PSY 452 Exam 4
Terrell volunteers his time to campaign for Joel Goodman. He spent all afternoon putting up "Goodman for Congress" signs around his town and arrived back at headquarters just in time to watch the Goodman- Hernandez debate on TV. Terrell was eager to watch the candidates debate each other, even though he was 100 percent sure he was going to vote for Goodman. Terrell's first response to the debate will most likely be
'goodman answered the questions on job creation very well.'
sources of error in judgments
-availability heuristic -illusory correlation -representative heuristic -base rate -conjunction rule -law of large numbers -myside bias -confirmation bias -backfire effect
essential properties of language (clark and clark) / how is human language different from animal communication
-communicative -arbitrary -structured (order and pattern) -generative (limitless) -dynamic (changing, new words/rules, euphemism cycle)
chomsky contributions to grammar rules
-focus on creativity (we create new sentences) -syntax unrelated to their meaning -colorless green ideas sleep furiously -rules allow for expression of unfamiliar meaning -rules allow for vast number on combinations -children are hardwired with universal grammar -kids use language rules and generalizations from the moment they begin to speak - use OG sentences
people are not good at decision making because of
-inductive reasoning -confirmation bias -probability estimation using availability heuristic -gamblers fallacy (thinking events that have not occurred for a while are more likely)
domain of problem states
-initial state -intermediate state -goal states problem space contains: objects, relations, operators, constraints
examples of anchors (first impressions)
-meeting people -stereotypes -grocery stores
silveira study on incubation -necklace problem
-no incubation: 55% -incubation lead to more success of 64% -longer incubation lead to 85% success
duncker's radiation problem
-only 10% solved problem without analogy -30% solved after shown analogy
waser selection task
-only 4% got correct answer -requires deductive thinking (only consider conclusions that follow with certainty) -people who got it wrong are using inductive logic (probabilistic conclusions)
verbal protocol for designing computers to problem solve like humans
-problematic because don't include all relevant info, there's unconscious mental processes veridicality: may not be truthful reactivity: act of talking changes the task -only useful when task is easy to verbalize
linguistics is required for
-programming computers -treating language disabilities -teaching foriegn languages -understanding law politics
why are we overconfident?
-unaware that our knowledge is based on nucertain assumptions -confirmation bias -don't consider other possibilities -don't weigh other options seriously -self-fulfilling prophecy leads to studied not being controlled
critiques of chomsky
-universal grammar is not necessarily specific to language -Chomsky only studied a small number of languages -other learning models might disprove the theory of universal grammar
explanations for parsing
1) garden path model 2) constraint based approach
hunt and ellis tips for problem solving
1) understand the problem 2) remember the problem 3) identify alternative hypotheses 4) acquire coping strategies 5) evaluate final hypothesis 6) explain problem to someone 7) put problem aside
wallas 4 stages of problem solving
1. Preparation 2. Incubation (break, putting problem aside) 3. Illumination (insight, bring answer into consciousness) 4. Verification
why can't computers understand language?
1.) coarticulation (words produced with different parts of mouth sound different) 2.) segmentation and word boundaries (don't know when words end and others begin) 3) don't have cooperative principle
the correct meaning for a sentence with lexical ambiguity is identified within _______ milliseconds
200
One hundred students are enrolled in State University's course on introductory physics for math and science majors. In the group, 60 students are math majors and 40 are science majors. Sarah is in the class. She got all As in her high school science courses, and she would like to be a chemist someday. She lives on campus. Her boyfriend is also in the class. There is a ____ chance that Sarah is a science major.
40%
Pollack and Pickett's experiment on understanding speech found that when participants were presented with individual words taken out of conversations (single words presented alone with no context), they could identify:
50% of the words spoken by their own voices
pollock and pickett's experiment on understanding speech found that when participants were presented with individual words taken out of conversation (single words presented alone with no context), they could identify ___
50% of the words spoken by their own voices
which is the core concept underlying the gestalt perspective on problem solving?
?
Actions that take the problem from one state to another are known as
??
Making probable conclusions based on evidence involves _____ reasoning.
??
in the information processing approach, an operator is most closely associated with
??
The rule of the Wason four-card problem is, "If there is a vowel on one side, then there is an even number on the other side." Let's say you are presented with A, 8, M, and 13, each showing on one of four cards. To see if the rule is valid, you would have to turn over the cards showing
A and 13
Syllogism
A form of deductive reasoning consisting of a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion. -basic form of deductive reasoning -2 broad premises and a conclusion
contingency strategy
A negotiating strategy in which a person gets what he or she wants if something else happens.
trade-off strategy
A negotiating strategy in which one person says to another, "I'll give you A, if you'll give me B."
two-string problem
A problem first described by Maier in which a person is given the task of attaching two strings together that are too far apart to be reached at the same time. This task was devised to illustrate the operation of functional fixedness.
nine dot problem
A problem involving nine dots, arranged in a square pattern, in which the task is to draw four straight lines that pass through all nine dots without lifting the pen from the paper or retracing a line. -trains mind to think creatively and think outside the box
referential communication task
A task in which two people are exchanging information in a conversation, when this information involves reference—identifying something by naming or describing it.
