PSY 657: ***EXAM #1

Diathesis & Diathesis-Stress models

DIATHESIS Vulnerability or predisposition to developing a disorder. DIATHESIS-STRESS MODEL View of abnormal behavior as the result of stress on a person who has a biological, psychosocial, or sociocultural predisposition to developing a specific disorder. Many mental disorders are believed to develop when someone who has a preexisting vulnerability for that disorder experiences a major stressor. e.g., individuals -who have a high level of diathesis may need only a small amount of stress before a disorder develops, but those -who have a very low level of diathesis may need to experience a large amount of stress for a disorder to develop STRESS is the response or experience of a person to demands

Double-blind study

DOUBLE-BLIND STUDY Used in studies examining drug treatment effects, a condition where neither the subject nor the experimenter has knowledge about what specific experimental drug (or condition) the subject is receiving. Do magnets help with repetitive stress injury? (double-blind study, placebo) double-blind study: neither subjects nor the experimenter who was working with the subjects knew who got the genuine magnets placebo: allow control for the possibility that simply believing one is getting an effective type of treatment produces a therapeutic benefit.

Effect size

EFFECT SIZE A statistical term referring to the strength of the relationship between 2 variables in a statistical population independent of the sample size Effect size of 0 means there is no association between the variables Because it is independent of sample size, the effect size can be used as a common metric and is very valuable when we want to compare the strength of findings across different studies. If similar findings show similar effect sizes we can conclude similar findings

Hypnosis

HYPNOSIS An induced state of relaxation in which a person is highly open to suggestion

Immunosuppression

IMMUNOSUPRESSION A down-regulation of the immune system. This can be short or long term and can be triggered by an -injury, -stress, -illness, and -other factors Glucocorticoids can cause stress-induced immunosuppression

Longitudinal design

LONGTITUDINAL DESIGN Research design in which people are followed over time.

Panic provocation procedures

PANIC PROVOCATIVE PROCEDURES A variety of biological challenge procedures that provoke panic attacks at high rates in people with panic disorder.

Personality & Behavior patterns

PERSONALITY & TYPE BEHAVIORS TYPE A BEHAVIOR is characterized by: -excessive competitive drive, -extreme commitment to work, -impatience or time urgency, and -hostility Type A constructs (including anger, contempt, scorn, cynicism, and mistrust) that is most closely -correlated with coronary artery deterioration and -leads to high blood pressure and -cardiovascular disease TYPE D PERSONALITY has a tendency to experience -negative emotions and -feel insecure and has -social anxiety Research suggests that this is linked to -heart attacks.

Placebo treatment

PLACEBO TREATMENT An inert pill that produces desirable therapeutic effects because of the subject's expectations that it will be beneficial. Do magnets help with repetitive stress injury? (double-blind study, placebo) double-blind study: neither subjects nor the experimenter who was working with the subjects knew who got the genuine magnets placebo: allow control for the possibility that simply believing one is getting an effective type of treatment produces a therapeutic benefit.

Protective factors Resilience

PROTECTIVE FACTORS Decrease the likelihood of negative outcomes among those at risk. It is something that actively buffers against the likelihood of a negative outcome. e.g., An important protective factor in childhood is having a family environment in which at least one parent is warm and supportive, allowing the development of a good attachment relationship between the child and parent that can protect against the harmful effects of an abusive parent RESILIENCE The ability to adapt successfully to even very difficult circumstances. e.g., After experiencing a potentially traumatic event, some people function well and experience very few symptoms in the following weeks and months.

Psychoneuroimmunology

PSYCHONEUROIMMUNOLOGY Study of the interactions between the immune system and the nervous system and the influence of these factors on behavior. Evolved out of psychosomatic medicine

Single-case research design

SINGLE-CASE RESEARCH DESIGN An experimental research design (e.g. an ABAB design), that involves only one subject

Statistical significance

STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE A measure of the probability that a research finding could have occurred by chance alone. - influenced by the size of the correlation between 2 variables - also influenced by the sample size - "p < .05" the probability that the correlation would occur purely by chance is less than 5 out of 100 - correlations that have a "p < .05" area generally found to be statistically significant and worthy of attention

3rd variable problem

3RD VARIABLE PROBLEM This refers to the problem of making causal inferences in correlational research, where the correlation between 2 variables could be due to their shared correlation with an unmeasured 3rd variable. e.g. the correlation between ice cream consumption and drowning is a spurious one, caused by the fact that both variables are correlated with the weather.

Nancy School

A Group of physicians in 19th-century Europe accepted the view that hysteria was a sort of "self-hypnosis". The NANCY SCHOOL was a French hypnosis-centered school of psychotherapy and was centered on the hysteria-centered hypnotic research of Jean-Martin Charcot at the Salpêtrière Hospital in Paris. The Nancy school believed the state of mind of hypnosis was a "nonpathological psychological state of mind".

Acute

ACUTE A term used to describe a disorder of sudden onset, usually with intense symptoms. Short in duration

Behavioral medicine

BEHAVIORAL MEDICINE Broad interdisciplinary approaches to the treatment of physical disorders thought to have psychological factors as major aspects in their causation or maintenance.

Cognitive restructuring

COGNITIVE RESTRUCTURING COGNITIVE BEHAVIORAL THERAPY TECHNIQUE A therapeutic approach that teaches clients to question the automatic beliefs, assumptions, and predictions that often lead to negative emotions and to replace -negative thinking with more realistic and -positive beliefs

Correlation coefficient

CORRELATION COEFFICIENT A statistic that ranges from -1.0 to +1.0 and reflects the degree of association between two variables. The magnitude of the correlation indicates the strength of the association, and the sign indicates whether the correlation is positive or negative

ABAB design

ABAB DESIGN An experimental design, often involving a single subject, wherein a baseline period (A) is followed by treatment (B). To confirm that the treatment resulted in a change in behavior, the treatment is then withdrawn (A) and reinstated (B). Single-Case experimental design: A= baseline condition ( collect date from participant) B= introduce treatment A= withdraw treatment to test the effectiveness B= reinstate treatment to see if it happens again

Acute stress disorder

ACUTE STRESS DISORDER A diagnostic category that can be used when symptoms develop shortly after experiencing a traumatic event and last anywhere -between 3 days to one month. If symptoms persist -beyond 4 weeks, the diagnosis can be changed from acute stress disorder to PTSD. Disorder occurs within 4 weeks after a traumatic event and lasts for a minimum of 2 days and a maximum of 4 weeks. Both PTSD and ASD involve exposure to a more traumatic stressor. This can lead to -short-term problems (ASD) or more -long-term and intense difficulties (PTSD)

Adjustment disorder

ADJUSTMENT DISORDER Psychological response to a common stressor that results in clinically significant behavioral or emotional symptoms. e.g., the stressor can be a - single event, divorce, or death of a loved one - multiple stressors, such as business failure & marital problems For the diagnosis to be given, symptoms must begin within 3 months of the onset of the stressor. In addition, the person must experience more distress. In adjustment disorder, -the person's symptoms lessen or disappear when -the stressor ends or when -the person learns to adapt to the stressor. In cases where the symptoms continue beyond 6 months, the diagnosis is usually changed to some other mental disorder. Types: Adjustment disorder w/depressed mood Adjustment disorder w/anxiety Adjustment disorder w/mixed depression & anxiety Adjustment disorder w/disturbance of conduct Adjustment disorder w/mixed disturbance of emotions & conduct Treatment includes -CBT (learn coping skills), -group therapy or self-help groups, -crisis intervention therapy (6-8 sessions), -possibly medication

Allostatic load

ALLOSTATIC LOAD The biological cost of adapting to stress. -When we are relaxed and not experiencing stress, our allostatic load is low. -When we are stressed and feeling pressured, our allostatic load is higher.

Amygdala

AMYGDALA Collection of nuclei that are almond-shaped and that lie in front of the hippocampus in the limbic system of the brain. It is involved in the regulation of emotion and is critically involved in the emotion of fear. (often called a "fear network") Panic disorder is likely to develop in people who have abnormally sensitive fear networks that get activated too readily to be adaptive.

Analogue studies

ANALOGUE STUDIES in which: a researcher attempts to emulate the conditions hypothesized as leading to abnormality. Study not the true item of interest but an approximation to it. We can't generalize animals to humans.

Anxiety & Fear

ANXIETY - a general feeling of apprehension about possible danger. FEAR - is an alarm reaction that occurs in response to immediate danger. A basic emotion that involves the activation of the "fight-or-flight" response of the sympathetic nervous system. It is the body's natural warning system that signals impending danger and the need to take corrective action. When anxiety is extreme, persistent, and occurs outside the context of real danger, it can be considered problematic or even pathological.

Anxiety disorders

ANXIETY DISORDERS Unrealistic, irrational fear of disabling intensity. Anxiety Disorders (list of kinds) - Specific phobia - Social anxiety disorder - Panic disorder - Agoraphobia - Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) - separation - selective mutism DSM-5 recognizes 11 types: --Specific phobia, --Panic disorder, --Agoraphobia, --Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), --separation anxiety disorder, --selective mutism, --substance, --medication-induced anxiety disorder, --anxiety disorder due to medical condition, specified, and unspecified.

Anxiety sensitivity

ANXIETY SENSITIVITY is a personality trait involving a belief that certain bodily symptoms may have harmful consequences. Prone to developing -panic attacks and perhaps -panic disorder. People with anxiety sensitivity say "When I notice that my heart is beating rapidly, I worry that I might have a heart attack."

**Aristotle

ARISTOTLE (384-322 b.c.), who was a pupil of Plato, wrote extensively on mental disorders. Among his contributions to psychology are his descriptions of consciousness. He held the view that "thinking" as directed would eliminate pain and help to attain pleasure. Aristotle subscribed to the Hippocratic theory of disturbances in the bile. e.g., He thought that very hot bile generated -amorous desires, -verbal fluency, and -suicidal impulses. He rejected the possibility of mental disorders could be caused by psychological factors such as frustration and conflict

*Absorption *Alexithymia *Aphonia

Absorption tendency to become absorbed in one's experiences and is often associated with being highly hypnotizable. Alexithymia refers to having difficulties identifying one's feelings *Aphonia The most common speech-related conversion disturbance. A person is able to talk only in whisper although one can usually cough in a normal manner

Behaviorism & John B. Watson

American psychologist, JOHN B. WATSON (1878-1958), was searching for objective ways to study human behavior. He changed the focus of psychology to the study of overt behavior. Watson is associated with Behaviorism.

BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVE - Learning - Classical Conditioning, - Instrumental (Operant) Conditioning, - Generalization & Discrimination, - Observational Learning - Ivan Pavlov - Albert Bandura

BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVE A theoretical viewpoint organized around the theme that learning is central in determining human behavior. LEARNING Modification of behavior as a consequence of experience (the central theme of the behavioral approach) CLASSICAL CONDITIONING A form of learning in which a Neutral Stimulus(NS) is paired repeatedly with an Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) that naturally elicits an Unconditioned Response (UCR). After repeated pairings, the neutral stimulus becomes a Conditioned Stimulus (CS) that elicits a Conditioned Response (CR) The specific stimulus may come to elicit a specific response: UCS (food) UCR (salivation) CS (bell + food) CR (saliva) Extinction Gradual disappearance of a conditioned response (CR) when it is no longer reinforced. Spontaneous recovery The return of a learned response at some time after extinction has occurred. Russian physiologist IVAN PAVLOV (1849-1936) demonstrated that dogs would gradually begin to salivate in response to a nonfood stimulus such as a bell after the stimulus had been regularly accompanied by food. 2 behavioral psychologists, E. L. THORNDIKE(1874-1949) and B. F. SKINNER (1904-1990) were exploring a different kind of conditioning, one in which the consequences of behavior influence behavior and are associated with Operant Conditioning (aka Instrumental Conditioning) OPERANT (INSTRUMENTAL) CONDITIONING - Form of the learning process through which the strength of a behavior is modified by reward or punishment Reinforcement Refers either to the delivery of a reward/pleasant stimulus or to the removal of/escape from an aversive stimulus. Increase behavior (reinforcement) Positive reinforcement - add a reward Negative reinforcement - remove a punishment Decrease behavior (punishment) Positive punishment - add a punishment Negative punishment - remove a reward Response-outcome expectancy (Domjan, 2005) people learn that a response will lead to a rewarding outcome. If sufficiently motivated for that outcome (e.g., being hungry), the person will make the response that he has learned produces the outcome (e.g., opening the refrigerator). GENERALIZATION When a response is conditioned to one stimulus or set of stimuli, it can be evoked by other, SIMILAR stimuli. e.g., A person who fears bees may generalize that fear to all flying insects. DISCRIMINATION Ability to interpret and respond differently to two or more similar stimuli. e.g., because red strawberries taste good and green ones do not, conditioned discrimination will occur if a person has experience with both. 2 types of discrimination in the workplace: a) Access discrimination b) Treatment discrimination OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING Learning through observation alone w/o directly experiencing an unconditioned stimulus (for classical conditioning) or a reinforcement (for instrumental conditioning) e.g., children can acquire new fears by simply observing a parent or peer behaving fearfully with some object or situation that the child did not initially fear. In this case, they experience the fear of the parent or peer vicariously, and that fear becomes attached to the formerly neutral object ALBERT BANDURA did a classic series of experiments in the 1960s on how children observationally learned various novel, aggressive responses toward a large Bobo doll after they had observed models being reinforced for these responses

Bias

BIAS occurs when the research has preconceived ideas and expectations that influence the observations one makes in the research study.

BIOLOGICAL CAUSAL FACTORS - Genetic Vulnerability (separate card) - Brain Dysfunction & Neural Plasticity - Imbalances of Neurotransmitters & Hormones -- Synapse -- Neurotransmitters -- Neurotransmitter System Imbalances -- Hormonal Imbalances - Temperament

BIOLOGICAL CAUSAL FACTORS There are 4 categories of biological factors that are relevant to the development of maladaptive behavior: (1) genetic vulnerabilities, (2) brain dysfunction and neural plasticity, (3) neurotransmitter and hormonal abnormalities, (4) temperament BRAIN DYSFUNCTION & NEURAL PLASTICITY Neural plasticity—the flexibility of the brain in making changes in function & organization in response to stress, diet, disease, drugs, maturation. -Developmental Systems Approach Acknowledgment that genetic activity influences neural activity, which in turn influences behavior, which in turn influences the environment, and that these influences are bidirectional. IMBALANCES OF NEUROTRANSMITTERS & HORMONES In order for the brain to function, neurons (or nerve) cells, must communicate with one another through the transmission of electrical nerve impulses. Nerve impulses travel from the cell body (or dendrites) of one neuron (nerve cell) down the axon and there is only one axon for each neuron. Axons have branches at their ends called axon endings. These sites are where neurotransmitter substances are released into the: -SYNAPSE A tiny fluid-filled space between the axon endings of -one neuron (the presynaptic neuron) and -the dendrites or cell body of another neuron (the postsynaptic neuron) -NEUROTRANSMITTERS Chemical substances that are released into a synapse by a presynaptic neuron when a nerve impulse occurs and that transmit nerve impulses from one neuron to another -IMBALANCES OF NEUROTRANSMITTER SYSTEMS Neurons that are sensitive to a particular neurotransmitter tend to cluster together, forming neural paths between different parts of the brain known as chemical circuits. 5 most extensively studied neurotransmitters 1) norepinephrine 2) dopamine 3) serotonin 4) glutamate 5) Gamma-AminoButyric Acid (GABA) The first 3 belong to a class of neurotransmitters called monoamines because each is synthesized from a single amino acid (monoamine means "one amine"). "neurotransmitters synthesized from a single amino acid" Norepinephrine Catecholamine neurotransmitter substance. Plays an important role in emergency reactions our bodies show when we are exposed to acutely stressful or dangerous situations-attention, orientation. Dopamine Neurotransmitter from the catecholamine family that is initially synthesized from tyrosine, an amino acid common in the diet. Dopamine is produced from L-DOPA by the enzyme dopamine decarboxylase. Pleasure and cognitive functioning implicated in -schizophrenia and -addictive disorders Serotonin A neurotransmitter from the indolamine class that is synthesized from the amino acid tryptophan. Also referred to as 5-HT (5-hydroxytryptamine). This neurotransmitter is thought to be involved in a wide range of psychopathological conditions. -How we think and process behavior from our environments, moods, and behaviors play an important role in emotional disorders (anxiety/suicide) Glutamate An excitatory neurotransmitter that is widespread throughout the brain. -Implicated in schizophrenia GABA (Gamma-AminoButyric Acid) strongly implicated in reducing anxiety as well as other emotional states characterized by high levels of arousal. -HORMONAL IMBALANCES Some forms of psychopathology have also been linked to hormonal imbalances. --HORMONES Chemical messengers secreted by a set of endocrine glands in various parts of our bodies. Each of the endocrine glands produces and releases its own set of hormones directly into our bloodstream. The hormones then travel and directly affect target cells in various parts of our brain and body, influencing events such as - fight-or-flight reactions, - sexual responses, - physical growth --PITUITARY GLAND The endocrine system's most influential gland produces a variety of hormones that regulate or control the other endocrine glands. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands. --HYPOTHALAMIC-PITUITARY ADRENAL (HPA) AXIS A hormonal feedback system that becomes activated by stress and results in the production of cortisol. (1) HPA axis is a hormonal feedback system that becomes activated by stress and results in the production of cortisol (2) Brain endocrine system involved in responding to stress in which the hypothalamus and pituitary send messages to the adrenal glands which release a stress hormone that feeds back on the hypothalamus. Activation of this axis involves the following: 1) Messages in the form of CRH travel from the hypothalamus to the pituitary 2) In response to the corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), the pituitary releases AdrenoCorticoTropic Hormone (ACTH), which stimulates the cortical part of the adrenal gland to produce epinephrine and the stress hormone cortisol 3) Cortisol, in turn, provides negative feedback to the hypothalamus and pituitary to decrease their release of CRH and ACTH, which in turn reduces the release of adrenaline and cortisol. (mobilizes the body to deal with stress) In addition to stimulating the SNS, the hypothalamus releases a hormone called Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone (CRH). Traveling in the blood, this hormone stimulates the pituitary gland. The pituitary then secretes AdrenoCorticoTropic Hormone (ACTH). This induces the adrenal cortex (the outer portion of the adrenal gland) to produce the stress hormones called glucocorticoids Cortisol. Human stress hormones released by the cortex of the adrenal glands. The stress glucocorticoid that is produced is called cortisol Sex hormones are produced by the gonadal glands, and imbalance in these (such as the male hormones, the androgens) can also contribute to maladaptive behavior. TEMPERAMENT refers to a child's reactivity and characteristic ways of self-regulation, which is biologically programmed. Our early temperament is thought to be the basis from which our personality develops. Starting at about 2 to 3 months of age, approximately 5 dimensions of temperament is identified: -Fearfulness, -Irritability/frustration, -Positive affect, -Activity level, and -Attentional persistence/ effortful control, These seem to be related to the 3 important dimensions of adult personality: (1) neuroticism or negative emotionality, (2) extraversion or positive emotionality, (3) constraint (conscientiousness and agreeableness)

Biopsychosocial viewpoint

BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL VIEWPOINT A viewpoint that acknowledges the interacting roles of -biological, -psychosocial, and -sociocultural factors in the origins of psychopathology.

**Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD)

BODY DISMORPHIC DISORDER(BDD) People with BDD are obsessed with some perceived or imagined flaw(s) in their appearance to the point they firmly believe they are disfigured or ugly. Most people with BDD have compulsive checking behaviors (e.g., checking their appearance in the mirror excessively or hiding or repairing a perceived flaw). Avoidance of usual activities because of fear that other people will see the imaginary defect and be repulsed. In severe cases, they may become so isolated that they lock themselves up in their houses and never go out, even to work. People with BDD may focus on almost any body part: - their skin has blemishes, - their breasts are too small, - their face is too thin (or too fat) - disfigured by visible blood vessels that others find repulsive People with this condition frequently seek reassurance from friends and family about their defects, but the reassurances almost never provide more than very temporary relief.

Asylums

Beginning in the 16th century, societies began to put people determined to be suffering from mental illness into: ASYLUMS - places of refuge for people with mental illness & were initially created to remove troublesome individuals who couldn't care for themselves. Most early asylums often referred to as "madhouses" - storage places for people considered to be "insane" Residents of these early asylums lived and died in incredibly filth and cruel conditions. The inmates were treated more like beasts than human beings in the early asylums. -the more violent patients were exhibited to the public for one penny a look, and -the more harmless inmates were forced to seek charity on the streets of London. The Lunatics' Tower in Vienna was constructed in 1784. This structure was a showplace in Old Vienna, where the patients were confined in the spaces between the walls of the rooms and the outside of the tower, where they were put on exhibit to the public for a small fee.

