PSYC 2103 Ch. 4
self-awareness
A person's realization that he or she is a distinct individual whose body, mind, and actions are separate from those of other people.
secure attachment
A relationship in which an infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his or her caregiver.
social smile
A smile evoked by a human face, normally first evident in full-term infants about 6 weeks after birth.
disorganized attachment
A type of attachment that is marked by an infant's inconsistent reactions to the caregiver's departure and return.
Paternal alcoholism is to maternal alcoholism as Type _____ attachment is to Type _____ attachment.
A; D
attachment
According to Ainsworth, "an affectional tie" that an infant forms with a caregiver—a tie that binds them together in space and endures over time.
How would a child develop a working model about expressing emotions?
According to cognitive theory, the crucial idea is that an infant's early experiences themselves are not necessarily pivotal, but the interpretation of those experiences is. Children may misinterpret their experiences, or parents may offer inaccurate explanations, and these form ideas that affect later thinking and behavior. For example, a 1-year-old girl might develop a model, based on her parents' inconsistent responses to her, that people are unpredictable. She will continue to apply that model to everyone: Her childhood friendships will be insecure, and her adult relationships will be guarded.
Which theorist is associated with a laboratory procedure called the Strange Situation?
Ainsworth
How are memory and emotion connected?
All emotional reactions, particularly those connected to self-awareness, depend partly on memory. Memory is fragile at first and gradually improves over the first year. This explains why toddlers are more quickly angered than younger babies when teased by an older sibling. Unlike young infants, toddlers have vivid memories of the previous time a sibling frustrated them.
Why are temperament traits more apparent in some people than others?
Although temperament originates with genes, the expression of emotions over the life span is modified by experience—the result of child-rearing methods, culture, and learning. This means that in some people, certain temperaments are more apparent.
still-face technique
An experimental practice in which an adult keeps his or her face unmoving and expressionless in face-to-face interaction with an infant.
stranger wariness
An infant's expression of concern—a quiet stare while clinging to a familiar person, or a look of fear—when a stranger appears.
How does stress affect early brain development?
Excessive stress harms the developing brain. For example, the hypothalamus grows more slowly if an infant is often frightened.
What might happen if a person is stuck in the oral stage?
This person may eat or drink to excess, chew tobacco, bite their nails, or talk excessively.
Separation anxiety may be considered a disorder if it persists past the age of:
3
Carrie is an infant neglected by her parents. She is more likely to display Type _____ attachment than if she were not neglected.
A
synchrony
A coordinated, rapid, and smooth exchange of responses between a caregiver and an infant.
What would change an adult's working model?
A hopeful message from cognitive theory is that people can rethink and reorganize their thoughts, developing new models. A mistrustful girl might marry a faithful and loving man and gradually develop a new working model. Or, a person may assume that other people are trustworthy and be surprised if someone lies or betrays a confidence.
Strange Situation
A laboratory procedure for measuring attachment by evoking infants' reactions to the stress of various adults' comings and goings in an unfamiliar playroom.
Reid's parents are coping with sudden unemployment and marital conflict. The heightened stress increases the likelihood that Reid will display Type _____ attachment.
A or D
insecure-avoidant attachment
A pattern of attachment in which an infant avoids connection with the caregiver, as when the infant seems not to care about the caregiver's presence, departure, or return.
insecure-resistant/ambivalent attachment
A pattern of attachment in which an infant's anxiety and uncertainty are evident, as when the infant becomes very upset at separation from the caregiver, such infants both resist and seek contact on reunion.
Why is it better for an infant to express anger than sadness?
Anger is usually triggered by frustration. Sadness, however, usually indicates withdrawal and is accompanied by an increase in the body's production of cortisol, the primary stress hormone.
How do behaviorists explain the development of emotions and personality?
Behaviorists believe a child's emotions and personality are molded as parents reinforce or punish a child. In addition, behaviorists believe that infants absorb information from the people around them through social learning.
What are the costs and benefits of infant care by relatives?
Care by relatives may help the infant and the budget, but when it is the parents who are splitting the care, the arrangement may interfere with their ability to spend time together. Center day care is more expensive and varies greatly in quality. Grandmother care has been beneficial in most times and societies.
proximal parenting
Caregiving practices that involve being physically close to the baby, with frequent holding and touching.
distal parenting
Caregiving practices that keep some distance from a baby, such as providing toys, food, and face-to-face communication with minimal holding and touching.
What emotional reactions might children learn from watching their parents?
Children may express emotions in various ways—from giggling to cursing—just as their parents or older siblings do. For example, a boy might develop a hot temper if his father's outbursts seem to win his mother's respect; a girl might be coy, or passive-aggressive, if that is what she has seen at home.
What do infants need, no matter who cares for them or where care occurs?
Consistent caregivers seem to be the most important factor, whether the caregiver is a family member or a professional.
