PSY Ch 6
207. Describe how Ivan Pavlov unwittingly discovered his model of classical conditioning.
Around the turn of the 20th century, a Russian physiologist named Ivan Pavlov (9-6) was doing research on the digestive processes of dogs (for which he would eventually win a Nobel Prize). Pavlov was investigating the role that salivation plays in digestion. He had surgically implanted devices in the cheeks of dogs so that he could measure how much saliva they produced. His experimental method was to place the dog in a harness, present the dog with some food, and then measure the amount of saliva the dog produced. While conducting these studies, Pavlov noticed that sometimes the dogs began to salivate before the food was presented to them. Sometimes the mere sight of the food dish or the sound of the approaching experimenter was enough to produce salivation. So what was going on? Why would a dog start to salivate when it heard footsteps or saw an empty food bowl? Pavlov reasoned that the dog had learned to associate certain cues or stimuli with the presentation of food. To the dog, the approach of foot- steps had come to mean that food was soon going to appear. Consequently, the dog had become conditioned, or taught, to respond to the footsteps the same way that it responded to the food—by salivating. Unwittingly, Pavlov had discovered a learning process, one that would become extremely influential in psychology.While conducting these studies, Pavlov noticed that sometimes the dogs began to salivate before the food was presented to them. Sometimes the mere sight of the food dish or the sound of the approaching experimenter was enough to produce salivation. So what was going on? Why would a dog start to salivate when it heard footsteps or saw an empty food bowl? Pavlov reasoned that the dog had learned to associate certain cues or stimuli with the presentation of food. To the dog, the approach of foot- steps had come to mean that food was soon going to appear. Consequently, the dog had become conditioned, or taught, to respond to the footsteps the same way that it responded to the food—by salivating. Unwittingly, Pavlov had discovered a learning process, one that would become extremely influential in psychology.
215. Explain the four steps in Bandura's modeling process.
Attention. The observer must first pay attention to the model's behavior before he or she can model it.| Retention in memory. The observer must retain a cognitive representation or memory of the model's behavior.| Reproduction of the behavior. The observer must have a mental representation of the behavior stored in memory that can be retrieved and used to reproduce the behavior.| Motivation. After retrieving the memory of the behavior and figuring out how to produce the behavior, the observer must be motivated to actually execute the behavior.
209. Describe how operant conditioning is similar to and different from classical conditioning.
In operant conditioning, we learn from the consequences of our behavior and come to associate a stimulus with a response. In classical conditioning, two stimuli, the unconditional stimulus and the initially neutral stimulus are associated.
218. As a child, Hondo was stung by a copper-colored wasp. Now, whenever he sees a larger yellow-black wasp, he becomes very fearful. Based on classical conditioning, explain Hondo's reaction.
Originally, the copper-colored wasp was a neutral stimulus. When it stung Hondo, the wasp became a conditioned stimulus, which elicited the conditioned emotional response of fear. Apparently, the conditioned stimulus of the copper-colored wasp had generalized to the larger, yellow-black wasp.
210. Identify the four different types of partial reinforcement and provide a real-world example of each.
Partial reinforcement: A schedule of reinforcement in which the organism is rewarded for only some instances of the desired response| Fixed ratio schedule: A schedule of reinforcement in which the organism is rewarded for every xth instance of the desired response| Variable ratio schedule: A schedule of reinforcement in which the organism is rewarded on average for every xth instance of the desired response| Fixed interval schedule: A schedule of reinforcement in which the organism is rewarded for the first desired response in an xth interval of time| Variable interval schedule: A schedule of reinforcement in which the organism is rewarded for the first desired response in an average xth interval of time
174. Behaviorism is to ____ as social learning is to ____.
Skinner; Bandura
89. Edward Thorndike is best known for his work on ____.
the law of effect
26. Freddie used to feed her cat canned cat food. Now every time Freddie uses the can opener, her cat gets very excited and starts meowing. In this example, the US is ____.
cat food
2. The orienting reflex describes ____.
the attention we give to novel stimuli
151. Recent research on parental use of physical punishment reveals that ____.
50% of parents use spanking on toddlers
30. Which example illustrates a US-UR pair?
An air puff in the eye elicits an eye blink.
212. Define shaping and describe an example of how shaping might be used to create a specific behavior.
Animal trainers use an operant conditioning technique called shaping, in which a novel behavior is slowly conditioned by reinforcing successive approximations of the final desired behavior. In the case of training the dog, the trainer will reinforce any spontaneous behavior that is in the direction of the final desired behavior. The trainer may start by rewarding the dog for looking at him. Once the dog learns to pay attention, it may expand on this behavior by sitting up. This will also lead to a treat. Then the dog must sit up to get the treat. Once the dog learns to sit up, it may go a bit further and rear up a bit on its hind legs. This will also earn the dog a treat. Now that the dog can rear up, it must do so to get a treat. After rearing up for a time, the dog may spontaneously go up all the way onto its hind legs. The trainer responds with more treats. Soon the dog will progress to standing on its hind legs, and the trainer will reciprocate with more treats every time the dog stands up on its hind legs. The final step comes when the dog spontaneously takes its first steps after being conditioned to stand on its hind legs. At this point, all the trainer has to do is reward the dog for walking on its hind legs.
