PSYC 255 - Chapter 15 & 16 Quiz
Surveys indicate that Americans' confidence in their ability to retire comfortably has reached all time ---in recent years
lows
The --- rate for older adult females is almost double that of older adult males
poverty
Recent research indicates that when older adults sleep less than --- hours or more than --- hours a night, their cognitive functioning is harmed
seven nine
One aspect of life review involves identifying and reflecting on not only the positive aspects of one's life but also regrets as part of developing a mature --- and ---
wisdom self understanding
Energy expenditure during exercise of at least --- kcal/week reduces mortality by about 30 percent, while --- kcal/week reduces mortality by about 50 percent
1,000 2,000
The current recommendations for older adults' physical activity are --- of moderate-intensity aerobic activity (brisk walking, for example) per week and muscle strengthening activities on --- or more days a week
2 hours and 30 minutes 2
The United States has the highest child and maternal _____ rates, ____ rate, and ____ of high-income countries in the world
mortality homicide bodymass index
Approximately --- times as many poor as non-poor older adults report that chronic disorders limit their activities
three
In a 2016 Nielsen survey, adults age 65 and older watched television an average of --- hours, --- minutes per week
51 32
In 2017, the overall life expectancy for women was ____ years of age, and for men it was ____ years of age. The gender gap in longevity decreased from ____ years in 1979 to ____ years in 2017. Beginning in the mid-thirties, ____ outnumber men; this gap widens during the remainder of the adult years. By the time adults are 75 years of age, more than ____ percent are female; for those 85 and over, the figure is almost ____ percent female. A recent list (2017) of the oldest people alive today in the world had no men in the top ____.
81 77 7.8 4 women 61 70 25
--- (services that provide temporary relief to those who are caring for individuals with disabilities, illnesses, or the elderly) has been developed to help people who have to meet the day-to-day needs of Alzheimer patients. This type of care provides much-needed breaks from the burden of providing chronic care
Respite care
--- are a family of proteins that have been linked to longevity, regulation of mitochondria functioning in energy, possible benefits of calorie restriction, stress resistance, and a lower incidence of cardiovascular disease and cancer. One of the sirtuins, ---, has been connected to DNA repair and aging
Sirtuins SIRT 1
A study of 93 centenarians revealed that despite some physical limitations, they had a low rate of ____ diseases and most had good ____ health. And a study of centenarians from 100 to 119 years of age found that the ____ the age group (110 to 119— referred to as ____—compared with 100 to 104, for example), the ____ the onset of diseases such as cancer and cardiovascular disease, as well as functional decline
age associated mental older supercentenarians later
Social participation by older adults is often discouraged by ---, which is prejudice against others because of their age, especially prejudice against older adults
ageism
. The most frequent pain complaints of older adults involve --- pain (40 percent), --- pain (35 percent), and --- pain (15 to 25 percent)
back peripheral neuropathic chronic joint
one study found that episodic memory performance predicted which individuals would develop --- 10 years prior to the clinical diagnosis of the disease
dementia
Evolutionary theory has its critics (Cohen, 2015). One criticism is that the "big picture" idea of natural selection leading to the development of human traits and behaviors is difficult to refute or test because evolution occurs on a time scale that does not lend itself to ____. Another criticism is the failure of evolutionary theory to account for ____ influences
empirical study cultural
In virtually all species, ____ outlive ____. Women have more resistance to ____ and ____ diseases. For example, the female's ____ production helps to protect her from arteriosclerosis (hardening of the arteries). And the additional ___chromosome that women carry in comparison with men may be associated with the production of more ____ to fight off disease. The sex difference in mortality is still present in late adulthood but ____ pronounced than earlier in adulthood, and it is especially linked to the higher level of cardiovascular disease in ___ than ____
females males infections degenerative estrogen X antibodies less men women
Also, a study of 90- to 91-year-olds found that living circumstances, especially owning one's own home and living there as long as possible; independence in various aspects of life; good health; and a good death were described as important themes of ----
successful aging
sedentary participants (low fitness) were more than --- as likely to die during the eight-year time span of the study as those who were moderately fit and more than --- times as likely to die as those who were highly fit