Case study

CASE STUDY An in-depth examination of an individual or family that is drawn from interviews and psychological testing - subject to bias - low generalizability if pertains only to the person being studied

Chronic Acute Mild, Moderate, Severe Episodic Recurrent

CHRONIC A term used to describe a long-standing or frequently recurring disorder, often with progressing seriousness. Long in duration. ACUTE Short in Duration

COGNITIVE-BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVE Albert Bandura Aaron Beck Schema & Self-Schema Assimilation & Accommodation Attributions & Attributional Style

COGNITIVE-BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVE A theory of abnormal behavior that focuses on how thoughts and information processing can become distorted and lead to maladaptive emotions and behavior. AARON BECK (b. 1921) - cognitive theorist pioneered the development of cognitive theories of depression, anxiety, and personality disorders. He also developed CBTreatments for these disorders. ALBERT BANDURA (b. 1925) stressed that people learn more by internal reinforcement. They can visualize the consequences of their actions rather than rely exclusively on environmental reinforcements. He later developed a theory of SELF-EFFICACY - the belief that one can achieve desired goals (1986, 1997). SCHEMA & SELF-SCHEMA We all have schemas about: -Other people (e.g., expectations that they are lazy or career-oriented) -Social roles (e.g., expectations about what the appropriate behaviors for a widow are) -Events (e.g., what sequences of events are appropriate for a particular situation such as someone coping with a loss) SCHEMA is an underlying representation of knowledge that guides the current processing of information and often leads to distortions in attention, memory, and comprehension. People develop different schemas based on their temperament, abilities, and experiences SELF-SCHEMA include our views on who we are, what we might become, and what is important to us. ASSIMILATION A process when we tend to work new experiences into our existing cognitive frameworks, even if the new information has to be reinterpreted or distorted to make it fit. In other words, we are likely to cling to existing assumptions and to reject or distort new information that contradicts them. ACCOMMODATION Changing our existing frameworks to make it possible to incorporate new information that doesn't fit—is more difficult and threatening, especially when important assumptions are challenged. Accommodation is a basic goal of Cognitive & CBT. Another important feature of information processing is that information is processed nonconsciously - outside of our awareness. ATTRIBUTIONS Process of assigning causes to things that happen. ATTRIBUTIONAL STYLE is a characteristic way in which an individual tends to assign causes to bad events or good events. e.g., -people with depression tend to attribute bad events to internal, stable, and global causes ("I failed the test because I'm stupid") -non-depressed people tend to have a self-serving bias in which they are more likely to make internal, stable, and global attributions for positive rather than negative events

Comorbidity

COMMORBIDITY The occurrence of 2 or more identified disorders in the same person. High in people who have severe forms of mental disorders National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R)

Contributory cause

CONTRIBUTORY CAUSE A condition that increases the probability of developing a disorder but that is neither necessary nor sufficient for it to occur. If X occurs, then the probability of Y occurring increases. e.g., parental rejection could increase the probability that a child will later have difficulty in handling close personal relationships or could increase the probability that being rejected in a relationship in adulthood will precipitate depression. We say here that parental rejection could be a contributory cause for the person's later difficulties, but it is neither necessary nor sufficient.

Conversion disorder Conversion Hysteria

CONVERSION DISORDER (Functional Neurological Symptom Disorder) The pattern in which symptoms of some physical malfunction or loss of control appear w/o any underlying organic pathology; originally called hysteria. Originally called hysteria. 4 categories of symptoms: 1. Sensory 2. Motor 3. Seizures 4. Mixed presentation of the first 3 categories Sensory symptoms or deficits are most common in the -- Visual system (especially blindness and tunnel vision) - Auditory system (especially deafness) - Sensitivity to feeling (especially the anesthesias) Conversion disorders are thought to develop as a result of stress or internal conflicts of some kind. "la belle indifference" - beautiful indifference Involves a pattern in which symptoms or deficits affecting the senses or motor behavior strongly suggest that the patient has a medical or neurological condition. However, after a thorough medical examination, it becomes apparent that the pattern of symptoms or deficits cannot be fully explained by any known medical condition. A few typical examples include -partial paralysis, -blindness, -deafness, and -pseudoseizures. Hysteria - An older term used for conversion disorders; involves the appearance of symptoms of organic illness in the absence of any related organic pathology. Causes of Conversion Disorders Conversion disorders are thought to develop as a result of stress or internal conflicts of some kind. Primary gain - In psychodynamic theory, it is the goal achieved by symptoms of conversion disorder by keeping internal intrapsychic conflicts out of awareness. Secondary gain - External circumstances that tend to reinforce the maintenance of disability. CONVERSION HYSTERIA Freud used the term because he believed that the symptoms were an expression of repressed sexual energy, the unconscious conflict that a person felt about his or her repressed sexual desires. In Freud's view, the repressed anxiety threatens to become conscious, so it is unconsciously converted into a bodily disturbance, thereby allowing the person to avoid having to deal with the conflict. Freud also thought that the reduction in anxiety and intrapsychic conflict was the -Primary gain that maintained the condition, but he noted that patients often had many sources of -Secondary gain such as receiving sympathy and attention from loved ones.

Correlate

CORRELATE A factor that co-varies with/associated with, some outcome of interest (e.g., height and weight) A variable (X) that is associated with an outcome of interest (Y) is considered to be a correlate of that outcome. e.g., the experience of -physical abuse during childhood (X) is associated with a -greater risk of depression later in life (Y) ==>so abuse is said to be correlated with depression. But just knowing that 2 things are correlated doesn't tell you if one caused the other

Correlation

CORRELATION The tendency of 2 variables to change together - measures associations among phenomena (-, +, 0:1) - there must be a relationship between the ---presence of the CAUSE & the ---presence of the EFFECT - necessary but NOT sufficient to imply causality

Correlational research

CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH A research strategy that examines: whether and how variables co-vary (go together) w/o manipulating (changing) any variables. - involves studying the world as it is - NO manipulation of variables - any time we study differences between individuals who HAVE a disorder and those who do NOT - the researcher selects certain groups of interest (e.g., people who have recently been exposed to a great deal of stress, or people who lost a parent when they were growing up). Then compare the groups on a variety of different measures (including, in this example, levels of depression). 1st Group - Exposed to stress 2nd Group - Lost a parent in childhood Compare -> Levels of Depression Outcome -> Depression

Cytokines

CYTOKINES Small protein molecules that serve as chemical messengers and allow immune cells to communicate with each other. They can: -augment or enhance an immune response or -cause immunosuppression, depending on the specific one that is released. Interleukin-1 and interferon are examples. Anti-inflammatory Cytokines - Decreases or dampens the response to the immune system, sometimes blocking the synthesis of other cytokines. Pro-inflammatory Cytokines - Helps deal with challenges to our immune system by augmenting the immune response. Under the condition of stress, it's disrupted and affects the healing of wounds.

Treatment of Stress Disorders Stress-Inoculation Training

Crisis intervention - Provision of psychological help to an individual or a group in times of severe and special stress. It is of brief duration and focuses on the immediate problem with which an individual or family is having difficulty A central assumption in crisis-oriented therapy is that the individual was functioning well psychologically before the trauma. Debriefing sessions - A brief, directive treatment method that is used in helping people who have undergone a traumatic situation; usually conducted with small groups of trauma victims shortly after the incident for the purpose of helping them deal with the emotional residuals of the event. It is designed to help and speed up the healing process in people who have experienced disasters or have been exposed to other traumatic situations. Prolonged exposure - A behaviorally oriented treatment strategy in which a patient is asked to vividly recount the traumatic event over and over until the patient experiences a decrease in his or her emotional response. This procedure also involves repeated or extended exposure, either in vivo or in the imagination, to feared (but objectively harmless) stimuli that the patient is avoiding because of trauma-related fear **STRESS-INOCULATION TRAINING A preventive strategy that prepares people to tolerate an anticipated threat by changing the things that say to themselves before or during a stressful event.

Deinstitutionalization

DEINSTITUTIONALIZATION Movement to close mental hospitals and return psychiatric patients to their own community in order to provide more integrated and humane treatment. Many professionals were concerned that the mental hospitals were becoming permanent refuges for mentally ill people who were "escaping" from the demands of everyday living and were settling into a chronic sick role with a permanent excuse for letting other people take care of them.

Dependent & Independent variable

DEPENDENT VARIABLE Variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable - often denoted by Y and is an outcome factor What is the relationship between a -predictor/independent variable and an -outcome/dependent variable? - independent: What are we manipulating - dependent: What are we measuring INDEPENDENT VARIABLE A factor whose effects are being examined and which is manipulated in some way, while other variables are held constant.

Developmental Psychopathology

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOPATHOLOGY The field of psychology focuses on determining what is abnormal at any point in the developmental process by comparing and contrasting it with normal and expected changes that occur in the course of development Emphasizes the importance of understanding developmental norms for a particular behavior in order to consider whether that behavior is abnormal e.g., an intense fear of the dark in a 3-to 5-year-old child may not be considered abnormal, given that most children have at least one specific fear that they bring into early adolescence. However, an intense fear of the dark that causes considerable distress and avoidance behavior in a high school or college-age student would be considered a phobia

Direct observation

DIRECT OBSERVATION Method of collecting research data that involves directly observing behavior in a given situation e.g., Studying aggressive children and may wish to record the # of times children who are classified as being aggressive hit, bite, push, punch, or kick their playmates.

Disadvantages of Classification

DISADVANTAGES OF CLASSIFICATION Loss of information: -Stigma -Stereotyping -Labeling STIGMA Can be perpetrated by the problem of labeling. Associated with having psychiatric disorders. People are less comfortable disclosing their mental illness in part due to the fear (real or imagined) that speaking candidly about having a psychological disorder will result in unwanted social or occupational consequences or discrimination. STEREOTYPING Automatic beliefs concerning other people that are based on minimal information. (e.g., people who wear glasses are more intelligent; New Yorkers are rude). The tendency to jump to conclusions (often negative) about what a person is like based on the beliefs about that group that exists (often incorrectly) in the culture. LABELING Assigning a person to a particular diagnostic category, such as schizophrenia. Once a group of symptoms is given a name and identified by means of a diagnosis, this diagnostic label can be hard to shake even if the person later makes a full recovery. NEGATIVE LABELING -??? Diagnostic classification systems do not classify people. Rather, they classify the disorders that people have.