116. Which statement is TRUE regarding acquisition and extinction?
Both terms apply to both classical and operant conditioning.
14. Which statement is true about habituation?
Habituation is an ability that almost all creatures possess.
206. Explain the difference between habituation and dishabituation.
Habituation is the tendency of an organism to ignore repeated stimuli.| Dishabituation is re-responding to a stimulus to which one has been habituated.
79. Tad's ex-girlfriend used to wear Chanel perfume. Since their bitter break-up, Tad has found that he feels angry whenever he smells Chanel No. 5. What is the best way for Tad to get to the point where smelling Chanel No. 5 will no longer make him feel angry?
He should frequently go to the local perfume counter and smell Chanel No. 5.
146. Rick wants his daughter to spend more time studying. Which strategy is most likely to work for Rick?
He should reward his daughter when she does study.
211. Describe how Albert Bandura's social learning theory is similar to and different from behaviorism as conceived by B.F. Skinner.
In observational learning, we observe others and imitate, or model, their behavior. For that reason, observational learning is sometimes referred to as social learning or modeling. Observational learning departs from the behaviorism that Skinner so forcefully advocated on two major points. First, it acknowledges that learning can occur without an overt change in behavior; second, it takes into account the role of cognition in the learning process.
214. Describe Albert Bandura's Bobo doll studies and their implications.
In the Bobo doll experiments, children watched films in which a woman beat up the Bobo doll. She hit him with a mallet, sat on him, threw him in the air, and so on. After the children viewed the films, Bandura and his colleagues placed them in a room alone with the Bobo doll and observed their behavior without their knowledge. If the children imitated the characteristic behaviors of the model, then Bandura knew that learning had occurred
208. Describe John B. Watson's research with Little Albert and identifying the unconditioned, neutral, and conditioned stimuli and the unconditioned and conditioned responses in the original study.
In the Little Albert experiments, Watson classically conditioned Albert to fear a white rat. To do this, Watson first gave Albert a white lab rat and allowed him to play with it. In the beginning, the rat was an NS for Albert because it did not cause him to be afraid. A few minutes after giving Albert the rat, Watson made a very loud noise by striking a piece of metal with a hammer. As with most 11-month-olds, a loud noise such as this was a US for Albert that reliably produced the UR of frightening Albert and making him cry. Over and over, Watson repeated this sequence of presenting the rat (NS), then making the noise (US), with the result that Albert would become afraid and cry (UR).
219. Michele is completely frustrated by Felicia, her three-year old, who loves to pound on pots and pans with a wooden spoon. Michele has yelled at Felicia with no effect. A friend suggested ignoring Felicia, as perhaps Michele's attention was helping to reinforce Felicia's behavior. Michele tried her friend's advice, but Felicia just made more noise. From an operant perspective, how would you interpret what happened?
It sounds like Michele encountered an extinction burst. When Michele quit paying attention to Felicia's loud pounding, she was no longer reinforcing her daughter's behavior, which created an extinction schedule. Often when reinforced behavior is placed on an extinction schedule, there is a period of increased activity. Michele needs to continue with the extinction schedule until her daughter's behavior begins to decline and be careful not to partially reinforce the behavior.
149. Which method will make punishment more effective?
Punish the bad behavior each and every time it occurs.
147. Which statement is TRUE regarding punishment compared to reinforcement?
Punishment often only has temporary effects.
143. Which statement is most TRUE of shaping?
Shaping can be used effectively on animals and people.
80. While on vacation, Juana eats bologna and then suffers an attack of car sickness. Now, when Juana even thinks of bologna, she feels sick to her stomach. How can Juana get to the point where she can once again eat bologna without feeling sick?
She should resume eating bologna in situations where she is not likely to get sick.
91. The fact that you go to work each day in order to have enough money to pay your bills is best explained by ____.
the law of effect
220. Reznick is coaching baseball with some eight-year olds. He is working with the catchers on learning to get closer to the batter, but they are afraid of getting hit with the bat. Using social learning techniques, how can you help Reznick?
Social learning uses observation and imitation. Reznick could have his catchers watch how he gets set up, measures the distance from the bat, holds his catcher's mitt, etc. He could then have the catchers model their behavior on his. Reznick could also show video tapes of skillful catching techniques (perhaps from high school, college, professional players) to illustrate principles. Additionally, he could videotape his players and allow them to observe and critique themselves.