2 classes of problem solving strategies
ALGORITHM: guaranteed success HEURISTIC: no guarantee of success
constraint-based approach to parsing
An approach to parsing that proposes that semantics, syntax, and other factors operate simultaneously to determine parsing.
causal inference
An inference that results in the conclusion that the events described in one clause or sentence were caused by events that occurred in a previous clause or sentence.
depictive vs. propositional representations of imagery debate
DEPICTIVE: always stayed the same PROPOSITIONALISTS: members of AI community, intuition, logic, empirical info
weak problem solving methods
GENERAL PURPOSE STRATEGIES HILL CLIMBING: not weighting options before trying to solve SUBGOALS: p's given subgoals solve tower of hanoi problem faster PLANNING BY ABSTRACTION: not considering details CONSTRAINT SATISFACTION: solve problem by meeting a series of smaller contraints
syntactic priming
Hearing a statement with a particular syntactic construction increases the chances that a statement that follows will be produced with the same construction.
2 types of problems
ILL DEFINED: not just one correct answer WELL-DEFINED: one correct answer
imagination network
Kaufman and Gregoire's (2015) name for the default mode network (DMN).
Lydia is 48 years old, single, outspoken, and very bright. She majored in philosophy as an undergraduate. As a student, she was deeply concerned with issues of discrimination and social justice, and she participated in anti-nuclear demonstrations. Which of the following alternatives is most probable? -us congresswoman and feminist -us congresswoman -governor and feminist -governor
Lydia is a US congresswoman
what brain parts are involved in purchasing decisions
PFC and insula
analogical paradox
People find it difficult to apply analogies in laboratory settings, but routinely use them in real-world settings.
lexical priming
Priming that involves the meaning of words. Typically occurs when a word is followed by another word with a similar meaning—for example, when presenting the word ant before the word bug causes a person to respond faster to the word bug than if ant had not preceded it.
opt-out procedure
Procedure in which a person must take an active step to avoid a course of action—for example, choosing not to be an organ donor.
opt-in procedure
Procedure in which a person must take an active step to choose a course of action—for example, choosing to be an organ donor.
The analogy that makes the solution to the mutilated checkerboard problem obvious is the ____ problem.
Russian marriage
strong problem solving methods
SIMULATED ANNEALING: heating and cooling MEANS-END ANALYSIS: using what makes the biggest difference SCHEMA DIAGRAMS: spatial problem solving had better success than temporal version -matrix
in a study, participants listened to the following tape recording. rumor had it that, for years the gov building had been plagued with probs. the man was not surporised when he found several spiders roaches and other bugs. as a p heard the word bugs, they completed a lexical decision task to a test stimulus flashed on a screen. to which of the following words would you expect p's to take the longest to respond to? -SPY -ANT -SKY -ROACH
SKY
volitional daydreaming
The act of consciously choosing to disengage from external tasks in order to pursue an internal stream of thought that might have positive outcomes.
expected utility theory
The idea that people are basically rational, so if they have all of the relevant information, they will make a decision that results in the most beneficial result.
word frequency effect
The phenomenon of faster reading time for high-frequency words than for low-frequency words -evidence in lexical decision task and measuring eye movements
speech segmentation
The process of perceiving individual words within the continuous flow of the speech signal.
myside bias
Type of confirmation bias in which people generate and test hypotheses in a way that is biased toward their own opinions and attitudes.
Word Frequency Effect: Rayner et al., (
We respond more rapidly to high frequency words than low frequency words
phonemic restoration effect
When a phoneme in a word is heard even though it is obscured by a noise, such as a cough. This typically occurs when the word is part of a sentence.
Backfire effect
When people react to disconfirming evidence by strengthening their beliefs.