Dissociation Implicit Memory Implicit Perception

DISSOCIATION The human mind's capacity to mediate complex mental activity in channels split off from conscious awareness. Mild dissociative symptoms occur when we daydream or lose track of what is going on around us when we miss part of a conversation we are engaged in or (when we drive miles beyond our destination without realizing how we got there) Dissociation only becomes pathological when the dissociative symptoms are "perceived as disruptive, invoking a loss of needed information and producing discontinuity of experience". IMPLICIT MEMORY- Memory that occurs below the conscious level. All people routinely show indirect evidence of remembering things they cannot consciously recall (implicit memory) IMPLICIT PERCEPTION - Perception that occurs below the conscious level. All people routinely respond to sights or sounds as if they had perceived them even though they cannot report that they have seen or heard them (implicit perception)

Dissociative Amnesia Dissociative fugue

DISSOCIATIVE AMNESIA Failure to recall previously stored personal information (Retrograde amnesia) when that failure cannot be accounted for by ordinary forgetting. - intolerably stressful circumstances e.g., wartime combat, suicide attempt, trauma. The only type of memory that is affected is: -Episodic - pertaining to events experienced or -Autobiographical memory - pertaining to personal events experienced The other recognized forms of memory are: Semantic - pertaining to language and concepts Procedural - how to do things, and Short-term storage—tend to remain intact. In dissociative amnesia, a person unconsciously avoids thoughts about the situation or, in the extreme, leaves the scene. DISSOCIATIVE FUGUE -A dissociative amnesic state in which the person is not only amnesic for some or all aspects of her past but also departs from home surroundings. Word fugue means "flight". Retrograde amnesia - is the partial or total inability to recall or identify previously acquired information or past experiences Anterograde amnesia - is the partial or total inability to retain new information

Dissociative, Somatic Symptom, Somatoform Disorders

DISSOCIATIVE DISORDER - conditions involving a disruption in an individual's normally integrated functions of consciousness, memory, or identity. When feelings of "being out of it" become so persistent and recurrent that the person has profound and unusual memory deficits (such as not knowing who they are), the diagnosis of a dissociative disorder may be warranted. The dissociative disorders (such as dissociative amnesia and dissociative identity disorder) involve disruptions in explicit memory - which concerns the kind of events we can intentionally remember. SOMATIC SYMPTOM DISORDER A new DSM-5 diagnosis characterized by: Excessive and maladaptive thoughts, feelings, and behaviors related to physical (somatic) symptoms. All 3 of the following must be present: (a) clearly disproportionate and intrusive worries about the seriousness of the symptoms (b) extreme anxiety about the symptoms, (c) excessive time and energy devoted to the symptoms or health concerns. In DSM-5 only one somatic symptom is required. Soma - the Greek word for "body" In the past, both somatic symptom disorders (formerly known as somatoform disorders) and dissociative disorders were included with the various anxiety disorders (and neurotic depression) and considered to be forms of neurosis. SOMATOFORM DISORDERS (old name for SOMATIC SYMPTOM DISORDER) Conditions involving physical complaints or disabilities that occur w/o any evidence of physical pathology to account for them Many people who would have been diagnosed with hypochondriasis in DSM-IV-TR will now be diagnosed with somatic symptom disorder.

Dissociative Disorder Depersonalization/Derealization disorder

DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS Group of conditions involving disruptions in a person's normally integrated functions of consciousness, memory, identity, or perception. Formerly known as multiple personality disorder. DEPERSONALIZATION: Feeling like your thoughts and feelings are not your own. Experiences of unreality, detachment, or being an outside observer with respect to one's thoughts, feelings, sensations, body, or actions. DEREALIZATION: Feeling like the environment around you is not real. Experiences of unreality or detachment with respect to surroundings. When episodes of depersonalization or derealization become persistent and recurrent and interfere with normal functioning, depersonalization/derealization disorder may be diagnosed. Treatment involves psychodynamic therapy, bringing awareness to the unconscious

Dissociative identity disorder (DID)

DISSOCIATIVE IDENTITY DISORDER Formerly known as multiple personality disorder, is the condition in which a person manifests at least 2 or more distinct identities or personality states that alternate in some way in taking control of behavior. "The problem is not having more than one personality, it is having less than one" Alter identities - In a person with DID, personalities other than the host personality. Alter identities take control at different points in time. Switches between them typically occur very quickly (in a matter of seconds), although more gradual switches can also occur. The alter identities may differ in ways involving -gender, -age, -handedness, -handwriting, -sexual orientation, -prescription for eyeglasses, - foreign languages are spoken and etc. Host Identity - The identity is DID that is most frequently encountered and carries the person's real name. In most cases, the host is NOT the original identity, and it may or may not be the best-adjusted identity. Possession Trance - is similar to trance except that the alteration of consciousness or identity is replaced by a new identity that is attributed to the influence of a spirit, deity, or other power Trance - is said to occur when someone experiences a temporary marked alteration in the state of consciousness or identity Posttraumatic theory (of DID) - According to trauma theory, DID starts from the child's attempt to cope with an overwhelming sense of hopelessness and powerlessness in the face of repeated traumatic abuse.

Dorothea Dix & Mental hygiene movement

DOROTHEA DIX (1802-1887), New Englander, who made great strides in changing public attitudes toward the mentally ill, and became an important driving force in humane treatments for psychiatric patients. She carried on a zealous campaign between 1841 and 1881 that aroused people and legislatures to do something about the inhumane treatment accorded to people with mental illness Established 32 mental hospitals. MENTAL HYGIENE MOVEMENT A movement that advocated a method of treatment focused exclusively on the physical well-being of hospitalized patients with mental disorders.

EARLY PSYCHOANALYSIS & FREUD o Dream Analysis o Catharsis o Free Association o Sigmund Freud o Unconscious

EARLY PSYCHOANALYSIS & FREUD 2 methods that helped Freud understand conscious/unconscious thought processes: 1) Free association 2) Dream analysis DREAM ANALYSIS Patients were expected to record and describe their dreams FREE ASSOCIATIONS Patients talk freely about themselves, thereby providing information about their feelings and motives (method of probing the unconscious) CATHARSIS Significant emotional release associated with something, such as by talking about past traumas. PSYCHOANALYSIS A mix of dream analysis and talk therapy used in psychodynamic psychology to uncover the unconscious. FREUD'S PSYCHOANALYTIC PERSPECTIVE The theory of psychopathology emphasized the inner dynamics of unconscious motives and the main focus of psychoanalysis was on the unconscious mind & childhood, based on extensive observation. SIGMUND FREUD Founder of psychoanalysis: - comprehensive theory of psychopathology that emphasized the inner dynamics of unconscious motives - free association - dream analysis - conscious part of the mind relatively small area - the unconscious part is the much larger portion UNCONSCIOUS In psychoanalytic theory, a major portion of the mind, which consists of a hidden mass of instincts, impulses, and memories and is not easily available to conscious awareness, yet plays an important role in behavior.

Emil Kraeplin

EMIL KRAEPLIN (1856-1926) was a German psychiatrist who developed a classification system of the 100s of mental disorders by grouping diseases together based on common patterns of symptoms. Kraepelin also demonstrated that mental disorders showed specific patterns in their genetics, course, and outcome

Epidemiology

EPIDEMIOLOGY Study of the DISTRIBUTION of diseases, disorders, and health-related behaviors in a given population.

Etiology

ETIOLOGY Causes of disorders. Factors that are related to the development (or cause) of a particular disorder.

Exorcisms & Witchcraft

EXORCISM & WITCHCRAFT Religiously inspired treatment procedure designed to drive out evil spirits from a "possessed" person. Trepanation involved carving or boring holes in the person's head in order to let out the evil spirits inside. WITCHCRAFT There were 2 types of demonically possessed people: - physically possessed were considered "mad" - spiritually possessed were considered "witches" "The typical accused witch was not a mentally ill person but an impoverished woman with a sharp tongue and a bad temper" Many people with mental disturbances were accused of being witches and thus were punished and often killed. WEYER argued that those accused of witchcraft were really mentally ill and not deserving of persecution. In response, his peers made fun of him and called him "Weirus Insanus"

Experimental research

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH involves the manipulation of a given variable or factor with everything else held constant.

Exposure and response prevention

EXPOSURE & RESPONSE PREVENTION A method of treatment for OCD that combines intense exposure of the patient to feared conditions and then they are asked not to respond by engaging in their usual rituals to the feared stimuli. The exposure component involves having individuals with OCD repeatedly expose themselves (either in guided fantasy or directly) to stimuli that provoke their obsessions (e.g., for someone with contamination fears this may involve touching a toilet seat in a public bathroom). The response prevention component requires that they then refrain from engaging in the rituals

Exposure therapy

EXPOSURE THERAPY A technique in the psychological treatment of anxiety disorders that involves exposing the patient to the feared object or context without any danger in order to overcome the anxiety. Considered the most effective treatment for specific phobias

Factitious disorder Factitious disorder imposed on another/ Factitious disorder by proxy(referred to as Munchausen's syndrome by proxy)

FACTITIOUS DISORDER The person intentionally produces psychological or physical symptoms (or both). The person's goal is to obtain and maintain the benefits that playing the "sick role" may provide, including the attention and concern of family and medical personnel. FACTITIOUS DISORDER IMPOSED ON ANOTHER FACTITIOUS DISORDER BY PROXY MUNCHAUSEN'S SYNDROME BY PROXY - is an ICD version of this disorder The diagnosis is given when a person intentionally falsifies medical or psychological symptoms in another adult, a child, or even a pet. This is an ACTUAL psychological disorder and occurs in the absence of any external reward. This person is usually someone (a child) who is under his or her care. In a typical instance, a mother presents her own child for treatment of a medical condition she has deliberately caused. To produce symptoms, the mother might withhold food from the child, add blood to the child's urine, give the child drugs to make him or her throw up, or heat up thermometers to make it seem as if the child has a fever. If the child is hospitalized, the mother might deliberately infect an intravenous (IV) line to make the child more ill.

Family aggregation

FAMILY AGGREGATION Whether a disorder runs in families. The clustering of certain traits, behaviors, or disorders within a given family.

Risk Factors & Causes of Abnormal Behavior

FIXED MARKER A risk factor that can not change within a person e.g., race can not vary within a person. **IFF-> X is shown to occur before Y can we infer that -->X is a risk factor for Y. It is a factor that is associated with an increased risk of developing condition Y. IF-> X can be changed, then it is considered to be a variable risk factor for outcome Y. IF NOT-> then it is a fixed marker of outcome Y e.g., the case with a history of abuse during childhood. The key question for causality is whether changing X leads to a change in Y. IF NOT-> then X is considered a variable marker of Y to be **CAUSAL RISK FACTOR - a variable risk factor that, when changed, changes the likelihood of the outcomes of interest. e.g. if effectively treating depression decreased the risk of suicide, we would call it a causal risk factor. **RISK FACTOR - a correlate that occurs before some outcome of interest. e.g. depression is a risk factor for suicide Actions or behaviors that represent a potential health threat. Circumstances that are correlated with an increased likelihood of a disorder that may contribute to causing it. **VARIABLE MARKER A variable risk factor that, when change, doesn't influence the outcome of interest. (i.e., it can vary, but it is still a marker of increased risk for the outcome of interest) **VARIABLE RISK FACTOR A risk factor that can change within a person. (e.g., level of depression can vary within a person).

