to this sort of subject-verb disagreement, P600s have also been elicited by disagreements in tense, gender, number, and case, as well as phrase structure violations

6. Pragmatic reasoning schemas

A collection of rules, derived from ordinary practical experience, that defines what inferences are appropriate in a specific situation. These reasoning schemata are usually defined in terms of a goal or theme, and so one schema defines the rules appropriate for reasoning about situations involving permission, whereas a different schema defines the rules appropriate for thinking about situations involving cause and effect relations.

5. Stereotype threat

A disruptive concern, when facing a negative stereotype, with the fear that the individual will be evaluated based on the stereotype vs their actual performance.

4. Perseveration

A pattern of responding in which one produces the same response over and over, even though one knows that the task requires a change in response. This pattern is often observed in patients with brain damage in the frontal lobe.

7. Premises

A proposition that is assumed to be true in a logic problem- the problem asks what conclusion follows from its premises.

1. Neuronal workspace hypothesis

A specific claim about how the brain makes conscious experience possible- the proposal is that workspace neurons link together the activity of various specialized brain areas, and this linkage makes possible integration and comparison of different types of information.

10. Representativeness heuristic

A strategy often used in making judgments about categories. This strategy is broadly equivalent to making the assumption that, in general, the instances of a category will resemble the prototype for that category and, likewise, that the prototype resembles each instance.

7. Heuristics

A strategy that is reasonably efficient and works most of the time. In using a heuristic, one is in effect choosing to accept some risk of error in order to gain efficiency.

7. Syllogisms

A type of logical argument that begins with two assertions each containing a specific statement about the problem (for example 'All plumbers are mortal' and 'All sadists are plumbers'), then both statements are put together to form a conclusion statement like 'All sadists are plumbers' in this example its an invalid syllogism. A valid syllogism would be 'All M are B, All D are M therefore All D are B' If the two premises are true then the conclusion must also be true.

A typical experiment

A typical experiment that demonstrates the N400 might be set up as follows: ▪ The subject is presented a sentence either visually (one printed word at a time at the center of the screen), or auditorily, as a spoken sentence. ▪ Some sentences will be semantically unmarked, e.g., "I enjoy walking in the evenings" (a control condition). ▪ Some sentences will have unexpected or deviant ends, e.g., "I like my coffee with cream and dog". ▪ By recording the subject's neural activity using an Electroencephalogram and comparing the effects between the expectable and the unexpected words, the N400 can be measured. It will be seen as a wave-effect on the EEG curve peaking approximately 400ms after the unexpected stimulus.

1. Conditional reasoning

AKA conditional syllogisms? Modus Ponens - if P is true, then Q is true P is true therefore, Q must be true. Modus Tollens - if P is true, then Q is true Q is false Therefore, P must be false.

2. Define the utility approach to decisions. Explain how well people use utility in making decisions.

Also known as Decision Analysis (DA). It is the discipline comprising the philosophy, theory, methodology, and professional practice necessary to address important decisions in a formal manner. Decision analysis includes many procedures, methods, and tools for identifying, clearly representing, and formally assessing the important aspects of a decision situation, for prescribing the recommended course of action by applying the maximum expected utility action axiom to a well-formed representation of the decision, and for translating the formal representation of a decision and its corresponding recommendation into insight for the decision maker and other stakeholders. It is all about making the decision that is right for the individual, it varies for each individual as well as for each scenario.

4. Soundness

An argument is considered 'sound' when all components of the argument are true. The argument has to be valid and the premises have to be true. Exp "All men are mortal" and "Socrates is a man" = Therefore "Socrates is moral" this is a sound argument.

2. Mental model

An internal representation in which an abstract description is translated into a relatively concrete representation, with that representation serving to illustrate how that abstract state of affairs might be realized. Mental imagery involve motion, mental pictures don't.