216. A squirrel is scurrying around hunting for acorns. Every once in a while, it pauses to look around before resuming its quest. Describe the squirrel's behavior in terms of orientation and habituation.
Sounds and sights periodically catch the squirrel's attention which results in the squirrel looking around and listening; this is known as an orienting reflex. If it detects nothing of danger or interest, the squirrel stops paying attention to these sights and sounds; a process known as habituation.
84. Which statement is TRUE about spontaneous recovery?
Spontaneous recovery can happen long after the response has been extinguished.
173. What do Albert Bandura, Wolfgang Kohler, and Edward Tolman all have in common?
They all have conducted research demonstrating the importance to cognition in learning.
126. What do fixed interval, fixed ratio, variable interval, and fixed interval schedules of reinforcement all have in common?
They are all schedules of partial reinforcement.
161. Which statement is TRUE regarding token economies?
They are effective in developing a number of behaviors in a group of people.
217. Sabrina went to open a can of tuna fish for lunch. As soon as she clicked the can-opener to the can, Tibbet, her tabby cat, appeared as though by magic. How can classical conditioning be used to explain this situation?
Tibbet has learned through association that the sound of the can opener serves as a predictor that tuna will be forthcoming. Most likely, originally the can opener sound meant nothing to the cat; however, the sound was followed by the smell and/or taste of tuna. Soon the can opener sound became a conditioned stimulus that elicits excitement or hunger in the cat.
25. Sam recently lost his grandmother. Now Sam feels sad whenever he smells the perfume his beloved grandmother used to wear. In this example, Sam's sadness is the ____.
UR
24. Sam recently lost his grandmother. Now Sam feels sad whenever he smells the perfume his beloved grandmother used to wear. In this example, the loss of his grandmother is the ____.
US
29. Yanna used to date a man who wore a lime-scented aftershave. Yanna was very attracted to this man, and now when she smells the scent of lime, she finds herself feeling slightly aroused. In this example, the man Yanna used to date is the ____.
US
5. What is an example of an orienting reflex?
While standing in line at the cafeteria, you turn around to see who poked you in the back.
213. Explain how Kohler's study of chimpanzees came to point to the importance of cognition in learning.
Wolfgang Köhler (7-7), became aware that cognitive processes must play a role in learning. Köhler observed that chimpanzees did not always attempt to solve problems in a trial-and-error fashion as predicted by the law of effect. Rather, they often seemed to study a problem for a long time as if formulating a mental plan—before attempting to solve it. In one experiment, Köhler placed a banana just out of reach outside a chimpanzee's cage, and he placed a stick inside the cage. The law of effect would predict that the chimpanzee would try many random behaviors—like shaking the bars and jumping up and down—before picking up the stick and using it to reach the banana. But this is not what Köhler observed. Instead, the chimpanzee studied the situation and then appeared to suddenly come up with the solution. After this flash of insight into how to solve its dilemma, the chimpanzee picked up the stick and used it to scoot the banana to a point where it could be reached.
115. Frank buys his daughter a computerized toy that is teaching her to read. As she reads the text of a book, the computer asks her questions, which she answers by pointing to the answers with a specialized stylus. If she gets the answers correct, the computer applauds. If she gets the answer wrong, the computer beeps. This toy is analogous to ____.
a Skinner box
4. What is an example of an orienting reflex?
a cat sniffing the air when it detects the odor of a strange animal
46. Where would the placement of neutral stimulus most likely yield the strongest classical conditioning outcome?
a neutral stimulus that is consistently presented immediately before an unconditioned stimulus
142. Shaping occurs when ____.
a novel behavior is slowly conditioned by reinforcing successive approximations of the final desired behavior
1. Learning is ____.
a relatively permanent change in behavior, or the potential for behavior, that results from experience
59. When stimulus generalization occurs, ____.
a stimulus that has not been directly associated with the unconditioned stimulus begins to cause the conditioned response
105. Compared to classical conditioning, operant conditioning is more likely to result in ____.
a variety of initial responses
76. The phase of classical conditioning during which the conditioned response is developing is often referred to as ____.
acquisition
88. Thorndike concluded that his cats were learning because ____.
across repeated placements in a box, it took them a shorter amount of time to get out of the box
177. In one of Albert Bandura's Bobo doll studies, children observed a model behaving aggressively toward the Bobo doll without receiving any positive or negative consequences for the behavior. Later, when these children were given an opportunity to be with the Bobo doll, they tended to ____.
act aggressively toward the Bobo doll
108. Operant conditioning is to ____ as classical conditioning is to ____.
active; passive
93. Positive reinforcement is to ____ as negative reinforcement is to ____.
addition of something pleasant; removal of something unpleasant
72. When Antabuse is used to treat alcoholism through aversion therapy, the neutral stimulus in this classical conditioning example is ____.