twice three
expert knowledge about the practical aspects of life that permits excellent judgment about important matters. This practical knowledge involves exceptional insight into human development and interactions, good judgment, and an understanding of how to cope with difficult life problems. Thus, ---, more than standard conceptions of intelligence, focuses on life's pragmatic concerns and human conditions
wisdom
In a recent study, 24 percent of LGBT individuals 50 years and older, --- percent were legally married, --- percent unmarried and partnered, and --- percent single
24 26 50
--- states that the more active and involved older adults are, the more likely they are to be satisfied with their lives
Activity theory
A third theory of aging is --- theory, which states that people age because when cells metabolize energy, the by-products include unstable --- molecules known as free radicals. The free radicals ricochet around the cells, damaging --- and other cellular structures. The damage can lead to a range of disorders, including --- and ---
free radical oxygen DNA cancer arthritis
A recent study found that older adults who increased their leisure-time activity levels were --- times more likely to have a slower progression to having a functional disability
three
Two important cognitive resource mechanisms are --- and ---
working memory perceptual speed
since 1900 improvements in medicine, nutrition, exercise, and lifestyle have increased our life expectancy by an average of ____ years
31
Other characteristics of centenarians in the NECS study include the following: few of the centenarians are ___, habitual ____ is rare, and only a small percentage (less than 15 percent) have had significant changes in their ____ skills (disproving the belief that most centenarians likely would develop Alzheimer disease)
obese smoking thinking
A recent national study of community-dwelling older adults revealed that 70 percent of older adults had impaired ---. For most older adults, a decline in this sensitivity is not problematic
touch
1) --- can improve the cognitive skills of many older adults, but (2) there is some loss in --- in late adulthood, especially in those who are 85 and older
training plasticity
weight drops after age ____
60
--- involve a thickening of the lens of the eye that causes vision to become cloudy and distorted. By age 70, approximately ____ percent of individuals experience a partial loss of vision due to this
Cataracts 30
--- typically declines in late adulthood, which can make it difficult for older adults to determine how close or far away or how high or low something is
Depth perception
In the "Introduction" chapter, we described ---- perspective on the challenges and opportunities involved in the dramatic increase in life expectancy that has been occurring and continues to occur. In her view, the remarkable increase in the number of people living to older ages has occurred in such a short time that science, technology, and behavioral adaptations have not kept pace. She proposes that the challenge is to change a world constructed mainly for young people to a world that is more compatible and supportive for the increasing number of people living to 100 and older
Laura Carstensen's
represents a transitional state between the cognitive changes of normal aging and very early Alzheimer disease and other dementias
Mild cognitive impairment (MCI)
Changes in cognitive activity patterns might result in disuse and consequent atrophy of cognitive skills. This concept is captured in the phrase "----." The mental activities that are likely to benefit the maintenance of cognitive skills in older adults include activities such as reading books, doing crossword puzzles, and going to lectures and concerts
Use it or lose it
in a version of reminiscence therapy, --- reminiscence therapy reduced depressive symptoms, perceived stress, and emergency room visits in older African Americans
attachment focused
The quality of nursing homes and other extended-care facilities for older adults varies enormously and is a source of national concern. More than --- are seriously deficient
1/3
Approximately --- of total health-care expenses in the United States involve the care of adults 65 and over, who comprise only --- percent of the population. Medicare is the program that provides health-care insurance to adults over 65 under the Social Security system. Until the ---- was enacted, the United States was the only developed country that did not have a national health care system
1/3 12 Affordable Care Act
In the United States, there were only ____ centenarians in 1980, but that number rose to ____ in 2000 and to ____ in 2014. The number of U.S. centenarians is projected to reach ____ by 2050
15,000 50,000 72,000 600,000