6. Subliminal prime

Any sensory stimuli that is below the individuals threshold for conscious perception, a prime that is unconsciously processed. An image quick flashed on a screen so that individual unconscious processes it, but the conscious mind doesn't see it.

Drug abuse and delay discounting

Being able to determine short-term effects on delay discounting is important in defining the specific time course of drug or withdrawal effects on rate of discounting

8. Neural correlates

Changes in the brain when someone becomes conscious of a stimulus. An event in the nervous system that occurs at the same time as and may be the biological basis of a specific mental event or state.

Describe the four stages of cognitive development proposed by Jean Piaget who assumed :

Children construct their own knowledge in response to their experiences. Children learn many things on their own without the intervention or older children or adults. Children are intrinsically motivated to learn and do not need rewards from adults to motivate learning.

Preoperational Stage (2-7 years)

Children think magically and poetically, using language to understand the world. Thinking is egocentric, causing children to perceive the world from their own perspective. Gains: The imagination flourishes, and language becomes a significant means of self-expression and of influence from others. Symbolic Representation, Centration or how kids focus (center) on one idea, excluding all others.

Concrete Operational Stage (7-12 years)

Children understand and apply logical operations, or principles, to interpret experiences objectively and rationally. Their thinking is limited to what they can personally see, hear, touch, and experience. Gains: By applying logical abilities, children learn to understand concepts of conservation, number, classification, and many other scientific ideas Conservation

9. Reasoning

Cognitive process of looking for reasons, beliefs, conclusions, actions or feelings. Psychologists and cognitive scientists, in contrast, tend to study how people reason, which cognitive and neural processes are engaged, how cultural factors affect the inferences people draw.

1. Confirmation bias

Confirmation bias (or myside bias ) is a tendency for people to confirm their preconceptions or hypotheses, independently of whether or not they are true. Study done by Watson (pg 438-439) Participants had to find the pattern between the numbers 2, 4, 6, difficulty discovering the rule, they all sought to confirm the rules they had proposed: requests for disconfirmation were rare. basically people want their way to be right and because of that they couldn't find out what the real rule was.

10. Implicit decision making

Decision based on internal reasons. Example: The one she gave in class was how humans will look at a picture of a pretty person even if presented with another picture of a square that has a higher reward ratio compared to the pretty person picture

utility theory

Decisions theory that forces decision maker to clearly define his/her goal, to enumerate the expected consequences or possible outcomes of the decision, and to attach differing utilities/values to each.

Know why psychologists might think delay discounting and how it relates to maladaptive behaviors is important, and why is it important?

Delay discounting broadly refers to observations that outcomes decrease in value, or their effectiveness to control behavior, when delayed. Accordingly, if given a choice, more-valuable delayed outcomes are often not chosen over less-valuable, nondelayed options. Delay discounting refers to observations that consequences, or outcomes, decrease in value as a function of delay. That is, consequences become increasingly ineffective in controlling behavior when delayed. The Hyperbolic Delay-Discounting Model (see Fig. 1) is often used to portray this phenomenon (e.g. Rachlin, 2000). Hyperbolic delay discounting is defined by an attenuation in rate of devaluation with increasing delay: value is discounted most precipitously over relatively short delays but moderates as delay length increases (e.g. Kirby, 1997).

Know why psychologists might think delay discounting and how it relates to maladaptive behaviors is important, and why is it important? cont.

Delayed Discounting is important to psycholigists and maladaptive behavior because it helps and relates to addictions, extinquishing/molding behaviors and goal setting. Where is the trade off between the reward, time line and the addiction. For addictions, extinquishing/molding behaviors and goal setting there is a defenite curve that varies with what the reward is, the persons motivation to achieve that reward and how addictive they are to the behavior and/or substance. For example, at the pornography support group that I volunter at, they get pizza when the group acheives a certain level. When they have suceeded for 6 and 8 straight weeks they get rewards and at 12 weeks they "graduate". But they all have their own rewards and goals. One person set the goal of a video game for achieving 6 months clean and a motivational tatoo for 1 yr. With kids it could be a treat, a movie, a book, McDonalds, etc. just like the marshmellow experiments with the kids. One marshmellow now or two later. So it can help psychologists, parents, managers, etc. on how to mold behaviors or help clients overcome addictions or negative habits. It is also successful because it focuses on, acknowledges and rewards positive behavior instead of focus on and punishing for negative behavior.