alcohol
122. At first, Sally thought it was funny when her five-year-old used bad language, and she would laugh despite herself. However, Sally soon realized that she was encouraging this behavior, and she stopped laughing when her child used inappropriate language. But to her dismay, as soon as Sally decided not to laugh anymore, the child began to use bad language more often before she finally stopped using it. What best explains why the child's inappropriate behavior increased temporarily?
an extinction burst
199. Tina has inadvertently trained her dog Bobo, to lay his chin on her leg when she is studying by giving him a treat when he does. Unfortunately, she has been so busy that she has run out of treats. Bobo not only continues to walk over and lay his chin on her leg, but he begins pawing at her leg and arm. Bobo is showing ____.
an extinction burst
96. Negative reinforcement leads to ____.
an increase in behavior
114. Traditionally, in a Skinner box, ____.
animals learn to hit a bar in order to receive a reward
154. Primary reinforcers ____.
are directly reinforcing
12. The orienting reflex in combination with habituation suggests that we ____.
are more sensitive to new stimuli than repeated stimuli
156. Secondary reinforcers ____.
are those things that indirectly lead to other, directly pleasurable things
107. Classical conditioning is to ____ as operant conditioning is to ____.
association of stimuli; consequences of behavior
21. When Ivan Pavlov noticed that his dogs were salivating even before they were presented with meat, he ____.
attempted to see if the dogs could learn to salivate to several different types of stimuli
182. Which progression represents Bandura's four-step process in his social learning theory?
attention, retention, reproduction, motivation
66. A taste aversion that is learned following a 10-hour gap between the neutral stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus would ____.
be typical
44. Classical conditioning is generally strongest when the neutral stimulus is presented ____ the unconditioned stimulus by a few ____.
before; seconds
117. Extinction in operant conditioning occurs when the ____.
behavior is no longer reinforced
67. The genetic tendency to learn certain responses very easily is called ____.
biological preparedness
64. Taste aversions provide an "exception to the rule" in classical conditioning because they ____.
can result from a single pairing of the neutral stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus
87. In Thorndike's work on the law of effect, he observed ____.
cats learning how to escape a puzzle box
13. Recent research on the brain and habituation suggests habituation is somewhat primitive in nature. This research has found that which part of the brain is involved in certain instances of habituation?
cerebellum
175. Albert Bandura is best known for his studies on ____.
children behaving aggressively toward Bobo dolls
176. Albert Bandura found through his research that ____.
children will readily imitate the behavior of aggressive adults as long as the adults were not punished
31. When a stimulus that originally did not cause a particular response now begins to cause that response, ____ has occurred.
classical conditioning
50. Television ads that use beautiful images to sell products are a good example of ____.
classical conditioning
69. Aversion therapy that uses Antabuse to treat alcoholism is based on the principle of ____.
classical conditioning
63. If you have developed an extreme negative reaction to chicken because it was associated with a case of the flu in your childhood, you have a ____.
classically conditioned taste aversion
167. If latent learning is occurring, it suggests most directly that ____.
cognitive processes are influencing the learning process
85. Suppose a behavior that has been extinguished temporarily exhibits itself again. This would be a(n) ____.
common event called spontaneous recovery
36. Sarah was bitten by a dog, which naturally was a very scary experience. Now, when Sarah even hears a dog barking, she feels afraid. In this example, dog barking is the ____.
conditioned stimulus
38. Molly automatically feels happy every time she has pizza for dinner. Molly's mom always gets her pizza from The Pizza Shoppe. At first, pulling into The Pizza Shoppe parking lot does not affect the way Molly feels. But after a while, Molly starts to feel happy just when the car turns into The Pizza Shoppe lot because she knows it means they will have pizza for dinner. In this example, The Pizza Shoppe parking lot is the ____.
conditioned stimulus
75. In classical conditioning, extinction occurs when the ____.
conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus
189. Which term refers to refers to the degree to which the NS/CS and US occur close together in time?
contiguity
190. Don wants to classically condition his roommate, Lloyd, to cringe whenever Don opens the squeaky drawer on his desk. To do this, Don decides to wait until his Lloyd is studying. Don will then open the drawer and then toss a ping-pong ball towards his roommates head. Don knows it is important to coordinate the squeaking from the drawer and tossing the ball so they are close together in time. Don is concerned about ____.
contiguity
41. Dr. Trujillo is conducting studies on classical conditioning and experimenting on the effect of placing the neutral stimulus either before or after the unconditioned stimulus. She is investigating the element of ____.
contiguity
45. Two very important factors that influence the strength of classical conditioning are ____.
contiguity and contingency
42. Dr. Trujillo is conducting studies on classical conditioning and experimenting on the effect of sometimes presenting the unconditioned stimulus without the neutral stimulus. She is investigating the element of ____.
