PSY 452 Exam 4

Terrell volunteers his time to campaign for Joel Goodman. He spent all afternoon putting up "Goodman for Congress" signs around his town and arrived back at headquarters just in time to watch the Goodman- Hernandez debate on TV. Terrell was eager to watch the candidates debate each other, even though he was 100 percent sure he was going to vote for Goodman. Terrell's first response to the debate will most likely be

'goodman answered the questions on job creation very well.'

sources of error in judgments

-availability heuristic -illusory correlation -representative heuristic -base rate -conjunction rule -law of large numbers -myside bias -confirmation bias -backfire effect

essential properties of language (clark and clark) / how is human language different from animal communication

-communicative -arbitrary -structured (order and pattern) -generative (limitless) -dynamic (changing, new words/rules, euphemism cycle)

chomsky contributions to grammar rules

-focus on creativity (we create new sentences) -syntax unrelated to their meaning -colorless green ideas sleep furiously -rules allow for expression of unfamiliar meaning -rules allow for vast number on combinations -children are hardwired with universal grammar -kids use language rules and generalizations from the moment they begin to speak - use OG sentences

people are not good at decision making because of

-inductive reasoning -confirmation bias -probability estimation using availability heuristic -gamblers fallacy (thinking events that have not occurred for a while are more likely)

domain of problem states

-initial state -intermediate state -goal states problem space contains: objects, relations, operators, constraints

examples of anchors (first impressions)

-meeting people -stereotypes -grocery stores

silveira study on incubation -necklace problem

-no incubation: 55% -incubation lead to more success of 64% -longer incubation lead to 85% success

duncker's radiation problem

-only 10% solved problem without analogy -30% solved after shown analogy

waser selection task

-only 4% got correct answer -requires deductive thinking (only consider conclusions that follow with certainty) -people who got it wrong are using inductive logic (probabilistic conclusions)

verbal protocol for designing computers to problem solve like humans

-problematic because don't include all relevant info, there's unconscious mental processes veridicality: may not be truthful reactivity: act of talking changes the task -only useful when task is easy to verbalize

linguistics is required for

-programming computers -treating language disabilities -teaching foriegn languages -understanding law politics

why are we overconfident?

-unaware that our knowledge is based on nucertain assumptions -confirmation bias -don't consider other possibilities -don't weigh other options seriously -self-fulfilling prophecy leads to studied not being controlled

critiques of chomsky

-universal grammar is not necessarily specific to language -Chomsky only studied a small number of languages -other learning models might disprove the theory of universal grammar

explanations for parsing

1) garden path model 2) constraint based approach

hunt and ellis tips for problem solving

1) understand the problem 2) remember the problem 3) identify alternative hypotheses 4) acquire coping strategies 5) evaluate final hypothesis 6) explain problem to someone 7) put problem aside

wallas 4 stages of problem solving

1. Preparation 2. Incubation (break, putting problem aside) 3. Illumination (insight, bring answer into consciousness) 4. Verification

why can't computers understand language?

1.) coarticulation (words produced with different parts of mouth sound different) 2.) segmentation and word boundaries (don't know when words end and others begin) 3) don't have cooperative principle

the correct meaning for a sentence with lexical ambiguity is identified within _______ milliseconds

200

One hundred students are enrolled in State University's course on introductory physics for math and science majors. In the group, 60 students are math majors and 40 are science majors. Sarah is in the class. She got all As in her high school science courses, and she would like to be a chemist someday. She lives on campus. Her boyfriend is also in the class. There is a ____ chance that Sarah is a science major.

40%

Pollack and Pickett's experiment on understanding speech found that when participants were presented with individual words taken out of conversations (single words presented alone with no context), they could identify:

50% of the words spoken by their own voices

pollock and pickett's experiment on understanding speech found that when participants were presented with individual words taken out of conversation (single words presented alone with no context), they could identify ___

50% of the words spoken by their own voices

which is the core concept underlying the gestalt perspective on problem solving?

?

Actions that take the problem from one state to another are known as

??

Making probable conclusions based on evidence involves _____ reasoning.

??

in the information processing approach, an operator is most closely associated with

??

The rule of the Wason four-card problem is, "If there is a vowel on one side, then there is an even number on the other side." Let's say you are presented with A, 8, M, and 13, each showing on one of four cards. To see if the rule is valid, you would have to turn over the cards showing

A and 13

Syllogism

A form of deductive reasoning consisting of a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion. -basic form of deductive reasoning -2 broad premises and a conclusion

contingency strategy

A negotiating strategy in which a person gets what he or she wants if something else happens.

trade-off strategy

A negotiating strategy in which one person says to another, "I'll give you A, if you'll give me B."

two-string problem

A problem first described by Maier in which a person is given the task of attaching two strings together that are too far apart to be reached at the same time. This task was devised to illustrate the operation of functional fixedness.

nine dot problem

A problem involving nine dots, arranged in a square pattern, in which the task is to draw four straight lines that pass through all nine dots without lifting the pen from the paper or retracing a line. -trains mind to think creatively and think outside the box

referential communication task

A task in which two people are exchanging information in a conversation, when this information involves reference—identifying something by naming or describing it.