A 2017 survey indicated that only --- percent of American workers feel very confident that they will have enough money to have a comfortable retirement. However, --- percent said they feel somewhat or very confident they will have enough money to live a comfortable retirement. In this survey, --- percent of American workers reported that preparing for retirement made them feel mentally or emotionally distressed. In regard to retirement income, the two main worries of individuals as they approach retirement are: (1) having to draw retirement income from ---, and (2) paying for --- expenses
18 60 30 savings health-care
In 2000, --- percent of U.S. 65- to 69-year-olds were in the work force; in 2015, this percentage had jumped to --- percent (Short, 2018). For 70- to 74-year-olds, in 2000, --- percent were in the workforce, but this percentage had increased to --- percent in 2015. This increase has occurred more for --- than ---. For example, labor force participation by 75-and-over women has risen ---percent since 2000, while participation in the work force by 75-and-over men has increased ---percent. A recent study found that older workers worked beyond retirement age to improve their financial status, health, knowledge levels, and sense of purpose
23 34 13 19 women men 87 45
About --- percent of adults age 65 and older in the United States reside in a nursing home at some point in their lives. As older adults age, however, their probability of being in a nursing home or other extended-care facility increases. --- percent of adults aged 85 and older live in nursing homes or other extended-care facilities
3 23
____% of people in their sixties and ____% in their seventies are still working
33 11
In 2016, --- percent of U.S. adults 65 and over reported using social networking sites like Facebook and Twitter, 7 percent higher than in 2013
34
Lung capacity drops --- percent between the ages of 20 and 80, even without disease. Lungs lose elasticity, the chest shrinks, and the diaphragm weakens. The good news, though, is that older adults can improve lung functioning with diaphragm strengthening exercises
40
The cost of disorders such as dementia in older adults is estimated at more than $---- per year in the United States
40 billion
lung capacity drops by ____ between ages 20 to 80
40%
In 2015, Monaco had the highest estimated life expectancy at birth (90 years), followed by Japan, Singapore, and Macau (a region of China near Hong Kong) (85 years). Of 224 countries, the United States ranked ____ at ____ years. The lowest estimated life expectancy in 2015 occurred in the African countries of Chad and Guinea-Bissau (50) and Swaziland and Afghanistan (51 years). Differences in life expectancies across countries are due to factors such as ____ and ____
43rd 79 health conditions medical care
On average, the brain loses --- to ---percent of its weight between the ages of 20 and 90. Brain --- also decreases. One study found a decrease in total brain volume and volume in key brain structures such as the --- lobes and --- from 22 to 88 years of age. Also, recent analyses concluded that in healthy aging the decrease in brain volume is due mainly to shrinkage of ---, lower numbers of ---, reduced length and complexity of ---, and reduced tree-like branching in ---, but only to a minor extent attributable to --- loss
5 10 volume frontal hippocampus neurons syanpses axons dendrites neuron
____ of older adults have trouble sleeping
50%
Nearly --- percent of U.S. adults 65 to 74 years old die of cancer or cardiovascular disease. --- recently replaced --- as the leading cause of death in U.S. middle-aged adults. However, --- is the leading cause of death in U.S. 65-85 and over age groups
60 cancer cardiovascular disease
Nearly ___ of 65 to 74 year olds die of cancer or cardiovascular disease
60%
A national survey revealed that 63 percent of adults 70 years and older had a hearing loss, defined as an inability to hear sounds softer than --- dB with their better ear. In this study, hearing aids were used by 40 percent of those with moderate hearing loss. Also, a recent study of 80- to 106-year-olds found a substantial increase in hearing loss in the ninth and then in the tenth decades of life. In this study, although hearing loss was virtually universal in the 80- to 106-year-olds, only --- percent of them wore hearing aids. Research has found that older adults' hearing problems are associated with less time spent out of home and in leisure activities, an increase in falls, reduction in cognitive functioning, and loneliness
63 25 40 59
A recent national study of community-dwelling older adults revealed that 74 percent had impaired taste and 22 percent had impaired smell. These losses often begin around 60 years of age. A majority of individuals 80 years of age and older experience a significant reduction in ---. Researchers have found that older adults show a greater decline in their sense of --- than in their ---
74 22 smell smell taste
Approximately --- percent of older adults have living children, many of whom are middle-aged. About ---percent of older adults have children who are 65 years or older.