congenital amusia
a condition in which people are inherently poor at music perception
situation model
a mental representation of what a text is about
Amber lives in a housing development between two parallel streets that both connect to a freeway. She usually takes the street to the south when heading southbound on the freeway to work, but that street is closed for repairs for three months. Amber takes the street to the north during that time. After the street to the south is re-opened, she continues to take the street to the north, even though it is a slightly longer route. Continuing to take the street to the north represents
a mental set
functional fixedness would be lowest for
a novel object
information processing theory
a perspective that compares human thinking processes, by analogy, to computer analysis of data, including sensory input, connections, stored memories, and output -programmed computers to solve problems like how humans do
return to the tonic
a song that begins with the tonic will end on the tonic
insight refers to
a sudden realization of a problem's solution
means-end analysis
a way of solving a problem in which the goal is to reduce the difference between the initial and goal states -bring closer to goal state
theory of mind
ability to reason about what other people know or believe
connectionist model on how to deal with ambiguity in language
all meanings activate and degree just depends on the frequency of meaning
lexicon
all the word we know
heuristics for decision making
allow for fast and easy decisions but lead to errors (cognitive biases)
An experiment on the phonemic restoration effect would most likely include
an extraneous cough
Tuan bought a new leather jacket after saving for many months for the luxury purchase. On the first day he went out wearing the new garment, he found a $50 bill on the sidewalk outside of his office. He now refers to the jacket as his "lucky jacket" and believes that it has some magical power to give him good fortune. Tuan's belief in the jacket's cosmic ability is an example of
an illusory correlation
Mia has lived in New York City all her life. She has noticed that people from upper Manhattan walk really fast, but people from lower Manhattan tend to walk slowly. Mia's observations are likely influenced from a judgment error based on her using
an illuusory correlation
instrument inference
an inference about tools or methods that occurs while reading text or listening to speech
anaphoric interference
an inference that connects an object or person in one sentence to an object or person in another sentence
The ability to shift experience from one problem solving situation to a similar problem is known as
analogical transfer
The text's discussion of the research on in vivo problem solving highlighted that ____ play(s) an important role in solving scientific problems.
analogies
The radiation problem was used in your text to illustrate the role of ____ in problem solving.
analogy
which term best describes the task of factoring the equation 9x + 5x - 7 = 2x ....
analytical
'Captain arab wantde to kill the whale. he cursed at it.' these 2 sentences taken together provide an example of
anaphoric interference
Boxing champion George Foreman recently described his family vacations with the statement, "At our ranch in Marshall, Texas, there are lots of ponds and I take the kids out and we fish. And then of course, we grill them." That a reader understands "them" appropriately (George grills fish, not his kids!) is the result of a(n) _____ inference.
anaphoric interference
garden path model of parsing
as people read a sentence, their grouping of words into phrases is governed by a number of processing mechanisms called heuristics
open monitoring meditation
attention is directed to the contents of one's moment-to-moment experience in a nonjudgmental and nonreactive way -highest score of originality
Donte purchased a new car, a Ford Mustang, less than a month ago. While sitting in traffic, Donte says to his girlfriend, "Mustangs must be the best-selling car now. I can't remember seeing as many on the road as I have recently." Donte's judgment is most likely biased by a(n)
availability heuristic
The finding that people tend to incorrectly conclude that more people die from tornados than from asthma has been explained in terms of the
availability heuristic
Wally and Shamika are out on a date. When Shamika asks where they should go for dinner, Wally says, "My coworkers keep telling me about that new Japanese place downtown, so it must be a great place to eat." Wally's response illustrates the use of a(n)
availability heuristic
people show risk _______ when gains are involved
aversion
Consider the sentence, "Because he always jogs a mile seems like a short distance to him." The principle of late closure states that this sentence would first be parsed into which of the following phrases?
because he always jogs a mile
endowment effect study on coin toss
before coin toss, p's had more perceived change from baselines happiness (sadness) if lose than percevied change from baseline happiness if they won AFTER COIN TOSS: emotions swumg much less than what p's expected -level in change of mood if lose is same level of change in mood if win
which of the following is the best example of a garden path sentence?
before the police stopped, the toyota disappeared into the night.
which of the following statements does not apply to the results of research on differences between how experts and novices solve problems?
being an expert in one field can transfer to better problem solving in another field
the tendency to think that a syllogism is valid if its conclusion is believable is called the
belief bias
problem space
between initial state and goal state -intermediate states: every step between
the typical purpose of subgoals is to
bring the problem closer and closer to the goal state
Given its definition, expected utility theory is most applicable to deciding whether to
buy first class or coach tickets for a spring break trip
Of the following real-world phenomena, the confirmation bias best explains the observation that people
can site several reasons for their position on a controversial issue but none for the opposing side
imagine you are interpreting a pair of sentences such as 'the sidewalk was covered with ice' and 'ramona fell down.' the kind of interference we use to link these sentences together would most likely be a _____ interference
causal
In written English, which punctuation mark has the most parsing power?
comma
which property below is not one of the characteristics that makes human language unique? -governed by rules 0communication -involves arangement of a sequence of symbols -hierarchical structure
communication
The given-new contract is a method for creating
comprehension between a speaker and a listener in a conversation
consider the following syllogism: if it's a robin then it is a bird therefore it is a bird is a _____ of a ______ syllogism
conclusion; conditional
deductive thinking
conclusions that follow with certainty -sudoku -required for wason selection task
If a motorcycle cop believes that young female drivers speed more than other drivers, he will likely notice young female drivers speeding in the fast lane but fail to notice young male or older drivers doing the same. In this case, the police officer's judgments are biased by the operation of the
confirmation bias
when the problem of analogical problem solving was applied to the fortress and radiation problem, which of the following represented the mapping step of this process?