2 classes of problem solving strategies

ALGORITHM: guaranteed success HEURISTIC: no guarantee of success

constraint-based approach to parsing

An approach to parsing that proposes that semantics, syntax, and other factors operate simultaneously to determine parsing.

causal inference

An inference that results in the conclusion that the events described in one clause or sentence were caused by events that occurred in a previous clause or sentence.

depictive vs. propositional representations of imagery debate

DEPICTIVE: always stayed the same PROPOSITIONALISTS: members of AI community, intuition, logic, empirical info

weak problem solving methods

GENERAL PURPOSE STRATEGIES HILL CLIMBING: not weighting options before trying to solve SUBGOALS: p's given subgoals solve tower of hanoi problem faster PLANNING BY ABSTRACTION: not considering details CONSTRAINT SATISFACTION: solve problem by meeting a series of smaller contraints

syntactic priming

Hearing a statement with a particular syntactic construction increases the chances that a statement that follows will be produced with the same construction.

2 types of problems

ILL DEFINED: not just one correct answer WELL-DEFINED: one correct answer

imagination network

Kaufman and Gregoire's (2015) name for the default mode network (DMN).

Lydia is 48 years old, single, outspoken, and very bright. She majored in philosophy as an undergraduate. As a student, she was deeply concerned with issues of discrimination and social justice, and she participated in anti-nuclear demonstrations. Which of the following alternatives is most probable? -us congresswoman and feminist -us congresswoman -governor and feminist -governor

Lydia is a US congresswoman

what brain parts are involved in purchasing decisions

PFC and insula

analogical paradox

People find it difficult to apply analogies in laboratory settings, but routinely use them in real-world settings.

lexical priming

Priming that involves the meaning of words. Typically occurs when a word is followed by another word with a similar meaning—for example, when presenting the word ant before the word bug causes a person to respond faster to the word bug than if ant had not preceded it.

opt-out procedure

Procedure in which a person must take an active step to avoid a course of action—for example, choosing not to be an organ donor.

opt-in procedure

Procedure in which a person must take an active step to choose a course of action—for example, choosing to be an organ donor.

The analogy that makes the solution to the mutilated checkerboard problem obvious is the ____ problem.

Russian marriage

strong problem solving methods

SIMULATED ANNEALING: heating and cooling MEANS-END ANALYSIS: using what makes the biggest difference SCHEMA DIAGRAMS: spatial problem solving had better success than temporal version -matrix

in a study, participants listened to the following tape recording. rumor had it that, for years the gov building had been plagued with probs. the man was not surporised when he found several spiders roaches and other bugs. as a p heard the word bugs, they completed a lexical decision task to a test stimulus flashed on a screen. to which of the following words would you expect p's to take the longest to respond to? -SPY -ANT -SKY -ROACH

SKY

volitional daydreaming

The act of consciously choosing to disengage from external tasks in order to pursue an internal stream of thought that might have positive outcomes.

expected utility theory

The idea that people are basically rational, so if they have all of the relevant information, they will make a decision that results in the most beneficial result.

word frequency effect

The phenomenon of faster reading time for high-frequency words than for low-frequency words -evidence in lexical decision task and measuring eye movements

speech segmentation

The process of perceiving individual words within the continuous flow of the speech signal.

myside bias

Type of confirmation bias in which people generate and test hypotheses in a way that is biased toward their own opinions and attitudes.

Word Frequency Effect: Rayner et al., (

We respond more rapidly to high frequency words than low frequency words

phonemic restoration effect

When a phoneme in a word is heard even though it is obscured by a noise, such as a cough. This typically occurs when the word is part of a sentence.

Backfire effect

When people react to disconfirming evidence by strengthening their beliefs.

congenital amusia

a condition in which people are inherently poor at music perception

situation model

a mental representation of what a text is about

Amber lives in a housing development between two parallel streets that both connect to a freeway. She usually takes the street to the south when heading southbound on the freeway to work, but that street is closed for repairs for three months. Amber takes the street to the north during that time. After the street to the south is re-opened, she continues to take the street to the north, even though it is a slightly longer route. Continuing to take the street to the north represents

a mental set

functional fixedness would be lowest for

a novel object

information processing theory

a perspective that compares human thinking processes, by analogy, to computer analysis of data, including sensory input, connections, stored memories, and output -programmed computers to solve problems like how humans do

return to the tonic

a song that begins with the tonic will end on the tonic

insight refers to

a sudden realization of a problem's solution

means-end analysis

a way of solving a problem in which the goal is to reduce the difference between the initial and goal states -bring closer to goal state

theory of mind

ability to reason about what other people know or believe

connectionist model on how to deal with ambiguity in language

all meanings activate and degree just depends on the frequency of meaning

lexicon

all the word we know

heuristics for decision making

allow for fast and easy decisions but lead to errors (cognitive biases)