80 10
In a recent analysis, projections of life expectancy in 2030 were made for 35 developed countries. It was predicted that life expectancy in the United States would increase to ____ years for women and ____ years for men by 2030. However, the United States, although expected to increase in life expectancy, had one of the lowest ____ in life expectancy for all of the countries in the study
83.3 79.5 growth rates
Injecting the enzyme telomerase into human cells grown in the laboratory can substantially extend the life of the cells beyond the approximately 70 to 80 normal cell divisions (Harrison, 2012). However, telomerase is present in approximately -- to -- percent of -- cells and thus may not produce healthy life extension of cells
85 90 cancerous
a progressive, irreversible brain disorder that is characterized by a gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and eventually, physical function. In 2018, an estimated 5.7 million adults in the United States had it, and it is projected that 10 million baby boomers will develop it. Ten percent of individuals 65 and older have it. The percentage of individuals with it increases dramatically at older ages: 3 percent of 65- to 74-year-olds, 17 percent of 75- to 84-year-olds, and 32 percent of people 85 and older. --- are more likely than men to develop Alzheimer disease because they live longer than --- and their longer life expectancy increases the number of years during which they can develop it. It is estimated that Alzheimer disease --- the health-care costs of Americans 65 years of age and older
Alzheimer disease women men triples
Five drugs have been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of Alzheimer disease. Three of the medications, ---, ---, and ---, are cholinesterase inhibitors designed to improve memory and other cognitive functions by increasing levels of acetylcholine in the brain. A fourth drug, ---, regulates the activity of glutamate, which is involved in processing information. ---, a combination of memantine and donepezil, is the fifth approved medicine to treat Alzheimer disease; this medicine is designed to improve cognition and overall mental ability. A research review concluded that --- inhibitors do not reduce progression to dementia from mild cognitive impairment. Also, keep in mind that the current drugs used to treat Alzheimer disease only slow the downward progression of the disease; they do not address its cause. Also, no drugs have yet been approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of MCI
Aricept (donepezil) Razadyne (galantamine) Exelon (rivastigmine) Namenda (memantine) Namzatric cholinesterase
--- becomes relevant when life tasks require a level of capacity beyond the current level of the older adult's performance potential
Compensation
--- is associated with a number of other positive outcomes for older adults. For example, older adults with a higher level of this experience less cognitive decline as they age. Also, in older adults, higher levels of conscientiousness, openness to experience, agreeableness, and extraversion were linked to ---emotions, while neuroticism was associated with --- emotion
Conscientiousness positive negative
--- Successive generations in America's twentieth century were better educated, and this trend continues in the twenty-first century. Educational experiences are positively correlated with scores on intelligence tests and information-processing tasks, such as memory exercises. Also, one study found that older adults with a higher level of education had better cognitive functioning
Education
--- is the retention of information about the where and when of life's happenings. For example, what was the color of the walls in your bedroom when you were a child? What did you eat for breakfast this morning?
Episodic memory
---- increasingly is thought to be involved not only in cognitive performance but also in health, emotion regulation, adaptation to life's challenges, motivation, and social functioning. In one study, ---- but not memory predicted a higher risk of coronary heart disease and stroke three years later in older adults
Executive function
an umbrella-like concept that consists of a number of higher-level cognitive processes linked to the development of the brain's prefrontal cortex. It involves managing one's thoughts to engage in goal-directed behavior and to exercise self-control
Executive function
--- is memory of facts and experiences that individuals consciously know and can state. Also is sometimes called declarative memory. Examples include recounting the plot of a movie you have seen or being at a grocery store and remembering what you wanted to buy
Explicit memory
--- involves damage to the optic nerve because of the pressure created by a buildup of fluid in the eye. Approximately --- percent of individuals in their seventies and --- percent of those in their nineties have it, and it can be treated with eye drops. If left untreated, it can ultimately destroy a person's vision
Glaucoma 1 10
--- is memory without conscious recollection; it involves skills and routine procedures, such as driving a car or typing on a computer keyboard, that you perform without having to consciously think about what you are doing. It is less likely to be adversely affected by aging than explicit memory is
Implicit memory