Piaget

Development; Concepts: Object permanence, perception of reality by children, development of cognition; Study Basics: "The development of object concept: The construction of reality in the child."

1. Deductive reasoning

Drawing specific conclusions from general principles.

How individuals with substance abuse problems discount outcomes relative to non addicted controls.

First, with one or two exceptions (e.g. Kirby and Petry, 2004), addicted participants discounted more by delay on a variety of measures than comparable, nonaddicted controls. The robustness of this finding should leave no doubt regarding the association between high rates of delay discounting and a range of addictive activities and other problematic behaviors. Another consistency across the different drugs of abuse was that value for commodities related to addiction (i.e.cigarettes, cocaine, and heroin) is discounted more by delay than comparable monetary amounts. It has been suggested that this occurs because drug-dependent participants are likely motivated to escape withdrawal, which should serve to increase value for immediate drugs (Odum et al., 2000). More recent findings have, however, shown that nonaddicted participants also discount value for pizza and beer more by delay than comparable monetary amounts. Choice defections might also be more likely for consumable rewards (e.g. having a serving of a favorite high-calorie food while dieting or smoking a cigarette when attempting to quit smoking) than for monetary rewards (cashing investment bonds before their maturity dates), thus leading consumable rewards to be discounted more by delay than monetary rewards.

8. Utility

is how important a factor is to us individually.

Explain the adjustment and anchoring heuristic and give an example. Which part is the anchor?

Heuristics are mental shortcuts that help understanding, but can be misleading. The anchoring heuristic is a familiar position on which we base estimates and decisions. The adjustment is made relative to this start point. The question about Sally: Sally was a good high school student with an ACT score of 24, and her favorite color is blue. Does Sally attend USU or the U? Blue would be an anchor to sway the belief that she attends USU. This is a primacy effect(priming).

3. Fetal learning

In class Kerry talked about how we can start to measure fetal learning by monitoring the fetus' heartbeat. Mothers voice and a story she reads often will cause the infants heartbeat to go up which is a sign of familiarization.

difference steep discounting and shallow discounting and how it relates to basic decision making

I believe steep discounting is high reward level in short time span or high punishment/ negative effect in short time span. Shallow discounting is low reward level spread out over great time span.

Affirming

If A is true then B is true. B is true. Therefore A is true. If B follows A, then you can assume you can go back the other way also.

4. Modus tollens

If P is true then Q is true. Q is false, therefore P must be false. TOLLENS- If Psy 4420 sucks then 4420 students are unhappy. Psy 4420 students are happy, thus Psy 4420 doesn't suck.

3. Modus ponens

If P is true, then Q is true. P is true, therefore Q must be true

How well can people judge the validity of syllogisms? Explain how the belief bias influences people's reasoning of syllogisms.

If it is valid and sound. Is based on structure and not meaning though. All dogs are mammals. All mammals are animals (therefore) All dogs are animals Important to note: does not work backwards. All A are B All B are C All A are C does not mean that all C are A. ex. All animals are not mammals. Belief bias is a cognitive bias in which someone's evaluation of the logical strength of an argument is biased by their belief in the truth or falsity of the conclusion. So people believe what is true because of their belief in it, and not nessesarily because of the logical or scientific proof of the argument.

4. Formal operational

In Piaget's theory, the fourth and final stage of cognitive development, characterized by more systematic logic and the ability to think about abstract ideas.