What are the first emotions to appear in infants?
Crying and contentment are present from birth. The social smile appears around 6 weeks of age. Infants express social joy and laughter between 2 and 4 months of age.
separation anxiety
Distress when a familiar caregiver leaves; most obvious between 9 and 14 months.
What three dimensions of temperament are evident in children?
Effortful control (regulating attention and emotion, self-soothing); negative mood (fearful, angry, unhappy); exuberant (active, social, not shy)
How do emotions differ between the first and second year of life?
Emotions take on new strength during toddlerhood. For example, anger and fear become less frequent but more focused, targeted toward especially infuriating or terrifying experiences. Similarly, laughing and crying are louder and more discriminating. Social awareness develops, ushering in the new emotions of pride, shame, embarrassment, disgust, and guilt.
trust versus mistrust
Erikson's first crisis of psychosocial development. Infants learn basic trust if the world is a secure place where their basic needs (for food, comfort, attention, and so on) are met.
autonomy versus shame and doubt
Erikson's second crisis of psychosocial development. Toddlers either succeed or fail in gaining a sense of self-rule over their actions and their bodies.
What evidence is there that toddlers become more aware of themselves?
Evidence can be found in the classic experiment in which 9- to 24-month-olds looked into a mirror after a dot of rouge had been surreptitiously put on their noses. If a child touched the red dot on his nose, it proved that he knew the mirror reflected his own face. None of the babies younger than 12 months did that, but the babies between 15 and 24 months were self-aware, touching their noses with curiosity and puzzlement.
Why is allocare necessary for survival of the human species?
Evolutionary social scientists note that if mothers were the exclusive caregivers of each child until children were adults, a given woman could only rear one or two offspring—not enough for the species to survive. Allocare is necessary so that mothers can have more children than they can care for on their own.
How is father-care similar to mother-care?
Fathers enhance their children's social and emotional development in many ways as mothers do, and synchrony, attachment, and social referencing are all apparent with fathers.
How does father-care differ from mother-care?
Fathers typically elicit more smiles and laughter from infants than mothers do, engaging more often in exciting and active play. Close father-infant relationships can also teach infants (especially boys) appropriate expressions of emotion, particularly anger. Teenagers are less likely to lash out at friends and authorities if, as infants, they experienced a warm, responsive relationship with their father.
What is the difference between temperament and personality?
Generally, personality traits (like honesty and humility) are learned, whereas temperamental traits (like aggression or shyness) are genetic. Of course, for every trait, nature and nurture interact.
How might the crisis of "trust versus mistrust" affect later life?
If positive social interactions in infancy inspire trust, later in life the child or adult will likely explore the social world with confidence. The inverse would be true for infants who develop mistrust at this stage; they would lack confidence in their engagement with the world and assume that their basic needs cannot be met.
working model
In cognitive theory, a set of assumptions that the individual uses to organize perceptions and experiences. For example, a person might assume that other people are trustworthy and be surprised if someone lies, cheats, or betrays a confidence.
temperament
Inborn differences between one person and another in emotions, activity, and self-regulation. It is measured by the person's typical responses to the environment.
What would an infant do to demonstrate attachment?
Infants show their attachment through proximity-seeking and contact-maintaining behaviors. Attachment needs are evident when a baby cries if the caregiver closes the door when going to the bathroom (lost proximity) or fusses if a back-facing car seat prevents the baby from seeing the parent (lost contact).
What are the advantages of nonmaternal day care for the infant?
It allows mothers to return to work and provides (in good environments) safe spaces, appropriate learning and playing equipment, and trained providers to interact with children. The advantages appear most obvious around preschool age.
What is not yet known about how brain maturation affects emotions?
It is still unknown how infant brains are molded by their environment and culture and how this affects their expression of emotions.
allocare
Literally, "other-care"; the care of children by people other than the biological parents.
Why are the effects of center care in Norway different from those in the United States?
Longitudinal results in Norway find no detrimental results of infant center care that begins at age one. By kindergarten, Norwegian children in day care had slightly more conflicts with caregivers, but the authors suggest that may be the result of shy children becoming bolder as a result of day care. Studies from the United States show that children in early, extensive center care are somewhat more likely to develop externalizing problems by age five—hitting, yelling, and disobeying adults.
Zondra's 1-year-old nephew is looking out the window when a loud fire engine approaches with a screaming siren. Even after the truck passes, her nephew remains upset. Why?
Many 1-year-olds fear anything unexpected.
What might happen if a person is stuck in the anal stage?
This person may develop an anal personality, seeking self-control and regularity in all aspects of life.
How do negative circumstances (e.g., divorce, abuse, low SES) affect attachment?