In a classic study, --- and --- found that an important factor related to health, and even survival, in a nursing home is the patient's feelings of control and self determination. One group was encouraged to make more day-to-day choices and thus to feel they had more control over their lives. They began to decide such matters as what they ate, when their visitors could come, what movies they saw, and who could come to their rooms. Another group in the same nursing home was told by the administrator how caring the nursing home staff was and how much they wanted to help, but these residents were given no added responsibility over their lives. Eighteen months later, the residents who had been given extra responsibility were healthier, happier, and more alert and active than the residents who had not received added responsibility
Judith Rodin and Ellen Langer
--- is a disease that involves deterioration of the macula of the retina, which corresponds to the focal center of the visual field. Individuals with macular degeneration may have relatively normal peripheral vision but be unable to see clearly what is right in front of them. This condition affects 1 in --- individuals from age 66 to 74 and 1 in --- of those age 75 and older. There is increased interest in using stem-cell based therapy to treat macular degeneration
Macular degeneration 25 6
--- is a theory of aging that emphasizes the decay of mitochondria—tiny bodies within cells that supply essential energy for function, growth, and repair—that is primarily due to ---damage and loss of critical --- supplied by the cell. --- sensing and --- (programmed cell death) also have been emphasized as key aspects of the mitochondrial theory of aging
Mitochondrial theory oxidative micronutrients energy apoptosis
The research just described was carried out as part of the ____ conducted by Thomas Perls and his colleagues. Perls has a term for this process of staving off high-mortality chronic diseases until much later ages than is usually the case in the general population: he calls it the ____. Further, there are far more ___ supercentenarians than ___—a list (2015) of the oldest people who have ever lived had only two men (number --- and number ---) in the top 25.
New England Centenarian Study (NECS) compression of morbidity female male 11 17
The ---, directed by David Snowdon, is an intriguing ongoing investigation of aging in 678 nuns, many of whom are from the convent of the Sisters of Notre Dame in Mankato, Minnesota. They lead an intellectually challenging life, and brain researchers conclude that this contributes to their quality of life as older adults and possibly to their longevity. They also agreed to donate their brains for scientific research when they die, and they are the largest group of brain donors in the world
Nun Study
Highest ratio of centenarians in the world live in _____(_____ per every ____ inhabitants)
Okinawa 34.7 100,000
--- workers have lower rates of absenteeism, fewer accidents, and increased job satisfaction compared with their --- counterparts. This means that older workers can be of considerable value to a company, above and beyond their cognitive competence. Changes in federal law now allow individuals over the age of 65 to continue working in most jobs.
Older younger
---- suggests that it is possible to maintain performance in some areas through continued practice and the use of new technologies
Optimization
--- involves an extensive loss of bone tissue and is the main reason many older adults walk with a marked stoop. Women are especially vulnerable to it, which is the leading cause of broken bones in women . Approximately ---percent of cases in the United States occur in females, --- percent in males. Almost ---- of women over the age of 60 are affected by it. It is more common in non-Latina White, thin, and small-framed women. It is related to deficiencies in calcium, vitamin D, and estrogen, and to lack of exercise. Drugs such as Fosamax can be used to reduce the risk
Osteoporosis 80 20 2/3
Another type of dementia is ----, a chronic, progressive disorder characterized by muscle tremors, slowing of movement, and partial facial paralysis. Parkinson disease is triggered by degeneration of --- in the brain. Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that is necessary for normal brain functioning. Why these neurons degenerate is not known
Parkinson disease dopamine-producing neurons
In the view of --- and his colleagues, the selection of domains and life priorities is an important aspect of development. Life goals and personal life investments likely vary across the life course for most people. For many individuals, it is not just the sheer attainment of goals, but rather the attainment of meaningful goals, that makes life satisfying
Paul Baltes
the amount of time it takes to perform simple perceptual-motor tasks such as deciding whether pairs of two-digit or two-letter strings are the same, or how long it takes someone to step on the brakes when the car directly ahead stops. It shows considerable decline in late adulthood, and it is strongly linked with decline in working memory
Perceptual speed
Distinguished aging researcher --- argues that the life review is set in motion by looking forward to death. Sometimes the life review proceeds ---; at other times it is ---, requiring considerable work to achieve some sense of personality integration. The life review may be observed initially in stray and insignificant thoughts about oneself and one's life history. These thoughts may continue to emerge in brief intermittent spurts or become essentially continuous
Robert Butler quietly intense