2. Cognitive unconscious

In class she talked about "blight Sight" (evidence for unconscious achievements) Blight Sight happens as a result of damage to the striate cortex of the brain resulting in the patience being "blind". The patience act as though they are blind, bump into things, don't' react to light, ect. However, when subjects did an experiment and were "forced" to guess weather it was an X or an O and they reliably "guessed" right! Same with if the patience were asked to guess were someone's hand was in within their visual field. So in conclusion these patients in a sense could "see", but were not aware of seeing. pg (518-519) She also showed the video in class about having 2 pathways and the study on reptlites.

difference between smokers that smoke 3 packs a day, non-smokers, and ex-smokers and how they discount it differently

Individuals who smoke more than three packs a day, have the hardest time delaying a reward. Non smokers and non drug users are much better at waiting for the greater reward. However, it is unclear about weather or not smoking or drug use makes people avoid delay and seek immediate rewards, or people who are unable to be patient are more likely to end up using drugs. But it is clear that ex smokers or users learn to delay better. So if use decreases the ability to delay immediate reward for greater reward increases.

Sensorimotor Stage (Birth-2 years)

Infants use senses and motor abilities to understand the world. Learning is active; there is no conceptual or reflective thought. Gains: Infants learn that an object still exists when it is out of sight (object permanence) and begin to think through mental actions. Modify reflexes, integrate actions, A-Not- B error, active exploration of potential use of objects, imitation.

9. Imitation

Infants will imitate those around them (ex: little kid on the phone), which aids learning and cog. development.

4. Concrete operational

Is a stage in Piagets theory. It's the 2nd stage dealing with ages 7-12. It has 3 difference phases

Describe the Watson four-card problem. Explain what the results of experiments that have used abstract and concrete versions of the problem illustrate about how solving this problem is influenced by these dimensions.

Is also called the 'selection task'. Participants are shown 4 cards (showing A 6 J 7) and given a rule of "If a card has vowel on one side it must have an even number on the other side" and then asked which cards to turn over to validate the rule. In this task 96% of people give the wrong answer. A simpler version of the test is given using statements about drinking beer and a persons age, this is a more logical version for people to view and 73% of participants get the easy-version task correct. The first test with the numbers/vowels is very abstract and most people do not get it right due to the context in which its presented. When the easy version of the test is given, the context is different and more concrete, hence 73% of people got it right the first time.

Processing costs

It is generally observed that the amplitude of the N400 effect grows with stimuli that are harder to integrate semantically. That means that in a context where, for example, "lions" would be assumed ("The zebras ran away, chased by the ..."), "rabbits" will induce a greater N400 effect than "tigers", but smaller than "bicycles" or "Walkmans". This is interpreted as showing greater cognitive processing costs for the integration of some words--it is harder to conjure up a meaningful context with rabbits chasing zebras, and zebras in general, in particular chased zebras, leads one to think about lions. More broadly, cognitive scientists believe the N400 is not limited to linguistic stimuli, but instead an effect showing the processing of semantical formed and structured information in general.

Judgment

Judgment is affected by sample size, representative heuristics, base rates, working memory, and repetition.

Semantic attraction

Kim & Osterhout (2005) demonstrated a so-called "semantic P600" in sentences that are grammatically correct but semantically anomalous. For example, The hearty meal was devouring the kids. This suggests that the reader would rather interpret the sentence as containing a morphosyntactic error (saying "devouring" instead of "devoured by") rather than a semantic one (meals can't devour kids, but can be devoured by them).

1. Logic

Logic is affected by belief bias, conditional statements, necessary and sufficient conditions, and mental models.