Negative circumstances such as abuse, income loss, poverty, and low SES increase the likelihood of insecure attachment. Insecure attachment can correlate with later learning problems, delayed language, low school achievement, and hostile children. Although attachment patterns form in infancy, they are not set in stone; a securely attached infant may become insecure if the family context changes.
Quality center care for infants and children is generally seen as a public obligation in:
Norway.
What might be the problem with infant day care?
One theory is that variations in day care arrangements are vast, and the quality of infant day care varies a great deal—some babies seem far more affected than others by the quality of the care they receive.
How might synchrony affect early emotional development?
Parental responsiveness during synchrony aids psychosocial and biological development by providing powerful learning experiences. With every parental interaction, infants learn to read another's facial expression, body language, and emotions, thereby laying the foundation for the development of social skills.
What are the disadvantages of exclusive maternal care for the infant?
Possible disadvantages include a lack of paternal interaction with the infant, since in such a situation the father is usually working to support the family. Research also shows that for low-SES families, babies who are cared for exclusively by their mothers may be at a cognitive disadvantage, especially in language, to babies who attend center day care.
social referencing
Seeking information about how to react to an unfamiliar or ambiguous object or event by observing someone else's expressions and reactions. That other person becomes a social reference.
social learning
The acquisition of behavior patterns by observing the behavior of others.
Emily and Charlie are 1-year-old twins. Their parents thought it would be fun to have a portrait taken of their young children with Santa Claus. Both parents are close by as their twins are placed on Santa's lap, but Emily and Charlie are very unhappy about the entire experience and show their alarm with tears and cries. Why?
The children are showing signs of stranger wariness.
How do family interactions and culture shape toddlers' emotions?
The expression of pride, shame, embarrassment, disgust, and guilt requires social awareness and self-awareness. Social awareness and self-awareness emerge from family interactions and are shaped by the culture. For example, North American parents encourage toddlers to feel proud of their accomplishments, but Asian families typically discourage pride and instead cultivate modesty and shame.
What is known about the impact of brain maturation on emotions?
The social smile, laughter, fear, self-awareness, and anger appear as the cortex matures. The maturation of the anterior cingulate gyrus (a part of the cortex) is directly connected to emotional self-regulation, allowing a child to hide or express his or her feelings.
According to Freud, how do people become fixated at a given stage of development?
Their normal developmental urges are frustrated.
How would a type C insecure adult act in a romantic relationship?
Their relationships may be angry, stormy, and unpredictable.
How would a type A insecure adult act in a romantic relationship?
They tend to be aloof in personal relationships.
How would a type B secure adult act in a romantic relationship?
They tend to have good relationships and good self-esteem.
How would a caregiver try to maintain proximity and contact?
To maintain proximity, some caregivers may sing and talk to their infant when they are out of sight; they may also take their infants wherever they go, even the bathroom. Examples of contact-maintaining behaviors include caregivers absentmindedly smoothing their child's hair or caressing their child's hands
How might the crisis of "autonomy versus shame and doubt" affect later life?
Toddlers want autonomy over their own actions and bodies. If this does not develop, then they feel ashamed and doubtful, and this may result in an adult who is suspicious and pessimistic or easily shamed. Children who develop autonomy will likely develop into confident adults.
What do 1-year-olds fear?
Typical 1-year-old children fear strangers and separation from their caregivers. Many also fear anything unexpected, from the flush of the toilet to the pop of a jack-in-the-box.
Whom do infants use as social references?
Typically, infants focus on their familiar caregivers, but they also use relatives, other children, and even strangers to help them assess objects and events. They are remarkably selective, noticing that some strangers are reliable references and others are not.
What can be done to improve the parent-child bond?
We know that secure attachment is more difficult to achieve when the parents were abused as children, when families are socially isolated, when mothers are young adolescents, or when infants are unusually difficult. All parents, but especially those classified as high-risk, can benefit from early support offered by skilled professionals. This may include counseling, parenting classes, and one-on-one education about childcare.
What ethnic and cohort differences are apparent in father-care?
Within every ethnic group in the United States, contemporary fathers tend to be more involved with their infants than fathers once were. Fathers are also affected by income (stressed parents are less nurturing) and by where they live. As with humans of all age, social contexts are influential: Fathers are influenced by other fathers. Thus, fathers of every ethnic group are aware of what other men are doing, which affects their own behavior.
A parent, smiling and laughing, is moving a small stuffed toy back and forth in front of a 7-week-old infant. The MOST likely reaction the parent will receive from the infant is:
a social smile.
Brandi wants to measure attachment via the Strange Situation laboratory procedure, but there are simply too many children involved in the study. Instead, she decides to use _____ and to interview parents.
a survey
Hayden is 7 months old. He is capable of:
anger.
Leroy has a friend who is suspicious, pessimistic, and easily ashamed. He knows that self-awareness emerges at 18 months and without some independence, a child may feel ashamed and doubtful. Such problems in early infancy can last a lifetime. Leroy believes his friend's problems may have originated in the early developmental crisis Erikson named:
autonomy versus shame.