An experiment on the phonemic restoration effect would most likely include

an extraneous cough

Tuan bought a new leather jacket after saving for many months for the luxury purchase. On the first day he went out wearing the new garment, he found a $50 bill on the sidewalk outside of his office. He now refers to the jacket as his "lucky jacket" and believes that it has some magical power to give him good fortune. Tuan's belief in the jacket's cosmic ability is an example of

an illusory correlation

Mia has lived in New York City all her life. She has noticed that people from upper Manhattan walk really fast, but people from lower Manhattan tend to walk slowly. Mia's observations are likely influenced from a judgment error based on her using

an illuusory correlation

instrument inference

an inference about tools or methods that occurs while reading text or listening to speech

anaphoric interference

an inference that connects an object or person in one sentence to an object or person in another sentence

The ability to shift experience from one problem solving situation to a similar problem is known as

analogical transfer

The text's discussion of the research on in vivo problem solving highlighted that ____ play(s) an important role in solving scientific problems.

analogies

The radiation problem was used in your text to illustrate the role of ____ in problem solving.

analogy

which term best describes the task of factoring the equation 9x + 5x - 7 = 2x ....

analytical

'Captain arab wantde to kill the whale. he cursed at it.' these 2 sentences taken together provide an example of

anaphoric interference

Boxing champion George Foreman recently described his family vacations with the statement, "At our ranch in Marshall, Texas, there are lots of ponds and I take the kids out and we fish. And then of course, we grill them." That a reader understands "them" appropriately (George grills fish, not his kids!) is the result of a(n) _____ inference.

anaphoric interference

garden path model of parsing

as people read a sentence, their grouping of words into phrases is governed by a number of processing mechanisms called heuristics

open monitoring meditation

attention is directed to the contents of one's moment-to-moment experience in a nonjudgmental and nonreactive way -highest score of originality

Donte purchased a new car, a Ford Mustang, less than a month ago. While sitting in traffic, Donte says to his girlfriend, "Mustangs must be the best-selling car now. I can't remember seeing as many on the road as I have recently." Donte's judgment is most likely biased by a(n)

availability heuristic

The finding that people tend to incorrectly conclude that more people die from tornados than from asthma has been explained in terms of the

availability heuristic

Wally and Shamika are out on a date. When Shamika asks where they should go for dinner, Wally says, "My coworkers keep telling me about that new Japanese place downtown, so it must be a great place to eat." Wally's response illustrates the use of a(n)

availability heuristic

people show risk _______ when gains are involved

aversion

Consider the sentence, "Because he always jogs a mile seems like a short distance to him." The principle of late closure states that this sentence would first be parsed into which of the following phrases?

because he always jogs a mile

endowment effect study on coin toss

before coin toss, p's had more perceived change from baselines happiness (sadness) if lose than percevied change from baseline happiness if they won AFTER COIN TOSS: emotions swumg much less than what p's expected -level in change of mood if lose is same level of change in mood if win

which of the following is the best example of a garden path sentence?

before the police stopped, the toyota disappeared into the night.

which of the following statements does not apply to the results of research on differences between how experts and novices solve problems?

being an expert in one field can transfer to better problem solving in another field

the tendency to think that a syllogism is valid if its conclusion is believable is called the

belief bias

problem space

between initial state and goal state -intermediate states: every step between

the typical purpose of subgoals is to

bring the problem closer and closer to the goal state

Given its definition, expected utility theory is most applicable to deciding whether to

buy first class or coach tickets for a spring break trip

Of the following real-world phenomena, the confirmation bias best explains the observation that people

can site several reasons for their position on a controversial issue but none for the opposing side

imagine you are interpreting a pair of sentences such as 'the sidewalk was covered with ice' and 'ramona fell down.' the kind of interference we use to link these sentences together would most likely be a _____ interference

causal

In written English, which punctuation mark has the most parsing power?

comma

which property below is not one of the characteristics that makes human language unique? -governed by rules 0communication -involves arangement of a sequence of symbols -hierarchical structure

communication

The given-new contract is a method for creating

comprehension between a speaker and a listener in a conversation

consider the following syllogism: if it's a robin then it is a bird therefore it is a bird is a _____ of a ______ syllogism

conclusion; conditional

deductive thinking

conclusions that follow with certainty -sudoku -required for wason selection task