3. Know the main points of the Kinzler/Spelke article on core systems of human cognition.

Object motion: cohesion ( objects move as connected and bounded wholes), continuity (objects move on connected, unobstructed paths), contact (objects influence each others' motion when and only when they touch). Allow infants and people to perceive shapes that are partly out of view and predict when objects will move and come to rest. Agents and their actions: infants represent agents; actions as directed towards goals. Number: addition and subtraction Geometry of environment: helps disoriented children or non-human animals reorient in accord with layout geometry. (distance of surfaces and angles) Social

Garden paths

P600s are also known to occur when a sentence contains no outright grammatical error, but must be parsed in a different way than the reader originally expects.[13] These sentences are known a "garden path" sentences, because the reader follows one interpretation of the sentence only to realize later that this interpretation was wrong and he must backtrack to understand the sentence. For example, Osterhout & Holcomb (1992) found P600s elicited by the word to in sentences such as The broker persuaded to sell the stock was tall. the preferred reading is to interpret "persuaded" as the main verb of the sentence (i.e., "the broker persuaded me"), and upon seeing the word to the reader has to re-analyze the sentence to mean something more like "the broker that was persuaded to sell the stock, he was tall".

. differences between humans maladaptive applicable behaviors

People will sacrifice a greater reward in exchange for a less more immediate reward.

2. Egocentrism

Piaget's term for children's tendency to think about the world entirely from their own personal perspective.

P600

Positive deflection 600 ms after stimulus, associated with hearing bad grammar; syntactic. Music- distant key chords generated largest P600

1. Conservation

Protecting something, aka Conserving . . . (again, very vague, sorry)

8. Preoperational

The preoperational stage occurs between ages two and six. Language development is one of the hallmarks of this period. Piaget noted that children in this stage do not yet understand concrete logic, cannot mentally manipulate information, and are unable to take the point of view of other people, which he termed egocentrism. During the preoperational stage, children also become increasingly adept at using symbols, as evidenced by the increase in playing and pretending. For example, a child is able to use an object to represent something else, such as pretending a broom is a horse. Role playing also becomes important during the preoperational stage. Children often play the roles of "mommy," "daddy," "doctor," and many others.

5. Monty Hall problem

The problem is how we evaluate events. You begin having a 1 in 3 chance of picking the correct door. It turns out the probability is not equal when one of the remaining choices is taken away. When you stay with your original choice you remain with a 33% chance of winning whereas the alternate choice has a 66% chance of taking the win. You are always better of changing, one of the incorrect choices has been illuminated.

Dependencies and complexity

Some studies have found a P600 elicited by words where there is no grammatical error, but when the sentence is complex because there are a number of noun phrases active. This has most often been the case when the reader has to "re-activate" a word that appeared earlier in the sentence. For example, in a sentence like "Who did you imitate?", the word who appears in the beginning of the sentence but is actually the direct object of imitate, and must be interpreted in that way (i.e., as "you imitated who?) several studies have found that after the reader sees the word imitate he or she has a P600 response, possibly as a result of re-activating who.

preference reversal/shift

That is the point at which people change their preference for a greater further away reward, for a smaller more immediate reward. The preference amount and timing of a reward are reversed.

know who first postulated the delayed discounting experimental tasks

The psychological study of delay discounting originated from nonhuman-animal research conducted in the field of behavior analysis (e.g. Chung and Herrnstein, 1967; Rachlin and Green, 1972; Ainslie, 1974; Rachlin, 1974). This is right from the article. I couldn't find a specific person it was looking for.

Elicitation

The P600 is elicited by several types of semantic phenomena, including ungrammatical stimuli, garden path sentences that require reanalysis, complex sentences with a large number of thematic roles, and the processing of filler-gap dependencies (such as who, what, where,when,why,etc. that appear at the beginning of a sentence in English but are actually interpreted somewhere else).

Know the meaning of delay discounting

The idea that the further away the reward is the more it is discounted in its value. Basically, further out greater rewards are not valued as much as smaller more immediate rewards.

terminology for difference points(indifference point) know how they are used interchangeably. other terms used to describe it.

The point were reward value and time delay for the reward are the same point. $10 now or $11 in a week would probably rate the same. $100 in a year or $110 in 13 month might rate the same. (Im assuming this is what it is. (Couldn't find solid evidence.) The point at which both rewards are valued the same.