--- is based on the concept that older adults have a reduced capacity and loss of functioning, which require a reduction in performance in most life domains
Selection
--- theory states that successful aging is linked with three main factors (SOC). The theory describes how people can produce new resources and allocate them effectively to the tasks they want to master
Selective optimization with compensation
--- is a person's knowledge about the world. It includes a person's fields of expertise, general academic knowledge of the sort learned in school, and "everyday knowledge" about the meanings of words, important places, and common things. Older adults often take longer to retrieve semantic information, but usually they can ultimately retrieve it. However, the ability to retrieve very specific information (such as names) usually declines in older adults
Semantic memory
when the Stanford Center on Longevity conducted a recent large-scale examination of healthy living in different age groups called the ---, social engagement with individuals and communities appeared to be weaker today than it was --- years ago for 55- to 64-year-olds. Many of these individuals, who are about to reach retirement age, had weaker relationships with spouses, partners, family, friends, and neighbors than their counterparts of 15 years ago
Sightlines Project 15
---- challenges the stereotype that the majority of older adults are in emotional despair because of their social isolation. Rather, older adults consciously choose to decrease the total number of their social contacts in favor of spending increased time in emotionally rewarding moments with friends and family
Socioemotional selectivity theory
---- states that older adults become more selective about their social networks. Because they place a high value on emotional satisfaction, older adults spend more time with familiar individuals with whom they have had rewarding relationships. Developed by ----, this theory argues that older adults deliberately withdraw from social contact with individuals peripheral to their lives while they maintain or increase contact with close friends and family members with whom they have had enjoyable relationships. This selective narrowing of social interaction maximizes positive emotional experiences and minimizes emotional risks as individuals become older
Socioemotional selectivity theory Laura Carstensen
The Stanford Center for Longevity (2011) and together the ---- (2014) reported information based on a consensus of leading scientists in the field of aging on how successfully the cognitive skills of older adults can be improved. One of their concerns is the misinformation given to the public touting products to improve the functioning of the mind for which there is no ---. For example, nutritional supplements have been advertised as "magic bullets" to slow the decline of mental functioning and improve the mental ability of older adults. Some of the claims are reasonable but not scientifically tested, while others are unrealistic and implausible
Stanford Center for Longevity and the Max Planck Institute for Human Development scientific evidence
--- generations have also had work experiences that included a stronger emphasis on cognitively oriented labor. Our great-grandfathers and grandfathers were more likely to be manual laborers than were our fathers, who are more likely to be involved in cognitively oriented occupations. Researchers have found that when older adults engage in complex working tasks and challenging daily work activities their cognitive functioning shows less age-related decrease. These generations have also been healthier in late adulthood as more effective treatments for a variety of illnesses (such as hypertension) have been developed. Many of these illnesses, such as stroke, heart disease, and diabetes, have a negative impact on intellectual performance
Successive
the ability to focus attention on a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time. Researchers have found that older adults often perform as well as middle-aged and younger adults on measures of it. However, consistency of attention is important. A study of older adults found that the greater the --- in their --- attention (vigilance), the more likely they were to experience falls
Sustained attention variability
Once destruction of brain tissue occurs from Alzheimer disease, it is unlikely that treatment of the disease will reverse the damage, at least based on the state of research now and in the foreseeable future. Alzheimer disease involves a deficiency in the brain messenger chemical ---, which plays an important role in memory. Also, as Alzheimer disease progresses, the brain --- and deteriorates. This deterioration is characterized by the formation of --- (dense deposits of protein that accumulate in the blood vessels) and --- (twisted fibers that build up in neurons). Neurofibrillary tangles consist mainly of a protein called ---. Currently, there is considerable research interest in the roles that amyloid and tau play in Alzheimer disease
acetylcholine shrinks amyloid plaques neurofibrillary tangles tau
Comparative information about African Americans, Latinos, and non-Latino Whites indicates a possible double jeopardy for elderly ethnic minority individuals who face problems related to both --- and ---
ageism racism