If a motorcycle cop believes that young female drivers speed more than other drivers, he will likely notice young female drivers speeding in the fast lane but fail to notice young male or older drivers doing the same. In this case, the police officer's judgments are biased by the operation of the

confirmation bias

when the problem of analogical problem solving was applied to the fortress and radiation problem, which of the following represented the mapping step of this process?

connecting the fortress with the tumor

context constraint model on how to deal with ambiguity

context constraints the meaning from the beginning

In the lexical decision task, participants are asked to

decide whether a string of letters is a word or nonword

An experiment measures participants' performance in judging syllogisms. Two premises and a conclusion are presented as stimuli, and participants are asked to indicate (yes or no) if the conclusion logically follows from the premises. Error rates are then calculated for each syllogism. This experiment studies _________________ reasoning.

deductive

If you are given the information that in order to vote in a presidential election, you must be at least 18 years of age, and that Will voted in the last presidential election, you can logically conclude that Will is at least 18 years old. This is an example of using _____ reasoning.

deductive

experts solve problems based more on

deep structures than on surface features

delays for mental sets

delays help free ourselves from mental sets but this can be bad when the mental set was helpful -delay only helps / has greater benefit when you have the incorrect mental set

Metcalfe and Wiebe gave participants problems to solve and asked them to make "warmth" judgments every 15 seconds to indicate how close they felt they were to a solution. The purpose of this experiment was to

demonstrate a difference between how people solve insight and non-insight problems

Descriptive vs. Prescriptive grammar

descriptive: how people speak prescriptive: how people ought to speak

Ali works for Citrus Squeeze, a company that makes orange juice. Sales of their calcium-enhanced OJ have been poor, and the product was cancelled. His factory still had three cases of cartons, and Ali was told he could take them if he wanted them. With the cartons, Ali made several birdfeeders for his backyard and also planted tree seedlings in some of them; he used the remaining ones to build a "fort" for his four-year-old son. Ali's use of the cartons represents

divergent thinking

In the movie Apollo 13, astronauts aboard a damaged spacecraft have to build a carbon dioxide filter out of random items that are aboard the ship with them. If they do not, they will all die rapidly of carbon dioxide poisoning. The fact that they are able to do so with the help of experts on Earth is similar to the _______ approach developed by Ronald Finke.

divergent thinking

inductive reasoning

drawing a general conclusion from a limited set of specific observations -probably but not definitely true strong if high representativeness of observation, large number of observations, and quality of evidence

which term reflects the process of reading and understanding sentences in a story?

dynamic

mutilated checkerboard study

easiest when labeled as bread and butter -need correct representation to make problem solving easier

incidental emotions

emotions not caused by having to make a decision -general disposition

anderson 4 stages of problem solving

encoding planning solving responding -each associated with own brain part -encoding takes longer for more complicated probs

Tanenhaus and coworkers' eye movement study presented participants with different pictures for interpreting the sentence, "Put the apple on the towel in the box." Their results showed the importance of ________ in how we understand sentences in real-life situations

environmental context

in inductive reasonings, conclusions follow not from logically constructed syllogisms but from ______

evidence

children use structure dependent rules

evidence that children are hardwired with universal grammar -wug test: learn grammar rules unconsciously

brain parts involved with creativity

executive control network default mode network

Swinney's lexical priming studies using ambiguous words as stimuli show that context

exerts its influence after all meanings of the word have been briefly accessed

Ling is sure that if her boyfriend proposes, she will feel elation. This is an example of an

expected emotion

Josiah is trying to decide whether or not to take a new job in a new city. He is worried that if he takes the job and fails, he will suffer from intense anxiety and depression. This is an example of

expected emotion?

representative heuristic

fail to consider base rates

Word Superiority effect

finding that letters are easier to recognize when they are contained in a word than when they appear alone or contained in a non word.

In its discussion of expertise and problem solving, your text identifies the kind of scientists who are most likely to make revolutionary discoveries in their fields. This particular discussion suggests that _____ may be more important than _____ in creative thinking.

flexibility; experience

preference reversal

framing the question differently changes the decision

Rosa is in a convenience store considering which soda to buy. She recalls a commercial for BigFizz she saw on TV last night. BigFizz is running a promotion where you look under the bottle cap, and one in five bottles has a voucher for a free soda. If Rosa decides to purchase a BigFizz based on this promotion, which is framed in terms of _________________ , she will use a _________________ strategy.

gains; risk aversion

Experts categorize problems based on

general principles that problems share

why does incubation work?

gestalt- unconscious processing goes on

Phoenix Decorating Company is responsible for designing and building many of the floral floats seen in the Tournament of Roses Parade every New Year's Day. Phoenix's designers start preparing the floats for the next year's parade soon after the first of the year. For each corporate sponsor, Phoenix gets their best advertising team members, and they sit in a room for several hours throwing out every idea they can come up with, no matter how good or bad it is. After a substantial list has been created, they then go through every idea and rate its merits or deficits, until they come up with the best idea to pitch to the corporate sponsor. This process demonstrates

group brainstorming

In New Guinea, tribes that had been isolated for centuries were found that

had a large number of sophisticated language systems

cooperation for dealing with language ambiguity (grice)

have quality, relation, manner, be informative, tell truth, be relevant, be clear -rules apply to non-verbal communication too