9. Centration

The tendency to focus on one aspect of a situation and neglect others. A term introduced by the Swiss psychologist Piaget (1896-1980) to refer to the tendency of young children to focus attention on only one salient aspect of an object, situation, or problem at a time, to the exclusion of other potentially relevant aspects. A classic example is provided by an experiment first described by Piaget in 1941 in The Child's Conception of Number in which a child watches while a number of objects are set out in a row and then moved closer together, and the child is asked whether there are now more objects, fewer objects, or the same number of objects. Most children in the pre-operational stage of development focus on the relative lengths of the rows without taking into account their relative densities or the fact that nothing has been added or taken away, and conclude that there are fewer objects than before. The process of cognitive development by which a child develops from centration to a more objective way of perceiving the world is called decentration or decentering.

2. Object permanence

The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched. Jean Piaget argued that object permanence is one of an infant's most important accomplishments, as without this concept, objects would have no separate, permanent existence. In Piaget's Theory of cognitive development infants develop this understanding by the end of the "sensorimotor stage", which lasts from birth to about 2 years of age. Piaget thought that an infant's perception and understanding of the world depended on their motor development, which was required for the infant to link visual, tactile and motor representations of objects. According to this view, it is through touching and handling objects that infants develop object permanence.

3. How can deciding on a college or graduate school be an example of utility theory?

Utility is the quality in commodities that makes individuals want to buy them, and the fact that individuals want to buy commodities shows that they have utility" Different value systems have different perspectives on the use of utility in making moral judgments. For example, Marxists, Kantians, and certain libertarians (such as Nozick) all believe utility to be irrelevant as a moral or at least not as important as other factors such as natural rights, law, conscience and/or religious doctrine. It is debatable whether any of these can be adequately represented in a system that uses a utility model. Another criticism comes from the assertion that neither cardinal nor ordinary utility are empirically observable in the real world. In case of cardinal utility it is impossible to measure the level of satisfaction "quantitatively" when someone consumes/purchases an apple. In case of ordinal utility, it is impossible to determine what choices were made when someone purchases, for example, an orange. Any act would involve preference over infinite possibility of a set choices such as (apple, orange juice, other vegetable, vitaminC tablets, exercise, not purchasing, etc). As I understood it, basically a pro-con list with values attached to it. i.e. Going to this school is a pro of +8 because of the faculty and program. -4 on con list because of distance from family.

9. Validity

Validity is a property of formulas, statements and arguments. A logically valid argument is one where the conclusion follows from the premises. An invalid argument is where the conclusion does not follow from the premises. A deductive argument may be valid but not sound. In other words, validity is a necessary condition for truth of a deductive syllogism but is not a sufficient condition.

Know what a delay discounting task is thought to measure

Value systems. Breaking point. how much bigger of a reward are you willing to wait for cumpared to what you could have right now. I think this is part of that other question about college. Are you willing to put time, effort and energy for a better education, for a better job and more money down the road, or take the higher paying, but dead end job now? Do you want $100 now, $1,000 in a year, $10,000 in five yrs. Do you want this house now, that mansion in 10 yrs?

7. N400

an event-related potential (ERP) component typically elicited by meaningful, or potentially meaningful inputs. It peaks approximately 400ms (300-500ms) after the presentation of the stimulus. The N400 plays a significant role in language processing. It was discovered in 1980 by Marta Kutas and Steven Hillyard, in a study that first introduced the concept of using ERPs to study language processing. The N400 response is often elicited by semantically inappropriate words in an otherwise acceptable sentential context, is often associated with the semantic integration of words in a sentence context[4] and general "wrap-up" and decision-making processes at the end of a sentence. In general, the more difficult it is to "integrate" a word into the preceding context, the bigger an N400 that word will elicit.

6. Habituation

When we become adjusted to a certain stimulus or the process of getting used to an object or event through repeated exposure to it. Used in infant studies.