A gene called --- is linked to an increasing presence of plaques and tangles in the brain. Special attention has focused on an --- (an alternative form of a gene) labeled --- that is a strong risk factor for Alzheimer disease. More than 60 percent of individuals with Alzheimer disease have at least one --- allele, and females are more likely to have this allele than males. Indeed, the gene is the strongest genetic predictor of late-onset (65 years and older) Alzheimer disease (. Despite links between the presence of that gene and Alzheimer disease, less than --- percent of individuals who carry the gene develop dementia in old age
apolipoprotein E (ApoE) allele ApoE4 50
an inflammation of the joints accompanied by pain, stiffness, and movement problems. This incurable disorder can affect hips, knees, ankles, fingers, and vertebrae
arthritis
--- is the most common chronic disorder in late adulthood, followed by ---. Older women have a higher incidence of arthritis, hypertension, and visual problems but a lower incidence of --- than older men do
arthritis hypertension hearing problems
The mitochondrial damage may lead to a range of disorders, including ---disease; --- diseases such as Alzheimer disease; --- disease; --- disease ; and --- functioning. However, it is not known whether the defects in mitochondria cause aging or merely accompany the aging process
cardiovascular Alzheimer parkinson diabetic kidney impaired liver
75 to 84 year olds and 85+ have ____ as the leading cause of death
cardiovascular disease
____ theory is Leonard Hayflick's (1977) theory that cells can divide a maximum of about 75 to 80 times and that as we age our cells become less capable of dividing. Hayflick found that cells extracted from adults in their fifties to seventies divided ____ than 75 to 80 times. Based on the ways cells divide, Hayflick places the upper limit of human life-span potential at about ____ to ____ years of age
cellular clock fewer 120 125
One recent view stated that aging is best explained by ____ requirements and ____ constraints. In recent decades, there has been a significant increase in research on genetic and cellular processes involved in aging . Five such advances involve:
cellular maintenance evolutionary telomeres free radicals mitochondria sirtuins mTOR pathway
individuals who are 100 years or older. In industrialized countries, the rate is increasing by ____ each year
centenarians 7%
researchers have found that visual decline in late adulthood is linked to (a) --- decline, as well as (b) having fewer --- and engaging in less --- social/leisure activities
cognitive social contacts challenging
The field of --- has emerged as the major discipline that studies links between brain activity and cognitive functioning. This field especially relies on brain-imaging techniques, such as fMRI, PET, and DTI (diffusion tensor imaging) to reveal the areas of the brain that are activated when individuals engage in certain cognitive activities. For example, as an older adult is asked to encode and then retrieve verbal materials or images of scenes, the older adult's brain activity will be monitored by an fMRI brain scan.
cognitive neuroscience
a global term for any neurological disorder in which the primary symptoms involve a deterioration of mental functioning. Individuals often lose the ability to care for themselves and may become unable to recognize familiar surroundings and people—including family members. It is estimated that --- percent of women and --- percent of men 85 years and older are at risk for developing dementia
dementia 23 17
Research indicates that --- (deterioration in the myelin sheath that encases axons and is associated with information processing) occurs with aging in the brains of older adults
demyelination
--- growth can occur in human adults, possibly even in older adults. Recall that --- are the receiving portion of the neuron. One study compared the brains of adults at various ages (Coleman, 1986). From the forties through the seventies, the growth of dendrites ---. However, in people in their nineties, dendritic growth ---
dendritic dendrites increased stopped
In the last decade, scientists have tried to fill in a gap in cellular clock theory. Hayflick did not know why cells ---. The answer may lie at the tips of chromosomes. Each time a cell divides, ----, which are DNA sequences that cap chromosomes, become shorter and shorter. After about --- or --- replications, the telomeres are dramatically reduced, and the cell no longer can reproduce. One study revealed that healthy centenarians had ____ telomeres than unhealthy centenarians. Further, a recent study confirmed that ____ telomere length was linked to Alzheimer disease
die chromosomes telomeres 70 80 longer shorter
The main treatment for Parkinson disease involves administering drugs that enhance the effect of dopamine (---) in the disease's earlier stages and later administering the drug ---, which is converted by the brain into dopamine. However, it is difficult to determine the correct level of dosage of L-dopa, and the medication loses its efficacy over time. Another treatment for advanced Parkinson disease is ---, which involves implantation of electrodes within the brain. The electrodes are then stimulated by a pacemaker-like device. Stem cell transplantation and gene therapy also offer hope for treating Parkinson disease
dopamine agonists Ldopa deep brain simulation (dbs)
An increasing number of older adults cohabit. In 2016, cohabitation levels more than ---- for older men from 1990 (1.5 percent) to 2015 (3.8 percent) and increased for older women in the same time frame from less than 1 percent to 2.6 percent. These percentages are expected to continue increasing in the next decade.