Mesmerism & Franz Anton Mesmer

FRANZ ANTON MESMER (1734-1815), an Austrian physician further developed the ideas (of Paracelsus) about the influence of the planets on the human body. He believed that the planets affected a universal magnetic fluid in the body, and the distribution of fluids determined health or disease. Mesmer concluded that all people possessed magnetic forces that could be used to influence the distribution of magnetic fluids, thus effecting cures. He was branded a fraud by colleagues, and despite limitations, mesmerism had an influence on psychology/ hypnosis. Theory of "Animal Magnetism" (Hypnosis) formatted by Anton Mesmer.

Generalizability

GENERALIZABILITY The extent to which the findings from a single study can be used to draw conclusions about other samples e.g., Another concern is that the material in a case study is often relevant only to the individual being described. This means that the conclusions of a case study have low generalizability. That is, they cannot be used to draw conclusions about other cases even when those cases involve people with a seemingly similar abnormality.

Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)

GENERALIZED ANXIETY DISORDER Chronic excessive worry about a number of events or activities, with no specific threat present, accompanied by at least 3 of the following symptoms from DSM-5: 1. Restlessness or feeling keyed up or on edge. 2. Being easily fatigued. 3. Difficulty concentrating or mind going blank. 4. Irritability. 5. Muscle tension. 6. Sleep disturbance (difficulty falling or staying asleep, or restless, unsatisfying sleep People suffering from GAD live in a relatively constant, future-oriented mood state of anxious apprehension, chronic tension, worry, and diffuse uneasiness that they cannot control. They also show marked vigilance for possible signs of threat in the environment and frequently engage in subtle avoidance activities such as procrastination, checking, calling a loved one frequently to see if he or she is safe.

GENETIC VULNERABILITIES - Genes - Chromosomes - Chromosomal Abnormalities - Polygenic - Genotype & Phenotype - Genotype-Environment Interactions (separate card) - Genotype-Environment Correlations (separate card)

GENETIC VULNERABILITIES GENES Long molecules of DNA (DeoxyriboNucleic Acid) that are present at various locations on chromosomes and that are responsible for the transmission of hereditary rates. Genes are the carriers of the information that we inherit from our parents (we all have 2 copies of each gene—one from each parent), and each gene exists in 2 or more alternate forms called ALLELES. Genes don't fully determine whether a person develops a mental disorder, but mental disorders show at least some genetic influence CHROMOSOMES Chain-like structures within the cell nucleus that contain genes. Each human cell has 23 pairs of chromosomes (46 total) containing genetic materials that encode the hereditary plan for each individual. One copy of each chromosome comes from the mother and one from the father. 22 of these chromosome pairs determine, by their -biochemical action, human's general -anatomical and other -physiological characteristics. The remaining pair, the sex chromosomes, determines the individual's sex. If both of these are X chromosomes -> a female (XX). If the sex chromosome inherited from the father is a Y chromosome -> a male (XY). Each chromosome contains 100s/1000s of genes. CHROMOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES Down syndrome is a type of intellectual disability in which there is a trisomy (a set of 3 chromosomes (instead of 2) in chromosome 21. The extra chromosome is the primary cause of the disorder. Anomalies may also occur in the sex chromosomes, producing complications, such as ambiguous sexual characteristics, that may predispose a person to develop abnormal behavior. Personality traits and mental disorders are more often influenced either: -by abnormalities in some of the genes on the chromosomes or -by naturally occurring variations of genes known as polymorphisms. Vulnerabilities to mental disorders are almost always polygenic. POLYGENIC means mental disorders are influenced by multiple genes or by multiple polymorphisms of genes, with any one gene having only very small effects. GENOTYPE & PHENOTYPE GENOTYPE A person's total genetic endowment, except for identical twins, no 2 humans have the same genetic makeup. PHENOTYPE The observed structural and functional characteristics of a person that result from the interaction between the genotype and the environment. (i.e. skin color, hair color, eye color, and behavior, etc.)

Genotype-environment correlation

GENOTYPE-ENVIRONMENT CORRELATION Genotypic vulnerability that can shape a child's environmental experiences. When genotype shapes environmental experiences in a way for e.g., kid genetically made up of aggression and is rejected by his peers early on for it. Causes him to hang with kids who are aggressive and the environment caters to aggression 3 important ways a person's genotype shape the environment: 1. Passive effect, 2. Evocative effect, 3. Active effect Genotype-environment correlation (3) 1) Childs genotype may have a passive effect on the environment resulting from a genetic similarity of parents and children Passive Effect An effect on the environment resulting from the genetic similarity of parents and children 2) Child's genotype may evoke particular kinds of reactions from the social and physical environment. Evocative Effect A child's genotype may evoke particular kinds of reactions from the social and physical environment. (e.g., active, happy babies draw out more positive responses from others) 3) Child's genotype may a more active role in shaping the environment. Active Effect a child's genotype may play a more active role in shaping the environment that is congenial "niche building"

Genotype-environment interaction

GENOTYPE-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION People with different genotypes may be differentially sensitive or susceptible to their own environments. e.g., people with a genetic vulnerability to PKU react very differently to common foods with phenylalanine because they cannot metabolize the amino acid and its metabolic products.

Health psychology

HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY Subspecialty within behavioral medicine that deals with psychology's contributions to the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of psychological components of physical dysfunction.

Hippocrates & Early Medical Concepts

HIPPORCATERS, the Greek physician (460-377 b.c.) referred to as the "father of modern medicine", shifted the understanding of mental disorders from the work of supernatural forces to problems in the human body. Hippocrates: -Denied that demons intervened in the development of illnesses -Insisted that mental disorders had natural causes and appropriate treatments. He emphasized that the: - brain is the central organ of intellectual activity - mental disorders were due to brain pathology - the importance of heredity and predisposition - injuries to the head could cause sensory and motor disorders. He classified all mental disorders into 3 general categories: - Mania, - Melancholia, - Phrenitis (brain fever) The 4 elements of the material world are: - Earth, - Air, - Fire, - Water which had 4 attributes of: - heat, - cold, - moistness, - dryness The paradigms were explaining elements combined to form the 4 essential humors (fluids) of the body and personality "types"/temperament. ->Blood (sanguis): - produced by LIVER -->its element was AIR --->its attributes were Hot & Moist ---->its personality type - sanguine (active, optimistic) ->Phlegm - produced by LUNGS -->its element was WATER --->its qualities were Cold & Moist ---->its personality type - phlegmatic (calm, relaxed) ->Yellow bile (choler) - produced by SPLEEN -->its element was FIRE --->its qualities were Hot & Dry ---->its personality type - the choleric (agitated, irritable) ->Black bile (melancholic) - produced by GALLBLADDER -->its element was EARTH --->its qualities were Cold & Dry ---->its personality type - melancholic (pensive, thoughtful) Hippocrates considered dreams to be important in understanding a patient's personality and was a harbinger of a basic concept of modern psychodynamic psychotherapy. e.g., for the treatment of melancholia, he prescribed a regular and tranquil life, sobriety and abstinence from all excesses, a vegetable diet, celibacy, exercise short of fatigue, and bleeding if indicated. -He recognized the importance of the environment and often removed his patients from their families. -His emphasis on the natural causes of diseases, clinical observation, and brain pathology as the root of mental disorders was truly revolutionary. -He believed that hysteria was restricted to women and was caused by the "uterus wandering". For this "disease," Hippocrates recommended marriage as the best remedy. -He relied heavily on clinical observation and his descriptions.

Hoarding disorder

HOARDING DISORDER A new DSM-5 diagnosis characterized by long-standing difficulties discarding possessions, even those of little value. People with hoarding disorder both acquire and fail to discard many possessions that seem useless or of very limited value, in part because of the emotional attachment they develop to their possessions.

Humanistic Theory

HUMANISTIC THEORY People continually seek experiences that make them better, more fulfilled individuals. An explanation of behavior that emphasizes the entirety of life rather than individual components of behavior and focuses on human dignity, individual choice, and self-worth.

Hypothesis

HYPOTHESIS Premise or claim that we want to test/investigate (surveying people to get the data) It is an attempt to explain, predict, or explore something Scientists attempt to test their hypotheses by designing research studies that will help them approach a fuller understanding of how and why things happen.

Illness anxiety disorder (Hypochondriasis)

ILLNESS ANXIETY DISORDER (HYPOCHONDRIASIS) Disorder in which a person interprets normal physical sensations as symptoms of a disease: - previously hypochondriasis - really believe they are ill - exaggerated interpretations of physical complaints - shop for doctors It qualifies for the diagnosis of somatic symptom disorder in DSM-5, and Illness anxiety disorder is new to DSM-5. Older diagnostic and ideas that disorders such as these were "all in the mind"

Immune System

IMMUNE SYSTEM The body's principal means of defending itself against the intrusion of foreign substances. The immune system protects the body from viruses & bacteria. Latin "immunis", which means "exempt." The immune system has a "memory" of the invader. -If it is too weak, it cannot function effectively, and the body succumbs to damage from invading viruses and bacteria. -If the immune system is too strong and unselective, it can turn on the body's own healthy cells => of autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and lupus. The front line of defense in the immune system is the white blood cells. These Leukocytes (Lymphocytes) - the generalized term for white blood cells involved in immune protection are produced in the bone marrow and then stored in various places throughout the body, such as the spleen and the lymph nodes. There are 2 important types of leukocytes: -B-cell (so named because it matures in the bone marrow) produces specific antibodies that circulate in the blood and are designed to respond to specific antigens. -T-cell (so named because it matures in the thymus-an important endocrine gland). When the immune system is stimulated, B-cells and T-cells become activated and multiply rapidly, mounting various forms of counterattack Antigens - a foreign body (such as viruses and bacteria as well as internal invaders such as tumors and cancer cells) or an internal threat that can trigger an immune response. B-cell - A type of white blood cell, produce in the bone marrow, that is very important in the immune system. This process is facilitated by cytokines - small protein molecules, that an important component of the immune system (like interleukin-1) that are released by the T-cells. Production of antibodies takes 5 days or more. T-cell - A type of white blood cell, when activated, can recognize specific antigens; play an important role in the immune system. T-cells circulate through the blood and lymph systems in an inactive form. Each T-cell has receptors on its surface that recognize one specific type of antigen. T-cells are unable to recognize antigens by themselves & become activated when immune cells called macrophages (the word means "big eater") detect antigens and start to engulf and digest them. To activate the T-cells, the macrophages release a chemical known as interleukin-1. With the help of the macrophages, the T-cells become activated and are able to begin to destroy antigens

Indicators of Abnormality

INDICATORS OF ABNORMALITY Subjective distress, Maladaptiveness, Statistical deviancy, Violation of society norms, Irrationality and unpredictability, Dangerousness.