There are two gumball machines outside the local grocery store, one large machine and one small machine. Both machines have only yellow and orange gumballs, and each machine contains 50 percent of each color. For each coin, the large gumball machine dispenses 15 gumballs, while the small machine dispenses 5. Tim is a young genius whose interests include probability and sound decision-making. His "probability project of the day" is to get a greater percentage of either of the colors, but not an equal amount of each color. Given this, and presuming Tim has only one coin,

he should use his coin in the small machine

The principle of late closure can be described as a(n)_______ since it provides a best guess about the unfolding meaning of a sentence.

heuristic

Language consists of smaller components, like words, that can be combined to form larger ones, like phrases, to create sentences, which themselves can be components of a larger story. This demonstrates the ____________________ property of language.

hierarchical

meno's paradox

how do you recognize the answer to a problem if you don't already know it?

pragmatics

how people use context and other info in order to understand language

Noam Chomsky proposed that

humans are genetically programmed to acquire and use language.

which of the following statements would most likely invoke the operation of a permission schema?

if i get an A on my exam, i can go out with my friends tonight

one reason that most people do not easily solve the original abstract version of the wason four card problem is that they

ignore the falsification principle

A researcher records a brainstorming session in an industrial research and development department rather than in an artificial laboratory setting. Later, she analyzes the recorded discussions, identifying certain problem-solving techniques. This research is an example of ____ research.

in vivo problem solving

Sandeep is a generally anxious person. His anxiety sometimes gets in the way when he tries to make decisions. The anxiety Sandeep feels is an example of an __________ emotion.

incidental

Making probable conclusions based on evidence involves _____ reasoning.

inductive

Bonnie has ordered her monthly supply of medicines through the mail for the past five years. Except for one order, all orders have arrived within two business days. Bonnie placed an order yesterday, and she expects to receive her order tomorrow. Bonnie is using

inductive reasoning

Most of the coherence in text is created by

inference

anaphoric inference

inferring that both shes in a sentence refer to the same person

In the Tower of Hanoi problem, the _________________ state involves having three discs stacked on the left peg, with the middle and right pegs empty.

initial

Chaz is listening to his grandma reminisce about the first time she danced with his grandpa 60 years ago. When his grandma says, "It seemed like the song would play forever," Chaz understands that it is more likely his grandma was listening to a radio playing and not a CD. This understanding requires Chaz use a(n)

instrument interference

In the two-string problem, tying the pliers to one of the strings best represents a(n) ____ state.

intermediate

consider the following conditional syllogism: premise 1: if i study then i'll get a good grade premise 2: i got a good grade conclusion: therefore i studied this is

invalid

if i don't eat lunch today i will be hungry tonight, i ate lunch today, therefore I wasn't hungry tonight

invalid

Evidence that language is a social process that must be learned comes from the fact that when deaf children find themselves in an environment where there are no people who speak or use sign language, they

invent a sign language themselves

Sanfrey and coworkers' "ultimatum game" experiment revealed that people tended to make the _________ decision of ______

irrational; accepting only high offers

If human speech is represented as a string of taffy on a candy-making assembly line, then what function does speech segmentation serve at the candy factory?

it cuts the taffy into pieces

which is not true about divergent thinking?

it has a single correct answer

Language makes it possible to create new and unique sentences because

it has structure that is hierarchical and governed by rules

The validity of a syllogism depends on

its form

The analogical paradox refers to problem-solving differences between

lab and real world settings

Lilo can't wait for school to start. This year is the first time she gets to take a foreign language class, and she is taking Japanese. Dr. Nabuto is a professor interested in studying how people learn additional languages later in life, and he is including Lilo's class in his research. Dr. Nabuto is most likely studying

language acquisition

Yoda, a central character of the Star Wars movies created by George Lucas, has a distinctive way of speaking. His statement, "Afraid you will be," violates which property of the English language?

language has a structure that it governed by rules

linguistic relativity hypothesis

language influences how one perceives and conceptualizes the world

Ron is an avid reader. He has a large vocabulary because every time he comes across a word he doesn't know, he looks it up in the dictionary. Ron encounters "wanderlust" in a novel, reaches for the dictionary, and finds out this word means "desire to travel." The process of looking up unfamiliar words increases Ron's

lexicon

Finke's creating an object studies show that people were more likely to come up with creative uses for preinventive objects if they

made the objects themselves

Dictionaries commonly list the multiple definitions of a particular word in a numbered list, with the first definition as #1, the next definition as #2, and so on. Which concept does this reflect?