1. In the Monty Hall 3-door problem, why is it always to your advantage to switch doors if you want the prize?

You originally begin with a 1 in 3 chance (0.333 probability) of picking the correct door. Many people think that it doesn't matter whether you stay with your original pick or switch after Monty reveals his door. This interpretation is incorrect. You are better off always switching; over the long term, you will average 66% correct. If you always stay, you will average 33% correct over the long term. If you randomly switch or stay, you will average 50% over the long term. Here's how to think of it. You pick a door randomly, let's say it is Door 1. You have a 1 out of 3 chance of being correct. This means there is a 2 out of 3 chance that the prize is behind Door 2 or Door 3. If you do nothing, you will be correct approximately 1/3 of the time. However, when Monty Hall shows you that one of the other doors (let's say Door 2) is incorrect, that means that there is now a 2 out of 3 chance that the remaining door is correct. This means that if you pick Door 3, you will be correct approximately 2/3 of the time.

5. Piaget

a Swiss psychologist and philosopher well known for his pedagogical studies. His theory of cognitive development and epistemological view are together called "Genetic Epistemology." Jean Piaget is "the great pioneer of the constructivist theory of knowing." awarded the Balzan Prize for Social and Political Sciences in 1979. theory that young children's cognitive processes are inherently different from those of adults. Ultimately, he was to propose a global theory of developmental stages stating that individuals exhibit certain distinctive common patterns of cognition in each period in their development. Had stages of cognitive development (Sensorimotor, Preoperational and Concrete Operational). The developmental process: Piaget provided no concise description of the development process as a whole. Broadly speaking it consisted of a cycle- ▪ The child performs an action which has an effect on or organizes objects, and the child is able to note the characteristics of the action and its effects. ▪ Through repeated actions, perhaps with variations or in different contexts or on different kinds of objects, the child is able to differentiate and integrate its elements and effects. This is the process of "reflecting abstraction" ▪ At the same time, the child is able to identify the properties of objects by the way different kinds of action affect them. This is the process of "empirical abstraction". ▪ By repeating this process across a wide range of objects and actions, the child establishes a new level of knowledge and insight. This is the process of forming a new "cognitive stage". This dual process allows the child to construct new ways of dealing with objects and new knowledge about objects themselves.

1. Inductive reasoning

a process in which you try to go beyond the available information--drawing inferences about a pattern, based on a few examples, or making projections about novel cases based on what you have seen so far. It is reasoning based on inferences of knowledge you already have. descriptive account- how a process ordinarily proceeds(experience) normative account- how things ought to go

3. P600

an event-related potential (ERP), or peak in electrical brain activity measured by electroencephalography (EEG). It is a language-relevant ERP and is thought to be elicited by hearing or reading grammatical errors and other syntactic anomalies. Therefore, it is a common topic of study in neurolinguistic experiments investigating sentence processing in the human brain. The P600 can be elicited in both visual (reading) and auditory (listening) experiments,[1] and is characterized as a positive-going deflection with an onset around 500 milliseconds after the stimulus that elicits it- it often reaches its peak around 600 milliseconds after presentation of the stimulus (hence its name), and lasts several hundred milliseconds. The P600 was first reported by Lee Osterhout and Phillip Holcomb in 1992.[6] It is also sometimes called the Syntactic Positive Shift (SPS), since it has a positive polarity and is usually elicited by syntactic phenomena.

1. Risk-aversion strategy

aversion strategy - A tendency toward avoiding risk. People tend to be risk-averse when contemplating gains, choosing instead to hold tight to what they already have.

10. Watson four

card problem - also called the 'selection task'. Participants are shown 4 cards (showing A 6 J 7) and given a rule of "If a card has vowel on one side it must have an even number on the other side" and then asked which cards to turn over to validate the rule. In this task 96% of people give the wrong answer. A simpler version of the test is given using statements about drinking beer and a persons age, this is a more logical version for people to view and 73% of participants get the easy-version task correct.