contingency
9. Habituation describes the ____.
decrease in attention we give to repeated stimulation
98. Positive reinforcement and negative punishment are ____.
different in that positive reinforcement increases a behavior and negative punishment decreases a behavior
20. Ivan Pavlov discovered classical conditioning through his research on ____.
digestion
137. Xiao-ping has learned that if she whines to her mom, she will get candy. Based on this experience, Xiao-ping starts whining to her dad, too, in hopes of getting candy. Xiao-ping is illustrating ____.
discrimination
138. In operant conditioning, when a behavior that has been reinforced exhibits itself only in certain situations or contexts, ____ has occurred.
discrimination
192. Don is delighted when he successfully conditions his roommate, Lloyd, to cringe at the sound of the squeaky drawer by pairing the squeak with a ping-pong ball to his roommate's head. He decides continue his experiment with classical conditioning and creates another squeaky noise by dragging his chair legs across the floor. At first Lloyd cringes at the new squeak, but with continued "trials" in which the drawer squeak is paired with a ping-pong ball to the head but the chair leg squeak is not, Lloyd stops cringing to the chair leg squeak, illustrating ____.
discrimination
188. Your new neighbor is an incredibly good cook, a skill you plan to exploit whenever possible. It becomes apparent, however, that your neighbor particularly enjoys preparing fish. You eventually get used to the odor and barely notice it but, when you return home after a two-week vacation, you very much notice the odor again. This illustrates ____.
dishabituation
19. When an organism begins to respond more intensely to a stimulus to which it has previously habituated, then ____ has occurred.
dishabituation
180. Social learning researchers Donna Mumme and Anne Fernald found that 12-month-old children ____.
disliked toys that televised models reacted negatively toward and liked toys that televised models reacted positively or neutrally toward
34. A neutral stimulus is defined as one that ____.
does not naturally elicit a particular unconditioned response
28. Although hunger naturally occurs in response to an empty stomach, we can easily become conditioned to feel hunger at certain times of the day due to classical conditioning. In this case, the US would be the ____.
empty stomach
193. After becoming bored with classically conditioning his roommate, Lloyd, to cringe at the sound of a squeaky drawer, Don decides to give Lloyd a break and he repeatedly squeaks the drawer without hitting Lloyd with a ping pong ball. What procedure is Don using?
extinction
74. Ashley grew up fearing clowns because of an incident early in her life. Although it took several years before the fear disappeared completely, she can now enjoy the entertainment that clowns offer. Her fear of clowns has undergone ____.
extinction
77. When a conditioned stimulus no longer produces a conditioned response, ____ has occurred.
extinction
82. Spontaneous recovery refers to when a(n) ____.
extinguished conditioned response reappears
127. Continuous schedules of reinforcement are to ____ as partial schedules of reinforcement are to ____.
faster extinction rates; slower extinction rates
54. John B. Watson was successful in conditioning ____ in "Little Albert."
fear
52. Which response can be classically conditioned in humans?
feeling fear
61. Stimulus discrimination should lead to ____.
fewer varieties of a stimulus that cause a conditioned response
202. Tovah's office has a "cuss jar" and when someone swears, he or she is expected to put a dollar in the cuss jar. This is an example of the use of ____.
fines
134. It is likely that a behavior that shows cycles of high rates of response followed by low rates of response has been reinforced on a ____ schedule of reinforcement.
fixed interval
135. Thea gets paid at her job every two weeks. Thea is being reinforced for her working on a____ schedule of reinforcement.
fixed interval
125. Chang gets paid a $50 bonus for every 100 pairs of shoes that he sells. Chang is being reinforced on a ____ schedule of reinforcement.
fixed ratio
113. According to Skinner, in classical conditioning, behavior is ____, but in operant conditioning, behavior is ____.
forced; chosen
47. Pavlov's original experiment was an example of ____.
forward conditioning
136. In operant conditioning, when a behavior that has been reinforced in one context begins to be exhibited in other contexts and situations, ____ has occurred.
generalization
191. Don is delighted when he successfully conditions his roommate, Lloyd, to cringe at the sound of the squeaky drawer by pairing the squeak with a ping-pong ball to his roommate's head. He decides to continue his classical conditioning experiment and creates another squeaky noise by dragging his chair legs across the floor. At first, Lloyd cringes at the new squeak, illustrating ____.
generalization
10. Terry is trying to study in the student center. At first, he finds it hard to concentrate because of all the noise and conversation going on around him. However, after a few minutes, Terry is able to tune out the noise and concentrate on his studies. Terry's experience is an example of what type of learning?
habituation
16. The simplest type of learning seen in living things is ____.
habituation
17. A physical therapist who attempts to treat a person with chronic motion sickness by repeatedly exposing the person to the stimulation that causes the motion sickness is using ____.
habituation
186. A company that markets air fresheners has a series of commercials about being "nose-blind," that is, people getting used to odors such as those from pets or cooking pungent foods to the extent that they no longer notice them. "Nose-blindness" is actually ____.