meaning dominance

semantics

meaning of language

mental model approach

method of determining if syllogisms are valid by creating representation of situations in your mind

garden path sentences

misleading sentences -illustrate temporary ambiguity

Lexical ambiguity studies show that people initially access

multiple meanings of an ambiguous word

Gick and Holyoak consider which of the following to be the most difficult step to achieve in the process of analogical problem solving?

noticing that there is an analogous relationship between problems because most participants need prompting before they notice a connection

Gick and Holyoak proposed that analogical problem solving involves the following three steps:

noticing, mapping, and applying

3 steps for analogous problem solving

noticing, mapping, application -noticing and mapping hard to do

Finke's "creating an object" experiment had participants create a novel object by combining parts. Once they created an object, they were given the name of an object category and instructed to interpret their creation as a practical object or device within that category. Finke used the term preinventive forms to describe the

novel objects before a function was described

in vivo problem-solving

observing people to determine how they solve problems in real-world situations

illusory correlation

occurs when people estimate that they have encountered more confirmations of an association between social traits than they have actually seen

Actions that take the problem from one state to another are known as

opeators

computer programs can't learn the language rules we learn because

our definitions of words are from socialization

utility refers to

outcomes that achieve a person's goals

Your research advisor asks you to create stimuli for a discourse processing experiment to be run in the lab. Most likely, you would create stimuli where each trial you present a(n)

paragraph of text

According to the situation model of text processing,

people create a mental representation of what the text is about in terms of people, objects, locations, and events.

endowment effect

people don't like losing things more than they like gaining things -people don't want to lose what's theirs -things more valuable because they're ours -frame decisions by removing the sense of losing

illusion of superiority

people overestimate own qualities and abilities -2/3 of people rate themselves better than the average driver -exists for things people have never even done before too -people are overconfident in decision-making and people have more confidence in their own decisions than in predictions based on statistically objective measures

classic economic view of how humans make decisions

people will make decisions so as to maximize the expected value expected value = (odds of gain) x (value of gain) BUT, people make errors in estimating the odds of success and the value of the gain

unilateral negelct

people with unilateral neglect only reported things from right side of vision -people ignore one half of space typically left side -milan square

"you can't have pudding until ..."

permission schema

The application of a(n) ____ makes it easier to solve the "drinking beer" version of the Wason problem.

permission schema

kosslyn PET scan & fMRI

posterior part of brain (v1) is active during mental imagery, and when stimulus comes on with physical image, there's a spike in activity in primary visual cortex -mental imagery involves less activity in primary visual cortex than visual images but still active in the back of brain

categorical syllogism

premises and conclusion begin with all, no, or some

Within the realm of conversational speech, knowledge refers to the

previously understood info that we bring into the conversation

inductive thinking

probabilistic conclusions

syntactic coordination

process by which people use similar grammatical constructions when having a conversation

parsing

process by which words in a sentence are grouped into phrases

in the information-processing approach to problem solving, an operator is most closely associated with ___

progress

Ty has finished work on his doctoral dissertation. He studied how most adults understand words, specifically the priming effects of categorically related words, and submitted a proposal to be included in a psychological conference to present his work to his peers. Presentations at the conference are grouped based on the particular topic in psychology under consideration. It is most likely that Ty's work will be presented in a conference session on

psycholinguistics

word frequency effect

refers to the fact that we respond more rapidly to high-frequency words like home than to low-frequency words like hike

B.F. Skinner, the modern champion of behaviorism, proposed that language is learned through

reinforcement

gestaly psychologists consider problem solving as a process involving

reorganization or restructuring

The circle problem, in which the task is to determine the length of a line inside a circle, was proposed to illustrate

representation and restructuring

coherence refers to the

representation of the text in a reader's mind, so that information in one part of the text is related to information in another part of the text.

the strength of an inductive argument depends on the

representativeness, number, and quality of observations

Warmth judgments on nearness to a solution ____ prior to the solution of an insight problem and ____ prior to the solution of a non-insight problem.

rise suddenly just; gradually rise

In the context of language, another term for "heuristics" is ________.

rules

syntax is ____

rules for combining words into sentences

Imagine that your friend James has just taken up smoking -- 'but my grandfather smoked and he lived till 100' a major problem with his argument involves

sample size

The ____ states that the nature of a culture's language can affect the way people think. a. interactionist approach c. given-new contract b. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis d. cooperative principle

sapir-whorf hypothesis

Newell and Simon were early pioneers in designing computer programs that could solve problems. Their research program was based on the idea that problem solving is a process that involves

search

The water-jug problem demonstrates that one consequence of having a procedure that does provide a solution to a problem is that, if well-learned, it may prevent us from

seeing more efficient solutions to the problem

people show risk ______ seeking when losses are involved

seeking

why is forgetting good for problem solving?