connecting the fortress with the tumor
context constraint model on how to deal with ambiguity
context constraints the meaning from the beginning
In the lexical decision task, participants are asked to
decide whether a string of letters is a word or nonword
An experiment measures participants' performance in judging syllogisms. Two premises and a conclusion are presented as stimuli, and participants are asked to indicate (yes or no) if the conclusion logically follows from the premises. Error rates are then calculated for each syllogism. This experiment studies _________________ reasoning.
deductive
If you are given the information that in order to vote in a presidential election, you must be at least 18 years of age, and that Will voted in the last presidential election, you can logically conclude that Will is at least 18 years old. This is an example of using _____ reasoning.
deductive
experts solve problems based more on
deep structures than on surface features
delays for mental sets
delays help free ourselves from mental sets but this can be bad when the mental set was helpful -delay only helps / has greater benefit when you have the incorrect mental set
Metcalfe and Wiebe gave participants problems to solve and asked them to make "warmth" judgments every 15 seconds to indicate how close they felt they were to a solution. The purpose of this experiment was to
demonstrate a difference between how people solve insight and non-insight problems
Descriptive vs. Prescriptive grammar
descriptive: how people speak prescriptive: how people ought to speak
Ali works for Citrus Squeeze, a company that makes orange juice. Sales of their calcium-enhanced OJ have been poor, and the product was cancelled. His factory still had three cases of cartons, and Ali was told he could take them if he wanted them. With the cartons, Ali made several birdfeeders for his backyard and also planted tree seedlings in some of them; he used the remaining ones to build a "fort" for his four-year-old son. Ali's use of the cartons represents
divergent thinking
In the movie Apollo 13, astronauts aboard a damaged spacecraft have to build a carbon dioxide filter out of random items that are aboard the ship with them. If they do not, they will all die rapidly of carbon dioxide poisoning. The fact that they are able to do so with the help of experts on Earth is similar to the _______ approach developed by Ronald Finke.
divergent thinking
inductive reasoning
drawing a general conclusion from a limited set of specific observations -probably but not definitely true strong if high representativeness of observation, large number of observations, and quality of evidence
which term reflects the process of reading and understanding sentences in a story?
dynamic
mutilated checkerboard study
easiest when labeled as bread and butter -need correct representation to make problem solving easier
incidental emotions
emotions not caused by having to make a decision -general disposition
anderson 4 stages of problem solving
encoding planning solving responding -each associated with own brain part -encoding takes longer for more complicated probs
Tanenhaus and coworkers' eye movement study presented participants with different pictures for interpreting the sentence, "Put the apple on the towel in the box." Their results showed the importance of ________ in how we understand sentences in real-life situations
environmental context
in inductive reasonings, conclusions follow not from logically constructed syllogisms but from ______
evidence
children use structure dependent rules
evidence that children are hardwired with universal grammar -wug test: learn grammar rules unconsciously
brain parts involved with creativity
executive control network default mode network
Swinney's lexical priming studies using ambiguous words as stimuli show that context
exerts its influence after all meanings of the word have been briefly accessed
Ling is sure that if her boyfriend proposes, she will feel elation. This is an example of an
expected emotion
Josiah is trying to decide whether or not to take a new job in a new city. He is worried that if he takes the job and fails, he will suffer from intense anxiety and depression. This is an example of
expected emotion?
representative heuristic
fail to consider base rates
Word Superiority effect
finding that letters are easier to recognize when they are contained in a word than when they appear alone or contained in a non word.
In its discussion of expertise and problem solving, your text identifies the kind of scientists who are most likely to make revolutionary discoveries in their fields. This particular discussion suggests that _____ may be more important than _____ in creative thinking.
flexibility; experience
preference reversal
framing the question differently changes the decision
Rosa is in a convenience store considering which soda to buy. She recalls a commercial for BigFizz she saw on TV last night. BigFizz is running a promotion where you look under the bottle cap, and one in five bottles has a voucher for a free soda. If Rosa decides to purchase a BigFizz based on this promotion, which is framed in terms of _________________ , she will use a _________________ strategy.
gains; risk aversion
Experts categorize problems based on
general principles that problems share
why does incubation work?