habituation
187. Whenever you walk into your grandparent's house, you notice the wintergreen smell of the cream they rub into their knees to relieve the pain of arthritis. However, after you have been there for a while, you no longer notice it. This is because of ____.
habituation
8. When your dog continually barks, you eventually pay less attention to the noise. This illustrates ____.
habituation
15. The orienting reflex is useful because it ____.
has a self-protective function
128. If a behavior continues to be exhibited in spite of the fact that no reinforcement is being given, it is likely that the behavior ____.
has been previously conditioned according to a partial reinforcement schedule
118. According to the views of B.F. Skinner, if a behavior is commonly exhibited, you can be assured that it ____.
has been reinforced
120. When an extinction burst occurs, it suggests that the organism ____.
has learned to expect reinforcement
164. Strict behaviorism tends to ____.
ignore the influence of cognitive processes
157. Primary reinforcers are more ____ than secondary reinforcers.
intrinsically pleasurable
90. According to the law of effect, if an organism commonly expresses a certain behavior, you can bet that ____.
it has led to positive consequences in the past
168. If an organism has developed a cognitive map of a maze, it is an indication of ____.
latent learning
194. According to the ____, behaviors that lead to positive consequences will be strengthened and behaviors that lead to negative consequences will be weakened.
law of effect
11. What is an example of habituation?
learning to ignore a barking dog
204. Robyn's father tells her if she does not practice the violin for 30 minutes every evening, she will not get computer time that evening. Robyn's father is using ____.
loss of privileges
81. A conditioned response that has undergone extinction ____.
may spontaneously recover
150. Punishing a child's misbehavior only occasionally when it occurs may mean that the behavior is actually being reinforced on a partial schedule because the child is able to "get away" with doing the behavior some of the time. This program of punishment would then have the result of making the ____.
misbehavior more resistant to extinction
148. Years of research has shown that children who experience physical punishment are ____.
more likely to be aggressive and experience lower levels of mental health
181. What is a step in Bandura's theory of the process involved in social learning?
motivation
102. Joseph tells his buddies at work a joke that makes fun of women. To his surprise, his friends ignore him for several days. As a result, Joseph decides never again to tell a joke like that at work. Joseph's experience is an example of what type of consequence?
negative punishment
196. Shane's mother tells him that if he is not quiet when she is working, he will not be allowed to play computer games later in the evening. Shane's mother is using ____.
negative punishment
198. Tina has a heavy class load and is spending a lot of time studying, to the dismay of her beloved dog, Bobo. When Bobo walks over and puts his chin on Tina's leg, she pets him and gives him a treat from the bag she keeps in her desk drawer. As a consequence, he continues walking over and putting his chin on Tina's leg. Tina has used ____.
negative punishment
99. When you break your curfew and your parents take away your car privileges in order stop you from breaking curfew in the future, they are using ____.
negative punishment
195. Felicia has learned that if she washes the dishes her roommate, Millie, will stop nagging her about them. Millie is using ____.
negative reinforcement
95. What type of consequence is Mayra using when she tells her daughter that she does not have to do the dishes for a week because she did so well on her weekly spelling test at school?
negative reinforcement
97. When a parent gives into a child's tantrum in order to stop the child's tantrum behavior, this leads to a greater likelihood that when the child throws a tantrum in the future, the parent will give in again. This change in the parent's behavior is an example of ____.
negative reinforcement
35. In classical conditioning, an association is learned between the ____.
neutral stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus
18. Recent research suggests that migraines may be the result of ____.
not enough habituation
6. The orienting reflex is to ____, as habituation is to ____.
novel experience; repeated experience
172. Social learning is often referred to as ____.
observational learning
171. Social learning involves ____.
observing the behaviors of others and learning from them
100. Positive punishment ____.
occurs when something unpleasant is added to an organism's environment
178. Bandura's Bobo doll studies showed that ____.
one does not have to engage in behavior and experience consequences to learn
71. Aversion therapy to treat alcoholism is ____.
only modestly successful
103. Teresa has a bad experience at the dentist's office when she had a painful root canal. As a result, Teresa has not been to the dentist in five years. Which type of learning best explains Teresa's failure to go to the dentist in the last five years?
operant conditioning
104. B.F. Skinner introduced what concept related to Thorndike's law of effect?
operant conditioning
106. B.F. Skinner's name for the law of effect is ____.
operant conditioning
111. A researcher who uses a Skinner box to study behavior is probably studying ____.
operant conditioning
158. The concept of primary and secondary reinforcers is most associated with ____.
operant conditioning
160. Token economies are used as a means of ____.
operant conditioning
124. Reinforcement of a behavior only some of the time it occurs is called a ____ reinforcement schedule.
partial
162. In a token economy, ____.
people are rewarded for appropriate behavior with chips or something similar that they can exchange later for a primary reinforcer
101. Joseph tells his buddies at work a joke that makes fun of women. To his surprise, his friends scolded him. As a result, Joseph decides never again to tell a joke like that at work. Joseph's experience is an example of what type of consequence?