According to Mary Ainsworth, a child with insecure-resistant/ambivalent attachment will:
continue to show signs of distress when the mother returns after a brief absence.
The parents of 3-year-old Kaylie have noticed that she is throwing tantrums less often and is able to better regulate her emotions. This is MOST likely the result of maturation of the:
cortex.
With respect to the continuum of attachment, high avoidance and high anxiety may contribute to _____ attachment.
disorganized
Zabrina's babysitter Kara is holding her. Zabrina is smiling at Kara one minute and then, unexpectedly, Zabrina slaps the caregiver's face. This is typical behavior for Zabrina. Therefore, she may have a _____ attachment with Kara.
disorganized
Baby Isabel is impulsive and prone to dramatic changes in emotion. She has difficulty calming down when she is upset. Isabel appears low in the _____ dimension of temperament.
effortful control
Personality is to _____ as _____ is to shyness.
humility; temperament
Your best friend was brought up under very stressful circumstances. During his early years, his father was an alcoholic, and his mother was mentally ill. Happily, both parents sought counseling and gradually the home environment improved. Nevertheless, your friend's personality still reflects some aspects of _____ attachment.
insecure
Lottie is 3 months old. Her MOST sophisticated emotional capability is:
laughter and curiosity.
Julia describes her adult attachment style as "avoidant." With respect to the continuum of attachment, Julia's attachment style is BEST described as _____ in anxiety and _____ in avoidance.
low; high
A placid, happy baby is low in the _____ dimension of temperament.
negative mood
Based on the textbook's discussion, which of the following concepts is LEAST relevant to emotional development during infancy?
neurogenesis
Freud introduced two distinct early stages of development. They are the _____ stage and the _____ stage.
oral; anal
Among 3-year-olds, the rate of enrolment in educational programs is _____ correlated with education.
positively
Throughout the second year and beyond, _____, which require social awareness and emerge from family interactions, appear.
pride, shame, embarrassment, disgust, and guilt
A father is feeding his toddler peas for the first time, when the child picks up her spoon and attempts to feed herself. The peas fall to the floor, and the father exclaims, "Good for you, sweetie, you can feed yourself!" The father is encouraging the toddler to feel the new emotion of:
pride.
Marta is at the playground observing how a group of toddlers and their parents interact while playing. Some parents are sitting on a bench and talking to one another, with only occasional communication with their children. Others are physically close and far more involved, playing alongside their children in the sandbox and pushing them on the swings or catching them at the end of the slide. The physically close parents are engaged in which style of parenting or play?
proximal
Alice takes her 1-year-old son, Derek, to visit an infant-toddler program in which she hopes to enroll him. Derek eagerly explores the room as long as Alice is present. When Alice leaves the room to fill out some forms, Derek becomes somewhat upset. When she returns, though, Derek quickly calms down. Derek's attachment style is MOST likely:
secure.
An infant's distress when his or her caregiver leaves is called:
separation anxiety.
Fourteen-month-old Carlos watches his older brother giggle and roll on the floor while watching a TV show. Carlos then laughs and rolls on the floor whenever this program is on, which is an example of:
social learning.
Jason is traveling to another country while on spring break. The climate is much hotter than what he is used to, and he notices many people in the village where he is staying wear long, white shirts that nearly reach their feet. Some are wearing hats made of grass and leaves. He buys the same kind of shirt and the grass hat in order to beat the heat and blend in. This is an example of:
social learning.
Your friend is very social and upbeat, and so it is no wonder your friend's child is also incredibly social and smiles at everyone she meets, whether a stranger or well-known caregiver. According to behaviorists, this is a clear example of:
social learning.
A genetic predisposition regarding emotions, activity, and self-regulation is called:
temperament.
Pride, shame, embarrassment, disgust, and guilt are emotions that take on new strength during a child's _____ and require social awareness, which emerge from family interactions and are influenced by culture.
toddlerhood
Shirlee is alarmed to learn that her roommate could very possibly be a "hoarder." There are cans of food under her bed and on every closet shelf. At first she thought her friend was bringing her favorite foods to school with her, but now Shirlee has also noticed her roommate's mistrust of others and general sense of insecurity. Shirlee knows that babies feel secure when food and comfort are provided with consistency and continuity. She thinks that her friend's hoarding tendencies may be rooted in the early developmental crisis that Erikson called:
trust versus mistrust.
Erikson's _____ crisis is to Freud's oral stage as Erikson's autonomy-versus-shame crisis is to Freud's anal stage.
trust-versus-mistrust
Leigh experienced some traumatic events in her childhood. According to cognitive theory, by rethinking and reorganizing her thoughts about previous experiences, Leigh will be able to change her later experiences by developing a new:
working model.