selective forgetting after a delay in order to attend only to relevant info

Which of the following statements is not accurate? -semantics are multidimensional in shape? -lexicon is smaller in scope than semantics -semantics and lexicons are equal in scope -the scope of local semantics is variable

semantics and lexicons are equal in scope

garden path sentences

sentences that begin by appearing to mean one thing, but then end up meaning something else

which of the following terms best describes the concept of entrainment

similarity

According to the idea of _____ , when we read a sentence like, "Carmelo grabbed his coat from his bedroom and his backpack from the living room, walked downstairs, and called his friend Gerry," we create a map of Carmelo's apartment and keep track of his location as he moves throughout the apartment.

situation models

according to the concept of ___, when we read a sentence like 'jorge grabbed his coat from his backpack, walked downstairs, and called his friend' we create simulation of jorge's apartment and keep track of his location as he moves throughout the apartment

situation models

the word frequency effect refers to the fact that we respond more ___

slowly to low-frequency words than high frequency words

Lieberman Study

spliced words out of sentences -50% correct identification of word when just the word -100% correct identification when heard in sentence -shows importance of context and top down processing

Many people receive unsolicited calls from telemarketers or unwanted "junk" mailers advertising offers for products such as cable or internet services or cellular phone companies. Most people do not consider these offers and do not make a change to the plans or services that they receive because they do not want to make a decision that requires serious consideration or thought. This is an example of the ________ bias.

status quo

A psycholinguist conducts an experiment with a group of participants from a small village in Asia and another from a small village in South America. She asked the groups to describe the bands of color they saw in a rainbow and found they reported the same number of bands as their language possessed primary color words. These results:

support the sapir whorf hypothesis

conditional syllogism

syllogism with two premises and a conclusion, like a categorical syllogism, but whose first premise is an "If . . . then . . ." statement.

Entrainment

synchronization between partners in a conversation

When two people engage in a conversation, if one person produces a specific grammatical construction in her speech and then the other person does the same, this phenomenon is referred to as

syntactic priming

The idea that the rules governing the grouping of words in a sentence is the primary determinant of the way a sentence is parsed is part of the _____ approach to parsing.

syntax-first ??

the concept of language can be best thought of as a

system

Experts _____ than novices.

take a more effective approach to organizing the solution to a problem

Considering the fortress and the radiation problems together, the fortress problem represents the _____ problem.

target

In analogical problem solving, the _________________ problem is the problem that an individual is trying to solve, and the _________________ problem, which has been solved in the past, is used as a guide for reaching that solution.

target; source

creative cognition

technique to train people to think creatively

When the front part of a sentence can be interpreted more than one way, but the end of the sentence clarifies which meaning is correct, we say that the sentence is an example of

temporary ambiguity

the evolutionary approach that the wason problem can be understood in terms of people's

tendency to detect when others are cheating

status quo bias

tendency to do nothing when faced with making a decision when faced with need to opt in

here is nashville the sun has risen every morning so the sun is going to rise in nashville tomorrow

the argument is strong because there are a large number of observations

Illustrative of functional fixedness, people are more likely to solve the candle problem if

the box is empty

a syllogism is valid if

the conclusion follows logically from the two premises.

Stereotypes are reinforced by all of the following EXCEPT

the falsification principle

according to your text, the key to solving the wason four card problem is

the falsification principle

Cecile has dreamed of owning her own home for years, and she can finally afford a small cottage in an older neighborhood. She notices that she feels more positive about her home when she drives home by the abandoned shacks, but she hates her home when driving past the fancy mansions with their large lawns. Cecile's emotions are influenced by

the framing effect

Brain imaging studies reveal that semantics and syntax are associated with which two lobes of the cerebral cortex?

the frontal and temporal lobes

2nd phase of imagery debate

the further you move from one space the longer you take to respond; the further from the arrow to a lot -> longer response time

You are conducting a study on how fluency influences the phonemic restoration effect. You study two groups of non-native English speakers, one with a year of English classes and the other with 10 years. All of your stimuli are in English. Who would you expect to show the greatest phonemic restoration effect?

the group with 10 years of english instruction

parsing

the grouping of words into phrases; a central process for determining the meaning of a sentence

dual systems approach to thinking

the idea that there are two mental systems—a fast, automatic, intuitive system called system 1 and a slower, more deliberative, thoughtful system called System 2

temporal ambiguity

the initial words of a sentence can lead to more than one meaning

law of large numbers

the larger the number of individuals that are randomly drawn from a population, the more representative the resulting group will be of the entire population

Lexical ambiguity studies show that people access ambiguous words based on

the meaning dominance of each definition of the word

Prosody

the patterns of rhythm and sound used in poetry that create emotions

At a lunch meeting with a client, the CEO of Gossip Polls, Inc., was asked to determine America's favorite day of the week. Hundreds of Gossip employees across the U.S. started collecting data immediately, calling people at their residences. One hour later, the attitudes from 10,000 Americans, across all 50 states, were collected. A staff member called the CEO, still at her lunch meeting, to tell her the results of the poll: America's favorite day of the week is Monday. Given your text's discussion of inductive reasoning in science, we might suspect that the observations in this poll are not representative because

the people who are home to answer the phone in the early afternoon are not an appropriate cross-section of the US population

illusory correlation

the perception of a relationship where none exists

the conjunction rule states that

the probability of two events co-occurring is equal to or less than the probability of either event occurring alone.