positive punishment
197. Lloyd's roommate, Don, classically conditioned Lloyd to cringe whenever Don opened a squeaky drawer by pairing a squeak with a ping pong ball to Lloyd's head. Lloyd wants to return the favor, so when Don is out, Lloyd discretely wires an electrode to the drawer handle to Don will be shocked when he touches it. Lloyd is using ____.
positive punishment
94. Wilson wants to use operant conditioning to teach his son to take out the trash. Every time his son takes out the trash, Wilson gives him a dollar. Wilson is employing what type of consequence?
positive reinforcement
49. Which type of response cannot be classically conditioned in humans?
quitting your job because it does not pay enough
131. If a teacher wants to change a pattern of student studying that typically increases on the days prior to a test and drops to almost no studying at all in the days following a test, she should try a variable interval schedule such as a system that uses ____.
random, unannounced tests
166. Edward Tolman studied rats running through mazes and found that ____.
rats that had been allowed to wander through the maze without rewards learned the maze more quickly than normal once they began to be rewarded for reaching the end
145. The safest and most effective tool to change behavior is ____.
reinforcement
123. In a continuous reinforcement schedule, ____.
reinforcement is given every time the behavior is exhibited
78. Susanna has been classically conditioned to feel anxiety every time she walks through the anti-theft security devices at a local store because in the past she has set off the alarm many times when clerks failed to demagnetize her purchases. Susanna has the best chance of eliminating her classically conditioned anxiety by ____.
repeatedly walking through the devices without setting off the alarm
112. Skinner referred to the type of behavior learned from classical conditioning as ____, and the type of behavior learned from operant conditioning as ____.
respondent behavior; operant behavior
203. When 11-year-old Michael breaks his sisters' favorite model rocket, his parents tell him he must give her one of his model rockets. Michael's parents are using ____.
restitution
159. A token economy makes use of a(n) ____.
secondary reinforcer
155. Which item is a primary reinforcer?
sex
141. When animal trainers use operant conditioning techniques to slowly condition a new behavior by reinforcing successive approximations of the new desired behavior, the specific name for this is ____.
shaping
144. Vicki, an animal trainer, needs to train a bear to dance for a role in a Hollywood movie. Which technique will Vicki most likely use to accomplish this task?
shaping
200. Nash is fed up with hearing his friends brag about the tricks their dogs can do, so he decides to train his hyacinth macaw how to shoot basketball, using a bird-size ball and hoop. He starts out by giving Indigo a treat for touching the ball with his beak. When Indigo reliably touches the ball, Nash begins reinforcing Indigo for picking the ball up in his beak, and, behavior by behavior, eventually trains Indigo to shoot hoops. Nash is using ____.
shaping
139. Shaping differs from simple reinforcement in that ____.
shaping involves the reinforcement of different behaviors until an ultimate behavior is expressed
43. Vera wants to classically condition her dog to associate the sight of his leash with going outside. To do this, she must keep in mind that to get the strongest conditioning possible, she will have to ____.
show the dog the leash immediately before the walk begins
109. Classical conditioning is to____ as operant conditioning is to ____.
simple responses; complex behaviors
170. Ginger grew up in a home where both of her parents smoked. When Ginger turned 15, she too began smoking despite the fact that her parents frequently warned her not to adopt this bad habit. Ginger's decision to smoke is most likely the result of what type of learning?
social learning
179. Kim is a daycare worker. She recently decided that the children would no longer be allowed to watch Batman on TV because so many kids were getting into fights on the playground after watching this cartoon. What best explains why watching Batman would influence the children to fight on the playground?
social learning
183. Polly sees her mother baking cookies one day. Two weeks later at kindergarten, Polly and her friends are playing house and Polly begins to mimic the steps she saw her mother going through when making the cookies. Polly's play acting in kindergarten shows that ____.
social learning involves the use of memory
83. Although Shera has not had any alcohol in 25 years, she will occasionally experience a slight craving. This experience, which is somewhat similar to the cravings she experienced when she drank regularly, is called ____.
spontaneous recovery
60. Jennifer normally experiences a flood of romantic feelings whenever she smells a particular cologne because it reminds her of her boyfriend. Thankfully, when her younger brother wears the same cologne, she does not experience the same feelings. This is an example of ____.
stimulus discrimination
62. If "Little Albert" had developed a fear of large white rats, but not of small white rats, psychologists would label that an example of ____.
stimulus discrimination
57. After "Little Albert" was conditioned to fear a white rat, he began to fear several other furry things. This is an example of ____.
stimulus generalization
58. Ashley learned to fear clowns after being startled at the age of three by the sudden appearance of a particularly loud and colorful clown. Later, she began to fear anyone in a costume and mask. This would be an example of ____.