gestalt- unconscious processing goes on
Phoenix Decorating Company is responsible for designing and building many of the floral floats seen in the Tournament of Roses Parade every New Year's Day. Phoenix's designers start preparing the floats for the next year's parade soon after the first of the year. For each corporate sponsor, Phoenix gets their best advertising team members, and they sit in a room for several hours throwing out every idea they can come up with, no matter how good or bad it is. After a substantial list has been created, they then go through every idea and rate its merits or deficits, until they come up with the best idea to pitch to the corporate sponsor. This process demonstrates
group brainstorming
In New Guinea, tribes that had been isolated for centuries were found that
had a large number of sophisticated language systems
cooperation for dealing with language ambiguity (grice)
have quality, relation, manner, be informative, tell truth, be relevant, be clear -rules apply to non-verbal communication too
There are two gumball machines outside the local grocery store, one large machine and one small machine. Both machines have only yellow and orange gumballs, and each machine contains 50 percent of each color. For each coin, the large gumball machine dispenses 15 gumballs, while the small machine dispenses 5. Tim is a young genius whose interests include probability and sound decision-making. His "probability project of the day" is to get a greater percentage of either of the colors, but not an equal amount of each color. Given this, and presuming Tim has only one coin,
he should use his coin in the small machine
The principle of late closure can be described as a(n)_______ since it provides a best guess about the unfolding meaning of a sentence.
heuristic
Language consists of smaller components, like words, that can be combined to form larger ones, like phrases, to create sentences, which themselves can be components of a larger story. This demonstrates the ____________________ property of language.
hierarchical
meno's paradox
how do you recognize the answer to a problem if you don't already know it?
pragmatics
how people use context and other info in order to understand language
Noam Chomsky proposed that
humans are genetically programmed to acquire and use language.
which of the following statements would most likely invoke the operation of a permission schema?
if i get an A on my exam, i can go out with my friends tonight
one reason that most people do not easily solve the original abstract version of the wason four card problem is that they
ignore the falsification principle
A researcher records a brainstorming session in an industrial research and development department rather than in an artificial laboratory setting. Later, she analyzes the recorded discussions, identifying certain problem-solving techniques. This research is an example of ____ research.
in vivo problem solving
Sandeep is a generally anxious person. His anxiety sometimes gets in the way when he tries to make decisions. The anxiety Sandeep feels is an example of an __________ emotion.
incidental
Making probable conclusions based on evidence involves _____ reasoning.
inductive
Bonnie has ordered her monthly supply of medicines through the mail for the past five years. Except for one order, all orders have arrived within two business days. Bonnie placed an order yesterday, and she expects to receive her order tomorrow. Bonnie is using
inductive reasoning
Most of the coherence in text is created by
inference
anaphoric inference
inferring that both shes in a sentence refer to the same person
In the Tower of Hanoi problem, the _________________ state involves having three discs stacked on the left peg, with the middle and right pegs empty.
initial
Chaz is listening to his grandma reminisce about the first time she danced with his grandpa 60 years ago. When his grandma says, "It seemed like the song would play forever," Chaz understands that it is more likely his grandma was listening to a radio playing and not a CD. This understanding requires Chaz use a(n)
instrument interference
In the two-string problem, tying the pliers to one of the strings best represents a(n) ____ state.
intermediate
consider the following conditional syllogism: premise 1: if i study then i'll get a good grade premise 2: i got a good grade conclusion: therefore i studied this is
invalid
if i don't eat lunch today i will be hungry tonight, i ate lunch today, therefore I wasn't hungry tonight
invalid
Evidence that language is a social process that must be learned comes from the fact that when deaf children find themselves in an environment where there are no people who speak or use sign language, they
invent a sign language themselves
Sanfrey and coworkers' "ultimatum game" experiment revealed that people tended to make the _________ decision of ______
irrational; accepting only high offers
If human speech is represented as a string of taffy on a candy-making assembly line, then what function does speech segmentation serve at the candy factory?
it cuts the taffy into pieces
which is not true about divergent thinking?
it has a single correct answer
Language makes it possible to create new and unique sentences because
it has structure that is hierarchical and governed by rules
The validity of a syllogism depends on
its form
The analogical paradox refers to problem-solving differences between
lab and real world settings
Lilo can't wait for school to start. This year is the first time she gets to take a foreign language class, and she is taking Japanese. Dr. Nabuto is a professor interested in studying how people learn additional languages later in life, and he is including Lilo's class in his research. Dr. Nabuto is most likely studying
language acquisition
Yoda, a central character of the Star Wars movies created by George Lucas, has a distinctive way of speaking. His statement, "Afraid you will be," violates which property of the English language?
language has a structure that it governed by rules
linguistic relativity hypothesis
language influences how one perceives and conceptualizes the world
Ron is an avid reader. He has a large vocabulary because every time he comes across a word he doesn't know, he looks it up in the dictionary. Ron encounters "wanderlust" in a novel, reaches for the dictionary, and finds out this word means "desire to travel." The process of looking up unfamiliar words increases Ron's
lexicon
Finke's creating an object studies show that people were more likely to come up with creative uses for preinventive objects if they
made the objects themselves
Dictionaries commonly list the multiple definitions of a particular word in a numbered list, with the first definition as #1, the next definition as #2, and so on. Which concept does this reflect?