Insanity

INSANITY Term for a mental disorder, implying a lack of responsibility for one's acts and inability to manage one's affairs.

Internal validity

INTERNAL VALIDITY The extent to which a study -is free of confounds -is methodologically sound and -allows the researcher to have confidence in the findings. Confidence in the results of a given study e.g., a researcher is interested in how heart rate changes when participants are told that they are about to be given an electric shock. Imagine also how much faith you might have in the results of the research if participants who have just completed the study are allowed to chat in the waiting area with people who are just about to participate. Failure to control the exchange of information in this way clearly jeopardizes the integrity of the study and is a threat to its internal validity EXTERNAL VALIDITY The extent to which the -findings from a single study are -relevant to other populations, contexts, or times. Degree to which research findings from a specific study can be generalized to other samples, contexts, or times - e.g., A research study that involves both males and females from all age groups, income levels, and educational levels is more representative of the underlying population (and will have greater external validity) than research using only female college students, for example.

Intrapsychic conflicts Ego Analysis

INTRAPSYCHIC CONFLICTS Freud believed that the interplay of id, ego, and superego is of crucial significance in determining behavior. Often inner mental conflicts arise because the 3 subsystems are striving for different goals. If unresolved, these intrapsychic conflicts lead to mental disorders. EGO ANALYSIS emphasizes the patient's coping with the: - external (past/present relationships) - internal (unconscious) world

*Johann Weyer

Johann Weyer (1515-1588), a German physician and writer (JOHANNES WIERUS), was deeply disturbed by the imprisonment, torture, and burning of people whose strange behavior led them to be accused of witchcraft. He was one of the first physicians to specialize in the study and attempted treatment of mental disorders. His wide experience and progressive views justify his reputation as the founder of modern psychopathology. He was scorned by his peers, many of whom called him "Weirus Hereticus" and "Weirus Insanus." His works were banned by the Church and remained so until the 20th century

Newer psychodynamic perspectives

Later theorists developed some of Freud's basic ideas in 3 different directions. - Ego Psychology - Object-Relations Theory - Interpersonal Perspective - Attachment theory EGO PSYCHOLOGY Psychodynamic theory emphasizing the importance of the ego - "executive branch of the personality", in organizing normal personality development Psychopathology develops when the ego: -does not function adequately to control or delay impulse gratification or -does not make adequate use of defense mechanisms when faced with internal conflicts. This school became known as ego psychology. One new direction was taken by Freud's daughter Anna Freud (1895-1982), who was concerned with how the ego performs its central functions as the "executive" of personality. OBJECT-RELATIONS THEORY Focus on: -a person's interactions with real and imagined other people (external and internal objects) and on -the relationships that people experience between their external and internal objects. Object refers to the symbolic representation of another person in the infant's or child's environment, most often a parent. e.g., Borderline personality, whose main characteristic is instability, are individuals who are unable to achieve a full and stably identify of self because of an inability to integrate and reconcile pathological internalized objects INTERPERSONAL PERSPECTIVES Psychopathology is rooted in the tendencies we develop while dealing with our interpersonal environments; it thus focuses on our relationships, past and present, with other people. Emphasizes social and cultural forces rather than inner instincts as determinants of behavior We are social beings, and we are a product of our relationships with others. ATTACHMENT THEORY Contemporary developmental and psychodynamic theory emphasizing the importance of early experience with attachment relationships in laying the foundation for later functioning throughout life. Bowlby believed a primary human characteristic is to form attachments to caregivers; healthy attachments are necessary for healthy development Bowlby's attachment theory states that the critical factor in development is the quality of attachment formed between infant and parent; attachment theory has strong empirical support.

Association studies and Linkage analysis

Linkage analysis and Association studies attempt to determine the actual location of genes responsible for mental disorders. ASSOCIATION STUDY Genetic research strategy comparing the frequency of certain genetic markers known to be located on particular chromosomes in people with and w/o a particular disorder. Start with 2 large groups of individuals, - one group w/ and - one group w/o given disorder. Researchers then compare the frequencies in these groups of certain genetic markers that are known to be located on particular chromosomes. If one or more of the known genetic markers occur with much higher frequency in the individual with the disorder, the researchers infer that one or more genes associated with the disorder are located on the same chromosome. LINKAGE ANALYSIS Genetic research strategy in which the occurrence of a disorder in an extended family is compared with that of a genetic marker for a physical characteristic or biological process that is known to be located on a particular chromosome. e.g., researchers might conduct a large family lineage study on schizophrenia, looking at all known relatives of a person with schizophrenia going back several generations. They might also keep track of something like the eye color of each individual. Eye color might be chosen because it has a known genetic marker located on a particular chromosome. If the researchers found that the familial patterns for schizophrenia in one family lineage were closely linked to the familial patterns for eye color in the same lineage, they could infer that a gene affecting schizophrenia might be located nearby on the chromosome that contains the known genetic marker for eye color.

Malingering

MALINGERING The person is intentionally producing or exaggerating physical symptoms and is motivated by external incentives such as avoiding work or military service or evading criminal prosecution. Consciously faking illness or symptoms of disability to achieve some specific non-medical objective. - NOT a mental disorder - motivated by external or tangible incentives/gains e.g., lie about one's drinking/depression if in a custody battle. The difference between a factitious disorder and malingering is in factitious disorder, the person receives no tangible external rewards.

Mass madness Saint Vitus's Dance Tarantism

MASS MADNESS/MASS HYSTERIA When a group of people collectively believe they are sick and exhibit similar symptoms despite no environmental cause. Common symptoms: fainting, dizziness, nausea, chest pain, and hyperventilation Historically, widespread occurrences of group behavior disorders that were apparently cases of hysteria. SAINT VITUS'S DANCE Name given to the dancing mania (and mass hysteria) that spread from Italy to Germany and the rest of Europe in the Middle Ages in the 13th century. People believed that a saint named Saint Vitus was to blame. He was said to have the ability to take people's minds with the compulsion to dance. TARANTISM (Dancing mania) A disorder that included an uncontrollable impulse to dance that was often attributed to the bite of a tarantula or wolf spider.

Meta-analysis

META-ANALYSIS It is a statistical approach to combining evidence across multiple studies to address a research question. Meta-analysis allows using all available data to arrive at the best possible understanding of what treatments work. It is a cornerstone of evidence-based medicine.

METHODS FOR STUDYING GENETIC INFLUENCES - Behavior Genetics - Family History Method - Twin Method - Adoption Method - Genetic & Environmental Influences

METHODS FOR STUDYING GENETIC INFLUENCES BEHAVIOR GENETICS This field studies the heritability of mental disorders & other aspects of psychological functioning such as personality and intelligence. 3 primary methods used in behavior genetics: (1) the family history method, (2) the twin method, (3) the adoption method The FAMILY HISTORY METHOD Research strategy that examines the incidence of the disorder in relatives of an index case to determine whether incidence increases in proportion to the degree of the hereditary relationship. The TWIN METHOD The use of identical and non-identical twins to study genetic influences on abnormal behavior. Monozygotic (Identical) twins share the same genetic endowment because they develop from a single zygote or fertilized egg. CONCORDANCE RATE The percentage of twins sharing a disorder or trait. If one identical twin had a particular disorder, the other twin would as well. Dizygotic twins develop from 2 different fertilized eggs and so do not share any more genes than do siblings from the same parents. The ADOPTION METHOD Comparison of biological and adoptive relatives with and w/o a given disorder to assess genetic versus environmental influence GENETIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES Because all of the 3 types of heritability studies separate heredity from the environment, they also allow for testing the influence of environmental factors and for differentiating "shared" and "nonshared" environmental influences. --SHARED ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES are those that would make children in a family more similar, whether the influence occurs: -within the family (e.g., family discord and poverty) or -in the environment (e.g., 2 high-quality schools, with one twin going to each). --NONSHARED ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES are those in which the children in a family differ. These would include unique experiences at school and also some unique features of upbringing in the home, such as a parent treating one child in a qualitatively different way from another.

Moral Management

MORAL MANAGEMENT A method of treatment that focuses on a patient's social, individual, and occupational needs Became widespread emphasized on the rehabilitation of their "character". It was very effective but abandoned in the 19th century

Exteroceptive conditioning Interoceptive conditioning

Modifying the perception of the environmental stimuli acting on the body. A comprehensive learning theory of panic disorder suggests that initial panic attacks become associated with initially neutral -internal (interoceptive) and -external (exteroceptive) cues through an -interoceptive conditioning or -exteroceptive conditioning process, which leads anxiety to become conditioned to this conditioned stimuli, and the more intense the panic attack, the more robust the conditioning that will occur. Interoceptive conditioning - fear of various internal bodily sensations This term involves 2 conditioned stimuli and one unconditioned response (similar to classical conditioning) Exteroceptive conditioning - Modifying the perception of environmental stimuli acting on the body.

Necessary Cause Sufficient Cause

NECESSARY CAUSE A condition that MUST be present for a disorder (Y) to occur. There are different types of causal relations (patterns) in the etiology. A necessary cause (X) is a characteristic that must exist for a disorder (Y) to occur. e.g., Huntington's chorea—a rare degenerative brain disorder of the central nervous system—which can develop only if the person has the necessary gene. e.g., GENERAL PARESYS (Y)—a degenerative brain disorder—can not develop unless a person has previously contracted syphilis (X). -If Disorder Y occurs, then Cause X MUST have preceded it SUFFICIENT CAUSE A condition that guarantees the occurrence of a disorder. e.g., one current theory hypothesizes that hopelessness (X) is a sufficient cause of depression (Y). -If X occurs, then Y will also occur. However, sufficient cause may not be a necessary cause. e.g., Stress is a necessary cause, meaning that it has to be present for these disorders to develop, it is not a sufficient cause. Not everyone who experiences stress will develop a stress-related disorder

Negative correlation Positive correlation

NEGATIVE CORRELATION a relationship between 2 variables such that a -High score on one variable is associated with a -Low score on another variable. - ex: as a person increasing exercise, a person's weight goes down POSITIVE CORRELATION A relationship between 2 variables such that a -high score on one variable is associated with a -high score on another variable

Neurotic disorders

NEUROTIC DISORDER Psychodynamic term for anxiety-driven mental health conditions that are manifest through avoidance patterns and defensive reactions

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) - Anxiety disorder

OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE DISORDER (OCD) Defined by the occurrence of both obsessive thoughts and compulsive behaviors performed in an attempt to neutralize such thoughts. OBSESSIONS - are persistent and recurrent intrusive thoughts, images, or impulses that are experienced as disturbing, inappropriate, and uncontrollable. People who have such obsessions actively try to resist or suppress them or to neutralize them with some other thought or action. Compulsions involve overt repetitive behaviors driven to perform in response to an obsession. - over repetitive behaviors(such as hand washing or checking) or more - covert mental acts (such as counting, praying, saying certain words silently, or ordering)

Galen

One of the most influential Greek physicians GALEN (a.d. 130-200), practiced in Rome. He made original contributions concerning the anatomy of the nervous system by DISSECTING ANIMALS (human autopsies were not yet allowed at that time). He divided the causes of psychological disorders into 2 categories: - physical (injuries to the head) - mental (disappointment in love, excessive use of alcohol, shock, fear, adolescence, menstrual changes, economic reversals)

Panic attack

PANIC ATTACK A severe, intense fear response that appears to come out of the blue; it has many physical and cognitive symptoms such as losing control. These latter cognitive symptoms do not generally occur during fear states. Thus, fear and panic have 3 components: 1. Cognitive/subjective components (e.g., "I'm going to die") 2. Physiological components (e.g., increased heart rate and heavy breathing) 3. Behavioral components (e.g., a strong urge to escape).