stimulus generalization
169. Tolman's research showing that rats can learn a maze even when they are not rewarded ____.
suggests that cognitive processes can influence learning
53. Juan feels nauseous every time he eats pizza because one time he ate pizza just before coming down with a stomach virus. Juan's nausea is most likely due to ____.
taste aversion
68. Psychologists have classically conditioned children to like healthful vegetables by pairing new vegetable flavors with the flavor of sugar to produce liking. Specifically, they are using ____.
taste preferences
205. Harsh punishment ____.
teaches aggression
119. When reinforcement for a behavior is withheld, an extinction burst is common. This extinction burst is a(n) ____.
temporary increase in the behavior
121. According to the principles of operant conditioning, when reinforcement for a behavior is stopped, ____.
the behavior will also stop eventually
33. The neutral stimulus in Pavlov's original studies was ____.
the buzzer
27. Freddie used to feed her cat canned cat food. Now every time Freddie uses the can opener, her cat gets very excited and starts meowing. In this example, the UR is ____.
the cat's excitement
185. Carolyn is training her new puppy Ollie using a method called clicker training. The first step is to click a clicker and give Ollie a treat. In this case, the originally neutral stimulus is ____.
the clicker
165. B.F. Skinner and Edward Tolman would have disagreed about the importance of ____ in affecting behavior.
the environment
86. Joseph told his buddies at work a joke that made fun of women. To his surprise, no one laughed at the joke, and one person even scolded him for telling it. As a result, Joseph decided never again to tell a joke like that at work. Joseph's experience is an example of what principle of learning?
the law of effect
92. Carlotta's husband took out the trash without being nagged to do so, and Carlotta gave him a big hug. Carlotta seems to be using ____ on her husband.
the law of effect
110. Thorndike is to ____ as Skinner is to ____.
the law of effect; operant conditioning
23. In Pavlov's original studies, the unconditioned stimulus was ____.
the meat
130. Ratio schedules deliver reinforcement according to ____.
the number of responses emitted by the organism
3. When a parent is talking on a telephone and suddenly turns toward the baby crying in the other room, ____ has occurred.
the orienting reflex
7. When we are presented with a new stimulus that repeats itself, at first we would exhibit ____, and then after a while we would exhibit ____.
the orienting reflex; habituation
37. Joseph goes out with his friends for pizza. Unbeknownst to him, he is coming down with a stomach virus. When the nausea associated with the virus kicks in, he vomits. Now, Joseph cannot even look at a pizza without feeling nauseous. In this example, the conditioned stimulus is ____.
the pizza
73. When a classically conditioned response is no longer exhibited, ____.
the relationship between the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus has been broken
184. Carolyn is training her new puppy Ollie using a method called clicker training. The first step is to click a clicker and give Ollie a treat. In this case, the unconditioned stimulus is ____.
the treat
65. Compared to other classically conditioned responses, taste aversions are unique in that ____.
they often occur after only a single pairing of the NS and the US
163. Regarding the study of thoughts or feelings, B.F. Skinner believed that ____.
thoughts and feelings cannot be studied scientifically
40. In classical conditioning, contiguity is to ____ as contingency is to ____.
time and sequence; consistency and reliability
201. When four year-old Barbara misbehaves, her mother has her stand in the corner for five minutes. What kind of punishment is Barbara's mother using?
timeout
140. Shaping would be used ____.
to create a response that does not naturally exist in the behavior pattern of an organism
22. In Pavlov's original studies, salivation to meat was a(n) ____, and salivation to a buzzer was a(n) ____.
unconditioned response; conditioned response
51. When advertisers use well known, attractive people to sell their products, the attractive people are being used as a(n) ____.
unconditioned stimulus
70. When treating alcoholism with aversion therapy, the drug called Antabuse is used as the ____.
unconditioned stimulus
32. All examples of classical conditioning begin with a pre-existing relationship between the ____.
unconditioned stimulus and the unconditioned response
129. If an employer at a cleaning company wants his employees to clean more toilets per shift, he would get the best response when using a ____ schedule of reinforcement.
variable ratio
132. If the desire is to create a response that is most highly resistant to extinction, a ____ schedule of reinforcement should be used.
variable ratio
133. Slot machines pay out according to a ____ schedule of reinforcement.
variable ratio
48. Which type of response would not be a result of classical conditioning?
voluntary responses
55. In Watson's studies with "Little Albert," the neutral stimulus was a ____.
white rat
56. Little Albert learned to associate a ____.
white rat with a loud noise
153. Positive reinforcement that is trivial to the person receiving it ____.
will likely have only a weak effect in changing behavior
152. The fact that to be effective, punishment must be aversive and reinforcement must not be trivial, suggests that ____.
you should know the perceptions of the person whose behavior you are trying to change