meaning dominance
semantics
meaning of language
mental model approach
method of determining if syllogisms are valid by creating representation of situations in your mind
garden path sentences
misleading sentences -illustrate temporary ambiguity
Lexical ambiguity studies show that people initially access
multiple meanings of an ambiguous word
Gick and Holyoak consider which of the following to be the most difficult step to achieve in the process of analogical problem solving?
noticing that there is an analogous relationship between problems because most participants need prompting before they notice a connection
Gick and Holyoak proposed that analogical problem solving involves the following three steps:
noticing, mapping, and applying
3 steps for analogous problem solving
noticing, mapping, application -noticing and mapping hard to do
Finke's "creating an object" experiment had participants create a novel object by combining parts. Once they created an object, they were given the name of an object category and instructed to interpret their creation as a practical object or device within that category. Finke used the term preinventive forms to describe the
novel objects before a function was described
in vivo problem-solving
observing people to determine how they solve problems in real-world situations
illusory correlation
occurs when people estimate that they have encountered more confirmations of an association between social traits than they have actually seen
Actions that take the problem from one state to another are known as
opeators
computer programs can't learn the language rules we learn because
our definitions of words are from socialization
utility refers to
outcomes that achieve a person's goals
Your research advisor asks you to create stimuli for a discourse processing experiment to be run in the lab. Most likely, you would create stimuli where each trial you present a(n)
paragraph of text
According to the situation model of text processing,
people create a mental representation of what the text is about in terms of people, objects, locations, and events.
endowment effect
people don't like losing things more than they like gaining things -people don't want to lose what's theirs -things more valuable because they're ours -frame decisions by removing the sense of losing
illusion of superiority
people overestimate own qualities and abilities -2/3 of people rate themselves better than the average driver -exists for things people have never even done before too -people are overconfident in decision-making and people have more confidence in their own decisions than in predictions based on statistically objective measures
classic economic view of how humans make decisions
people will make decisions so as to maximize the expected value expected value = (odds of gain) x (value of gain) BUT, people make errors in estimating the odds of success and the value of the gain
unilateral negelct
people with unilateral neglect only reported things from right side of vision -people ignore one half of space typically left side -milan square
"you can't have pudding until ..."
permission schema
The application of a(n) ____ makes it easier to solve the "drinking beer" version of the Wason problem.
permission schema
kosslyn PET scan & fMRI
posterior part of brain (v1) is active during mental imagery, and when stimulus comes on with physical image, there's a spike in activity in primary visual cortex -mental imagery involves less activity in primary visual cortex than visual images but still active in the back of brain
categorical syllogism
premises and conclusion begin with all, no, or some
Within the realm of conversational speech, knowledge refers to the
previously understood info that we bring into the conversation
inductive thinking
probabilistic conclusions
syntactic coordination
process by which people use similar grammatical constructions when having a conversation
parsing
process by which words in a sentence are grouped into phrases
in the information-processing approach to problem solving, an operator is most closely associated with ___
progress
Ty has finished work on his doctoral dissertation. He studied how most adults understand words, specifically the priming effects of categorically related words, and submitted a proposal to be included in a psychological conference to present his work to his peers. Presentations at the conference are grouped based on the particular topic in psychology under consideration. It is most likely that Ty's work will be presented in a conference session on
psycholinguistics
word frequency effect
refers to the fact that we respond more rapidly to high-frequency words like home than to low-frequency words like hike
B.F. Skinner, the modern champion of behaviorism, proposed that language is learned through
reinforcement
gestaly psychologists consider problem solving as a process involving
reorganization or restructuring
The circle problem, in which the task is to determine the length of a line inside a circle, was proposed to illustrate
representation and restructuring
coherence refers to the
representation of the text in a reader's mind, so that information in one part of the text is related to information in another part of the text.
the strength of an inductive argument depends on the
representativeness, number, and quality of observations
Warmth judgments on nearness to a solution ____ prior to the solution of an insight problem and ____ prior to the solution of a non-insight problem.
rise suddenly just; gradually rise
In the context of language, another term for "heuristics" is ________.
rules
syntax is ____
rules for combining words into sentences
Imagine that your friend James has just taken up smoking -- 'but my grandfather smoked and he lived till 100' a major problem with his argument involves
sample size
The ____ states that the nature of a culture's language can affect the way people think. a. interactionist approach c. given-new contract b. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis d. cooperative principle
sapir-whorf hypothesis
Newell and Simon were early pioneers in designing computer programs that could solve problems. Their research program was based on the idea that problem solving is a process that involves
search
The water-jug problem demonstrates that one consequence of having a procedure that does provide a solution to a problem is that, if well-learned, it may prevent us from
seeing more efficient solutions to the problem
people show risk ______ seeking when losses are involved
seeking
why is forgetting good for problem solving?