Panic disorder

PANIC DISORDER The occurrence of repeated "unexpected" panic attacks, often accompanied by intense anxiety about having another one and often seem to come "out of the blue." Panic attacks are fairly brief but intense, with symptoms developing abruptly and usually -reaching peak intensity within 10 minutes; the attacks often -subside in 20 to 30 minutes and rarely -last more than an hour and having an attack for -at least a month Panic attacks sometimes occur in situations in which they might be least expected, such as during relaxation or during sleep (known as nocturnal panic). In other cases, however, panic attacks are said to be situationally predisposed, occurring only sometimes while the person is in a particular situation such as while driving a car or being in a crowd. DSM-5 1. Palpitations, pounding heart or accelerated heart rate. 2. Sweating. 3. Trembling or shaking. 4. Sensations of shortness of breath or smothering. 5. Feelings of choking. 6. Chest pain or discomfort. 7. Nausea or abdominal distress. 8. Feeling dizzy, unsteady, light-headed, or faint. 9. Chills or heat sensations. 10. Paresthesias (numbness or tingling sensations). 11. Derealization (feelings of unreality) or depersonalization (being detached from oneself). 12. Fear of losing control or "going crazy." 13. Fear of dying

*Paracelsus

PARACELSUS (1490-1541), a Swiss physician, was an early critic of superstitious beliefs about possession. He insisted that mania was not a possession but a form of the disease and that it should be treated as such. He also postulated a conflict between the instinctual and spiritual natures of human beings, formulated the idea of psychic causes for mental illness, and advocated treatment by "bodily magnetism," later called hypnosis. He rejected demonology, and his view of abnormal behavior was colored by his belief in astral influences (lunatic is derived from the Latin word luna, or "moon"). He was convinced that the moon exerted a supernatural influence over the brain.

Phillipe Pinel & Humanitarian Reform

PHILLIPE PINEL, French physician (1745-1826) was placed in charge of La Bicêtre, a hotel in Paris. Pinel's experiment: He instituted the removal of chains from patients as an experiment to test his views that people with mental illness should be treated with kindness and consideration and not as criminals or dangerous animals. HUMANITARIAN REFORM: - chains were removed; - sunny rooms were provided; - patients were permitted to exercise on the hospital grounds; - The effect was miraculous. The noise, filth, and abuse were replaced by order and peace. Philippe Pinel recognized for his contributions to the humane treatment of people with mental disorders and advanced the understanding of melancholia by improving a classification schema and examining the causes of the disorder.

Phobia

PHOBIA Persistent & disproportionate fear of various objects or -specific situations (airplanes or elevators), -other species (snakes, spiders), -aspects of the environment (high places, water) that presents little or no actual danger. 3 main categories of phobias are: (1) specific phobia, (2) social anxiety (3) agoraphobia SPECIFIC PHOBIA is present if a person shows strong and persistent fear that is triggered by the presence of a specific object or situation and leads to significant distress and/or impairment in a person's ability to function Often resembles a panic attack except for the existence of a clear external trigger. SOCIAL ANXIETY DISORDER (Social Phobia) - Fear of situations in which a person might be exposed to the scrutiny of others and fear of acting in a humiliating or embarrassing way. AGORAPHOBIA - (Agora Greek for "open gathering place") Fear of being in places or situations where a panic attack may occur & from which escape would be physically difficult or psychologically embarrassing, or in which immediate help would be unavailable in the event that some mishap occurred. Agoraphobia was thought to involve a fear of the In agoraphobia, the most commonly feared and avoided situations include crowded places such as: -streets, -shopping malls, -movie theaters, -stores. Agoraphobia is a frequent complication of panic disorder. Typically people with agoraphobia are also frightened by their own bodily sensations, so they also avoid activities that will create arousal such as exercising, watching scary movies, drinking caffeine, and even engaging in sexual activity. - In moderately severe cases, people with agoraphobia may be anxious even when venturing outside their homes alone. - In very severe cases, agoraphobia is an utterly disabling disorder in which a person can not go beyond the narrow confines of home—or even particular parts of the home **BLOOD-INJECTION-INJURY PHOBIA Persistent and disproportionate fear (disgust) of the sight of blood or injury, or the possibility of having an injection. Afflicted persons are likely to experience a drop in blood pressure and sometimes faint occurs in 3-4 % of the population. It is highly heritable

Plato

PLATO, the Greek philosopher (429-347 b.c.) studied people with mental disturbances who had committed CRIMINAL ACTS and how to deal with them. -He wrote that such persons were not responsible for their acts and should not receive punishment in the same way as normal persons. -He made provisions for mental cases to be cared for in the community. His ideas regarding treatment included a provision for "hospital" care for individuals who developed beliefs that ran counter to those of the broader social order.

Primary Process Thinking, Secondary Process Thinking, Pleasure Principles Reality Principles

PLEASURE PRINCIPLE Demand that an instinctual need be immediately gratified regardless of reality or moral consideration. The Id operates on the pleasure principle, engaging in completely selfish and pleasure-oriented behavior, concerned only with the immediate gratification of instinctual needs without reference to reality or moral considerations --PRIMARY PROCESS THINKING Mental images and wish-fulfilling fantasies generated by the Id. Although the id can generate mental images and wish-fulfilling fantasies, referred to as primary process thinking, it cannot undertake the realistic actions needed to meet instinctual demands. REALITY PRINCIPLE Awareness of the demands of the environment and adjustment of behavior to meet these demands. The tendency of the ego to postpone gratification until it can find an appropriate outlet --SECONDARY PROCESS THINKING Reality-oriented rational processes of the ego for dealing with the external world and the exercise of control over id demands. Ego's adaptive measures Ego on the reality principle

Positive psychology

POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY A new field that focuses on human traits and resources such as humor, gratitude, and compassion that might have direct implications for our physical and mental well-being.

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER(PTSD) Occurs following an extreme traumatic event, in which a person -experiences the event, -avoids reminders of the trauma, & -exhibits persistent increased arousal, and causes a pathological memory. In PTSD a traumatic event is thought to cause a pathological memory and these memories are often brief fragments of the experience and typically concern events that happened just before the moment with the largest emotional impact. The factor that is crucially important with respect to the development of PTSD is the degree of direct exposure to the traumatic event. DSM-5 recognizes 20 symptoms in total. These are grouped into 4 main areas and concern the following: 1. INTRUSION: Recurrent reexperiencing of the traumatic event through nightmares, intrusive images, and physiological reactivity to reminders of the trauma. (In DSM-IV ruminative thoughts about the trauma were also considered to reflect intrusion. This is not the case in DSM-5.) 2. AVOIDANCE: Efforts to avoid thoughts, feelings, or reminders of the trauma. 3. NEGATIVE ALTERATIONS IN COGNITIONS & MOOD: This includes such symptoms as feelings of detachment as well as negative emotional states such as shame or anger, or distorted blame of oneself or others. 4. AROUSAL & REACTIVITY: Hypervigilance, excessive response when startled, aggression, and reckless behavior. PREVALENCE of PTSD The lifetime prevalence in this US is 6.8 %, the NCS-R data showed that the lifetime prevalence of PTSD is higher in women. Women - 9.7% Men - 3.6%

Prepared learning

PREPARED LEARNING occurs because, over the course of evolution, humans who rapidly acquired fears of certain objects or situations that posed real threats to our early ancestors may have enjoyed a selective advantage (meaning, they survived more often than those who had no fear of such things). Thus, "prepared" fears are not inborn or innate but rather are easily acquired or especially resistant to extinction.

Prevalence, Incidence & Types of Prevalence

PREVALENCE The number of active cases in a population during any given period of time including - usually expressed in % (e.g. % of the population who has the disorder). How much of the disease is there? It is a burden of the disease. The # of cases/number of total people * 1000 a) Point Prevalence: Estimated proportion of active cases of the disorder in a given population at a given point in time. e.g., want to conduct a study and count the # of people who have major depressive disorder on Jan 1st of next year (someone who managed to recover by Jan 1 is not in the study) b) 1-Year Prevalence: Count everyone who experienced depression at any point in time throughout the entire year - a higher figure of prevalence because it is over a longer period of time c) Lifetime Prevalence: An estimate of the # of people who have had a particular disorder at any time in their lives (even if they are now recovered) - the highest figure usually in terms of prevalence because the longest period of time Because they extend over an entire lifetime and include both currently ill and recovered individuals, lifetime prevalence estimates tend to be higher than other kinds of prevalence estimates. INCIDENCE A number of new cases that occur in a given period of time (typically 1 year), and exclude preexisting cases - Incidence figures tend to be lower than prevalence figures because they exclude preexisting cases. - it is the rate, how fast disease is occurring, - it is a measure of risk. e.g., if we were assessing the 1-year incidence of schizophrenia, we would not count people whose schizophrenia began before our given starting date (even if they were still ill) because they are not "new" cases of schizophrenia. On the other hand, someone who was quite well previously but then developed schizophrenia during our 1-year window would be included in our incidence estimate. The # of new cases/number of total population * 1000

Prospective & Retrospective Research strategies

PROSPECTIVE RESEARCH The method that often focuses on people who have a higher-than-average likelihood of becoming psychologically disordered before abnormal behavior is observed. This involves looking ahead in time. We can have much more confidence in our hypotheses about the causes of a disorder if we have been tracking influences and measuring them prior to the development of the illness in question RETROSPECTIVE RESEARCH Attempts to retrace earlier events in the life of a subject. This involves looking back in time. We would try to collect information about how the patients behaved early in their lives with the goal of identifying factors that might have been associated with what went wrong later. In some cases, our source material might be limited to a patient's recollections, the recollections of family members, material from diaries, or other records. A challenge with this technique is the potential for memories to be both faulty and selective.

PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE - Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory --Id --Ego --Superego - Ego Defense Mechanism - Psychosexual Stages of Development - Oedius/Oedipal Complex - Electra Complex - Introjection

PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE Theories of psychopathology based on modification and revision of Freud's theories. According to Freud, the -conscious part of the mind represents a small area, whereas the -unconscious part, is the much larger portion. FREUD'S PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY In an effort to explain human behavior, Freud theorized that a person's behavior results from the interaction of 3 key components of the personality that he called the: Id - instinctual/primitive drives, pleasure-seeking, pain-avoiding Ego - reason, rationality, reality principle Superego - moral values ID The source of instinctual drives and is the first structure to appear in infancy. These drives are inherited and are have 2 opposing types: (1) Life instincts, which are constructive drives primarily of a sexual nature and which constitute the: Libido - the basic emotional and psychic energy of life; instinctual drives of the id. (2) Death instincts, which are destructive drives that tend toward aggression, destruction, and eventual death. EGO The rational part of the personality that mediates between the demands of the id, the constraints of the superego, and the realities of the external world. Develops after the first few months of life. e.g., During toilet training, the child learns to control a bodily function to meet parental and societal expectations, and it is the developing ego that assumes the role of mediating between the physical needs of the body/id and the need to find an appropriate place and time. SUPEREGO Is conscience; ethical or moral dimensions of personality. It becomes the inner control system that deals with the uninhibited desires of the id. e.g., As a child grows and gradually learns the rules of parents and society regarding right and wrong, a third part of the personality gradually emerges from the ego—the superego. EGO-DEFENSE MECHANISM When our anxiety exists only in our unconscious and we are not aware of it, it cannot be dealt with through rational measures, so ego resorts to irrational protective measures that are referred to as Ego-Defense mechanisms. DEFENSE MECHANISMS - reduce anxiety by pushing painful ideas out of consciousness rather than by dealing directly with the problem. Freud believed that in many instances, the ego can cope with elevated anxiety through rational measures (i.e., we talk ourselves down). Thoughts remain in the unconscious and manifest as abnormal behavior and there 8 types: -Displacement -Fixation -Projection -Rationalization -Reaction formation -Regression -Repression -Sublimation Denial - Denial mechanism: Denying, avoiding, or refusing to accept the reality Displacement. Discharging pent-up feelings, often of hostility, on objects less dangerous than those arousing the feelings. Fixation. Attaching oneself in an unreasonable or exaggerated way to some person, or arresting emotional development on a childhood or adolescent level. Projection. Attributing one's unacceptable motives or characteristics to others (seeing in others what you actually dislike in yourself) Rationalization. Using contrived explanations to conceal or disguise unworthy motives for one's behavior (making excuses for behavior - used as a form of self-deception) Reaction formation. Preventing the awareness or expression of unacceptable desires by an exaggerated adoption of seemingly opposite behavior (taking the opposite stance from how you really feel in order to conceal your inner conflict) Regression. Retreating to an earlier developmental level involving less mature behavior and responsibility (reverting to earlier (childish) coping strategies during times of stress) Repression. Preventing painful or dangerous thoughts from entering consciousness. Sublimation. Channeling frustrated sexual energy into substitutive activities (channeling unacceptable impulses into more socially acceptable activities and pursuits) PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT According to Freudian theory, there are 5 psychosexual stages of development that we all pass through from infancy through puberty, and each characterized by a dominant mode of achieving libidinal (sexual) pleasure: 1. Oral stage 2. Anal stage 3. Phallic stage 4. Latency period 5. Genital stage 1. Oral stage: (mouth) - oral fixation leads to overeating, smoking &, etc. During the first 2 years of life, the mouth is the principal erogenous zone: An infant's greatest source of gratification is sucking, a process that is necessary for feeding. 2. Anal stage: (anus) - retention vs. excretion, fixation leads to OCD or messiness. From ages 2 to 3, the anus provides the major source of pleasurable stimulation during the time when toilet training is often going on and there are urges both for retention and for elimination. 3. Phallic stage: (genitals) - overcome Oedipus / Electra conflict From ages 3 to 5 or 6, self-manipulation of the genitals provides the major source of pleasurable sensation. 4. Latency period: (none) - repressed sexual urges, work on socializing. From ages 6 to 12, sexual motivations recede in importance as a child becomes preoccupied with developing skills and other activities. 5. Genital stage: (genitals) - forming healthy intimate relationships, contributing to society After puberty, the deepest feelings of pleasure come from sexual relation. OEDIPUS/OEDIPAL & ELECTRA COMPLEX OEDIPUS/OEDIPAL COMPLEX The desire for sexual relations with a parent of the opposite sex; specifically, the desire of a boy for his mother, with his father a hated rival. This occurs during the phallic stage. According to Greek mythology, Oedipus unknowingly killed his father and married his mother ELECTRA COMPLEX Excessive emotional attachment of a daughter for her father; the female counterpart of the Oedipus complex. INTROJECTION Internal process by which a child incorporates symbolically, through images and memories, important people in his life.

Abnormal psychology

PSYCHOPATHOLOGY Field of psychology concerned with the: study, assessment, treatment, and prevention of abnormal behavior.

Random assignment

RANDOM ASSIGNMENT A procedure used to create equivalent groups in which every research participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any group in the study.

Sampling

SAMPLING The process of selecting a representative subgroup from a defined population of interest.

**Thomas Wakley & Samuel Hitch

SAMUEL HITCH In 1841, Hitch introduced trained nurses into the wards at the Gloucester Asylum and put trained supervisors at the head of the nursing staff. These revolutionary innovations at the time - improved the care of patients but also - changed public attitudes toward people with mental disturbances. THOMAS WAKLEY In 1842, after Wakley's lobbying for change, the Lunacy Inquiry Act was passed, which included a requirement that asylums and houses be effectively inspected every 4 months to ensure proper diet and the elimination of the use of restraints. In 1845, the Country Asylums Act was passed in, which required every county to provide asylum to "paupers and lunatics". During tanking, "lunatics" were routinely held under water in a bathing tank by nurses and sometimes other patients until they were near death.

Self-report data

SELF-REPORT DATA Data collected directly from participants, typically by means of interviews or questionnaires. Can be misleading because people may not be very good reporters of their own subjective states of behavior.

Stress Distress Cri

STRESS Effects created within an organism by the application of a stressor. Stressors - Adjustive demands that require coping behavior on the part of an individual. Stress Tolerance - A person's ability to withstand stress w/o becoming seriously impaired. DISTRESS (bad stress) - Negative stress, associated with pain, anxiety, or sorrow. Personal Distress - subjective experience of suffering; this definition misses cases in which an individual does not identify their own thoughts/behaviors as problematic. Stress increases our susceptibility to catching a cold, it also increases the risk of having a heart attack CRISIS Stressful situation that approaches or exceeds the adaptive capacities of a person or a group.

Stress response Sympathetic-adrenomedullary (SAM) system Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) system

STRESS RESPONSE When we experience stress and faced with the threat of a perceived stressor, the body undergoes a cascade of biological changes. 2 distinct systems are involved here: 1. The Sympathetic-Adrenomedullary (SAM) system - designed to mobilize resources and prepare for a fight-or-flight response. The stress response begins in the hypothalamus, which stimulates the Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS). This, in turn, causes the inner portion of the adrenal glands (the adrenal medulla) to secrete adrenaline (also known as epinephrine) and noradrenaline (norepinephrine). As these circulate through the blood, they cause an increase in heart rate. They also get the body to metabolize glucose more rapidly. 2. The Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) system In addition to stimulating the SNS, the hypothalamus releases a hormone called Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone (CRH). Traveling in the blood, this hormone stimulates the pituitary gland. The pituitary then secretes AdrenoCorticoTropic Hormone (ACTH). This induces the adrenal cortex (the outer portion of the adrenal gland) to produce the stress hormones called glucocorticoids.

Telomere

TELOMERE The protective ends of human chromosomes made up of repeated sequences of DNA. Telomeres (from the Greek words telos, meaning "end," and meros, meaning "part") Telomeres shorten with age. If they get too short, cells do not function correctly and the risk of disease is increased. Telomere length is maintained by an enzyme called telomerase and that the stress hormone cortisol can reduce the activity of this enzyme. -Stress shortens the length of telomeres -Drinking too much sugar-sweetened soda might shorten telomeres. -Pessimism may accelerate the rate of telomere shortening. -Meditation may promote telomerase activity. -Exercise acts as a buffer against the bad effects of stress on telomeres

Trauma Sociocognitive Theory of How does DID develops

TRAUMA THEORY (of DID) According to trauma theory, DID starts from early childhood traumatization and reflects an attempt to cope with an extreme sense of hopelessness and powerlessness in the face of repeated traumatic abuse. Lacking other resources or routes of escape, the -Child may dissociate and escape into fantasy, becoming someone else. -Sometimes the child simply imagines the abuse is happening to someone else. -If the child is fantasy-prone and continues to stay fantasy-prone over time, -the child may unknowingly create different selves at different points in time, possibly laying the foundation for dissociated identities. SOCIOCOGNITIVE THEORY (of DID) According to sociocognitive theory, DID develop when a highly suggestible person learns to adopt and enact the roles of multiple identities, mostly because clinicians have inadvertently suggested, legitimized, and reinforced them and because these different identities are geared to the individual's own personal goals The sociocognitive perspective does not view this as being done intentionally or consciously by the person involved. Rather, it occurs spontaneously with little or no awareness

Criterion & Comparison Groups

To test their hypotheses, researchers use a - comparison group (control group) - criterion group COMPARISON/CONTROL GROUP Group of subjects who do NOT exhibit disorders & do NOT receive treatment the effects of which are being studied CRITERION GROUP Group of subjects who exhibit the disorder under study and DO receive treatment the effects of which are being studied

Tuke

WILLIAM TUKE (1732-1822) An English Quaker who established the York Retreat, a country house where patients with mental illness lived in humane surroundings.

Why do we need to classify mental disorders?

Why do we need to classify mental disorders? Most sciences rely on classification. Classification systems provide us with a NOMENCLATURE - a naming system and enable us to structure information in a more helpful manner - allows us to study different disorders by finding/researching causes and treatment