1. Antecedent (affirming or denying)

o Affirming the consequent: an error often made in logical reasoning. The error begins with these two premises: (a) "If A then B" and (b) "B is true." The error consists of drawing the false conclusion that (c) "A must therefore be true" o denying the antecedent: An error often made in logical reasoning. The error begins with these two premises: (a) "If A then B", and (b) "A is false" the error consists of drawing the false conclusion that (c) "B must therefore also be false"

8. Causal attribution

o An interpretation of a thought or behavior in which one decides what caused the behavior

2. Anterior cingulate cortex

o a brain structure known to play a crucial role in detecting and resolving conflicts among different brain systems.

3. Aphasia

o a disruption to language capacities, often caused by brain damage

7. Blind sight

o a pattern resulting from brain damage, in which the person seems unable to see in all or part of his/her field of vision, but can correctly respond to visual inputs when required to by an experimenter.

4. Availability heuristic

o a strategy used to judge the frequency of a certain type of object, or the likelihood of a certain type of event. the first step is to assess the ease with which examples of the object or event come to mind this "availability" ofexamples is then used as an index of frequency or likelihood

6. Belief bias

o a tendency, within logical reasoning, to endorse a conclusion if the conclusion happens to be something one believes is true anyhow. in displaying this tendency, people seem to ignore both the premises of the logical argument and logic itself, and rely instead on their broader pattern of beliefs about what is true and what is not.

5. Base rate

o information about the broad likelihood of a particular type of event (also referred to as "prior probability").

Concrete operational phase 1, 2, 3

phase 1- Child sees 2 objects, agrees objects are identical in number or quantity phase 2- one object is transformed, butt he dimensions of interest is not altered Phase 3- the child is asked whether the dimension of interest is still equal This is the experiment with the punch and the two small glasses then she poured it into the taller glass and the cute little girl said that there was more in the taller glass because is was taller.

6. Motion-induced blindness

remember the blue-crossed mask that would spin and make the yellow dots 'disappear' if you focused on the center dot. I thought it was awesome! there are other cool ones on you-tube... The phenomenon is outside of awareness and is based on attentional mechanisms(winner takes all)

2. Risk-taking strategy

taking strategy - Tendency toward seeking out risks intentionally. People tend to be risk seeking when contemplating losses, because they are willing to gamble in hopes of avoiding or diminishing their losses.

2. Decision making

the mental processes (cognitive process) resulting in the selection of a course of action among several alternatives.

8. Illusory co

variation - A pattern that people "perceive" in data, leading them to believe that the presence of one factor allows them to predict the presence of another factor. However, this perception occurs even in the absence of any genuine relationship between these two factors. Example, someone perceives your willingness to cheat on an essay as an indicator that you will also be willing to in an athletic setting. {Which is of course not true because you could care less about sports

difference between a risky choice and a riskless choice?

· A Risky choice is one for which there is a probability or chance of different possibilities occurring. o For example: if you decide to spend money on a lottery, there is an unknown outcome. you can win a lot of money or not. · A riskless choice is one for which the ultimate outcome is decided by the choice. o For ex, if you decide to invest your money in a bank account and earn interest, you have made a riskless choice.

The developmental process cont.

▪ However, once the child has constructed these new kinds of knowledge, he or she starts to use them to create still more complex objects and to carry out still more complex actions. As a result, the child starts to recognize still more complex patterns and to construct still more complex objects. Thus a new stage begins, which will only be completed when all the child's activity and experience have been re-organized on this still higher level. This process is not wholly gradual, however. Once a new level of organization, knowledge and insight proves to be effective, it will quickly be generalized to other areas. As a result, transitions between stages tend to be rapid and radical, and the bulk of the time spent in a new stage consists of refining this new cognitive level. When the knowledge that has been gained at one stage of study and experience leads rapidly and radically to a new higher stage of insight, a gestalt is said to have occurred.