selective forgetting after a delay in order to attend only to relevant info
Which of the following statements is not accurate? -semantics are multidimensional in shape? -lexicon is smaller in scope than semantics -semantics and lexicons are equal in scope -the scope of local semantics is variable
semantics and lexicons are equal in scope
garden path sentences
sentences that begin by appearing to mean one thing, but then end up meaning something else
which of the following terms best describes the concept of entrainment
similarity
According to the idea of _____ , when we read a sentence like, "Carmelo grabbed his coat from his bedroom and his backpack from the living room, walked downstairs, and called his friend Gerry," we create a map of Carmelo's apartment and keep track of his location as he moves throughout the apartment.
situation models
according to the concept of ___, when we read a sentence like 'jorge grabbed his coat from his backpack, walked downstairs, and called his friend' we create simulation of jorge's apartment and keep track of his location as he moves throughout the apartment
situation models
the word frequency effect refers to the fact that we respond more ___
slowly to low-frequency words than high frequency words
Lieberman Study
spliced words out of sentences -50% correct identification of word when just the word -100% correct identification when heard in sentence -shows importance of context and top down processing
Many people receive unsolicited calls from telemarketers or unwanted "junk" mailers advertising offers for products such as cable or internet services or cellular phone companies. Most people do not consider these offers and do not make a change to the plans or services that they receive because they do not want to make a decision that requires serious consideration or thought. This is an example of the ________ bias.
status quo
A psycholinguist conducts an experiment with a group of participants from a small village in Asia and another from a small village in South America. She asked the groups to describe the bands of color they saw in a rainbow and found they reported the same number of bands as their language possessed primary color words. These results:
support the sapir whorf hypothesis
conditional syllogism
syllogism with two premises and a conclusion, like a categorical syllogism, but whose first premise is an "If . . . then . . ." statement.
Entrainment
synchronization between partners in a conversation
When two people engage in a conversation, if one person produces a specific grammatical construction in her speech and then the other person does the same, this phenomenon is referred to as
syntactic priming
The idea that the rules governing the grouping of words in a sentence is the primary determinant of the way a sentence is parsed is part of the _____ approach to parsing.
syntax-first ??
the concept of language can be best thought of as a
system
Experts _____ than novices.
take a more effective approach to organizing the solution to a problem
Considering the fortress and the radiation problems together, the fortress problem represents the _____ problem.
target
In analogical problem solving, the _________________ problem is the problem that an individual is trying to solve, and the _________________ problem, which has been solved in the past, is used as a guide for reaching that solution.
target; source
creative cognition
technique to train people to think creatively
When the front part of a sentence can be interpreted more than one way, but the end of the sentence clarifies which meaning is correct, we say that the sentence is an example of
temporary ambiguity
the evolutionary approach that the wason problem can be understood in terms of people's
tendency to detect when others are cheating
status quo bias
tendency to do nothing when faced with making a decision when faced with need to opt in
here is nashville the sun has risen every morning so the sun is going to rise in nashville tomorrow
the argument is strong because there are a large number of observations
Illustrative of functional fixedness, people are more likely to solve the candle problem if
the box is empty
a syllogism is valid if
the conclusion follows logically from the two premises.
Stereotypes are reinforced by all of the following EXCEPT
the falsification principle
according to your text, the key to solving the wason four card problem is
the falsification principle
Cecile has dreamed of owning her own home for years, and she can finally afford a small cottage in an older neighborhood. She notices that she feels more positive about her home when she drives home by the abandoned shacks, but she hates her home when driving past the fancy mansions with their large lawns. Cecile's emotions are influenced by
the framing effect
Brain imaging studies reveal that semantics and syntax are associated with which two lobes of the cerebral cortex?
the frontal and temporal lobes
2nd phase of imagery debate
the further you move from one space the longer you take to respond; the further from the arrow to a lot -> longer response time
You are conducting a study on how fluency influences the phonemic restoration effect. You study two groups of non-native English speakers, one with a year of English classes and the other with 10 years. All of your stimuli are in English. Who would you expect to show the greatest phonemic restoration effect?
the group with 10 years of english instruction
parsing
the grouping of words into phrases; a central process for determining the meaning of a sentence
dual systems approach to thinking
the idea that there are two mental systems—a fast, automatic, intuitive system called system 1 and a slower, more deliberative, thoughtful system called System 2
temporal ambiguity
the initial words of a sentence can lead to more than one meaning
law of large numbers
the larger the number of individuals that are randomly drawn from a population, the more representative the resulting group will be of the entire population
Lexical ambiguity studies show that people access ambiguous words based on
the meaning dominance of each definition of the word
Prosody
the patterns of rhythm and sound used in poetry that create emotions
At a lunch meeting with a client, the CEO of Gossip Polls, Inc., was asked to determine America's favorite day of the week. Hundreds of Gossip employees across the U.S. started collecting data immediately, calling people at their residences. One hour later, the attitudes from 10,000 Americans, across all 50 states, were collected. A staff member called the CEO, still at her lunch meeting, to tell her the results of the poll: America's favorite day of the week is Monday. Given your text's discussion of inductive reasoning in science, we might suspect that the observations in this poll are not representative because
the people who are home to answer the phone in the early afternoon are not an appropriate cross-section of the US population
illusory correlation
the perception of a relationship where none exists
the conjunction rule states that
the probability of two events co-occurring is equal to or less than the probability of either event occurring alone.