Failing to consider the law of large numbers most likely results in errors concerning

the representativeness heuristic

Gabrielle is blonde, extremely attractive, and lives in an expensive condo. If we judge the probability of Gabrielle's being a model quite high because she resembles our stereotype of a model, we are using

the representativeness heuristic

in an experiment that combined both physiological and behavioral approaches to the study of decision making, prefrontal cortex activity was recorded while participants accepted or rejected proposals to split a sum of money. prefrontal cortex activation was

the same for accepted and rejected offers

janet is alone is a room that contains a chair and a shelf with a book on top. She attempts to retrieve the book, but the shelf is a foot above her reach. how will janet retrieve the book? psychologists would NOT classify this scenario as a problem because...

the solution is immediately obvious

phonology

the study of speech sounds in language

Kaplan and Simon's experiment presented different versions of the mutilated checkerboard problem. The main purpose of their experiment was to demonstrate that

the way the problem is represented can influence the ease of problem solving

language is NOT

thought

The word "bad" has ____ phoneme(s).

three

In Vivo problem-solving research method has been used

to study the use of analogy in a number of different settings, including in a number of different settings, including laboratory meetings of a university research group and brainstorming sessions in which the goal was to develop a new product

falsification principle

to test a rule, it is necessary to look for situations that would falsify the rule -wason four card problem

which term best reflects a musical composer who writes a film score in the key of E?

tonic

A researcher had participants read each of the sentences below and measured the time it took to read each sentence. Trial 1: The lamb ran past the cottage into the pasture. Trial 2: The dog ran past the house into the yard. The participants' response times were longer for _____ because of the _____ effect

trial 1; word frequency

deactivating the left ATL can increase creativity

true

different brain states measured with the EEG are associated with insight-based and analytical based problem solving

true

experts spend more time analyzing a problem when it is first presented

true

most agree that imagery involves depictive representations but it's hard to prove

true

t or f: people only slightly overestimate the expected positive effect of winning but greatly overestimate the expected negative effect

true

t orf: generating ideas in groups is not as effective as generating ideas individually and combining them

true

true or false: language is not thought but it can affect thought

true

t or f: progression in language development is similar across cultures

true -babbling at 7 months -first words at 1 year -sentences at 2 years

t or f: we are influenced by the very first piece of info we see when making decision

true -first info = anchor -other people try to supply the anchor (make the first impression) -BID STUDY: higher SSN -> higher bids -why sales people start with showing you more expensive item = sets anchor

true or false: a loss of $10 is worse than a gain of $10

true -we dislike losses more than we like gains -framing outcomes and preference reversals

true or false: when people make mistakes when speaking we use context to know what they actually meant

true -we tend not to notice mispronunciations

attention is limited

true, negative thoughts distract attention away from the problem itself

true or false: incidental emotions can affect decisions

true; gloomy weather can influence college admissions

what problem provides an example of how functional fixedness can hinder solutions to a problem?

two-string problem

planning fallacy

underestimating time / money required to complete a project

All cats are birds. All birds have wings. All cats have wings. This syllogism is

valid

why is inductive reasoning important in everyday life?

we make predictions about what we think will happen based on our observations about what has happened in the past

gestalt perspective on problem solving

we suddenly 'see' the answer and have flash of insight -aha -we use previous experiences to solve problems but re-use of previous experiences can lead us to narrow mindedness -functional fixedness

experimenter expectancy effect- methodological issue for imagery debate

what experimenters expect influences what the participants do -no experimental expectancy effect when experimenters told p's obscure expectations that they didn't understand

the best description of the purpose of think-aloud protocols is that they are used to determine

what info a person is attending to while solving a problem

people tend to overestimate

what negative feelings will occur following a decision more so than positive feelings.

lexical ambiguity

when a word can have more than one meaning

conjunction fallacy

when people think that two events are more likely to occur together than either individual event -knowledge about stats doesn't eliminate conjunction fallacy because doctorate stat students still had it

Which of the following is NOT influenced by meaning? -word frequency effect -word superiority effect -phonemic restoration effect -lexical decision task

word frequency effect

Which set of stimuli would be the best selection for having people perform a lexical decision task?

words, 'pizza, history' and nonwords 'pibble, girk'