Failing to consider the law of large numbers most likely results in errors concerning
the representativeness heuristic
Gabrielle is blonde, extremely attractive, and lives in an expensive condo. If we judge the probability of Gabrielle's being a model quite high because she resembles our stereotype of a model, we are using
the representativeness heuristic
in an experiment that combined both physiological and behavioral approaches to the study of decision making, prefrontal cortex activity was recorded while participants accepted or rejected proposals to split a sum of money. prefrontal cortex activation was
the same for accepted and rejected offers
janet is alone is a room that contains a chair and a shelf with a book on top. She attempts to retrieve the book, but the shelf is a foot above her reach. how will janet retrieve the book? psychologists would NOT classify this scenario as a problem because...
the solution is immediately obvious
phonology
the study of speech sounds in language
Kaplan and Simon's experiment presented different versions of the mutilated checkerboard problem. The main purpose of their experiment was to demonstrate that
the way the problem is represented can influence the ease of problem solving
language is NOT
thought
The word "bad" has ____ phoneme(s).
three
In Vivo problem-solving research method has been used
to study the use of analogy in a number of different settings, including in a number of different settings, including laboratory meetings of a university research group and brainstorming sessions in which the goal was to develop a new product
falsification principle
to test a rule, it is necessary to look for situations that would falsify the rule -wason four card problem
which term best reflects a musical composer who writes a film score in the key of E?
tonic
A researcher had participants read each of the sentences below and measured the time it took to read each sentence. Trial 1: The lamb ran past the cottage into the pasture. Trial 2: The dog ran past the house into the yard. The participants' response times were longer for _____ because of the _____ effect
trial 1; word frequency
deactivating the left ATL can increase creativity
true
different brain states measured with the EEG are associated with insight-based and analytical based problem solving
true
experts spend more time analyzing a problem when it is first presented
true
most agree that imagery involves depictive representations but it's hard to prove
true
t or f: people only slightly overestimate the expected positive effect of winning but greatly overestimate the expected negative effect
true
t orf: generating ideas in groups is not as effective as generating ideas individually and combining them
true
true or false: language is not thought but it can affect thought
true
t or f: progression in language development is similar across cultures
true -babbling at 7 months -first words at 1 year -sentences at 2 years
t or f: we are influenced by the very first piece of info we see when making decision
true -first info = anchor -other people try to supply the anchor (make the first impression) -BID STUDY: higher SSN -> higher bids -why sales people start with showing you more expensive item = sets anchor
true or false: a loss of $10 is worse than a gain of $10
true -we dislike losses more than we like gains -framing outcomes and preference reversals
true or false: when people make mistakes when speaking we use context to know what they actually meant
true -we tend not to notice mispronunciations
attention is limited
true, negative thoughts distract attention away from the problem itself
true or false: incidental emotions can affect decisions
true; gloomy weather can influence college admissions
what problem provides an example of how functional fixedness can hinder solutions to a problem?
two-string problem
planning fallacy
underestimating time / money required to complete a project
All cats are birds. All birds have wings. All cats have wings. This syllogism is
valid
why is inductive reasoning important in everyday life?
we make predictions about what we think will happen based on our observations about what has happened in the past
gestalt perspective on problem solving
we suddenly 'see' the answer and have flash of insight -aha -we use previous experiences to solve problems but re-use of previous experiences can lead us to narrow mindedness -functional fixedness
experimenter expectancy effect- methodological issue for imagery debate
what experimenters expect influences what the participants do -no experimental expectancy effect when experimenters told p's obscure expectations that they didn't understand
the best description of the purpose of think-aloud protocols is that they are used to determine
what info a person is attending to while solving a problem
people tend to overestimate
what negative feelings will occur following a decision more so than positive feelings.
lexical ambiguity
when a word can have more than one meaning
conjunction fallacy
when people think that two events are more likely to occur together than either individual event -knowledge about stats doesn't eliminate conjunction fallacy because doctorate stat students still had it
Which of the following is NOT influenced by meaning? -word frequency effect -word superiority effect -phonemic restoration effect -lexical decision task
word frequency effect
Which set of stimuli would be the best selection for having people perform a lexical decision task?
words, 'pizza, history' and nonwords 'pibble, girk'