doubled
The Sightlines Project (2016) recommends implementing the following strategies to increase the social engagement of older adults: --- programs that strengthen support networks, --- that improves neighborhood and community life, technologies that improve ---, and opportunities for ---
employer wellness environmental design personal relationships volunteerism
--- and --- memory are viewed as forms of explicit memory
episodic semantic
For the most part, --- memory declines more than --- memory in older adults
episodic semantic
Four biological theories provide intriguing explanations of why we age: ___, ___, ___, ___
evolutionary cellular clock free radical hormonal stress
natural selection has not eliminated many harmful conditions and nonadaptive characteristics in older adults
evolutionary theory of aging
there is increasing research evidence that being physically active and engaging in aerobic exercise improves --- in older adults
executive function
the Big Five factors of personality: openness to ---, ---, ---, ---, and ---
experience conscientiousness extraversion agreeableness neuroticism
--- are the leading cause of injury deaths among adults who are 65 years and older. Each year, approximately --- adults over the age of 65 (many of them ---) fracture a hip in a fall. Half of these older adults die within --- months, frequently from ---. A research meta-analysis found that --- reduces falls in adults 60 years of age and older
falls 200,000 women 12 pneumonia exercise
Overeating is linked with an increase in ---, and researchers have found that --- —a diet low in calories but adequate in proteins, vitamins, and minerals—reduces the oxidative damage created by free radicals. In addition to diet, researchers also are exploring the role that --- might play in reducing oxidative damage in cells. A study of obese men found that endurance exercise reduced their oxidative damage
free radicals calorie restriction exercise
A research review of dietary supplements and cognitive aging did indicate that ---- was linked with improvements in some aspects of attention in older adults and that omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (---) was related to reduced risk of age-related cognitive decline. In this research review, there was no evidence of cognitive improvements in aging adults who took supplements containing --- and ---.
ginkgo biloba fish oil ginseng glucose
in a recent study of U.S. and Japanese centenarians, in both countries, ____ were linked to a higher level of well-being
health resources
Paul Baltes and his colleagues have reached the following conclusions: (1) --- levels of wisdom are rare. --- people, including older adults, attain a high level of wisdom. That only a small percentage of adults show wisdom supports the contention that it requires experience, practice, or complex skills. (2) Factors other than age are critical for wisdom to develop to a high level. For example, certain life ---, such as being trained and working in a field involving difficult life problems and having wisdom-enhancing mentors, contribute to higher levels of wisdom. Also, people higher in wisdom have values that are more likely to consider the welfare of --- than their own happiness. (3) Personality-related factors, such as openness to experience, ---, and ---, are better predictors of wisdom than cognitive factors such as intelligence.
high few experiences others generativity creativity
It also is now accepted that neurogenesis can occur in human adults. However, researchers have documented neurogenesis in only two brain regions: the ---, which is involved in memory, and the ---, which is involved in smell. It also is not known what functions these new brain cells perform, and at this point researchers have documented that they last for only several ---
hippocampus olfactory bulb weeks
in an fMRI study, higher levels of aerobic fitness were linked with greater volume in the ---, which translates into better ---
hippocampus memory
--- argues that aging in the body's hormonal system can lower resistance to stress and increase the likelihood of disease. Normally, when people experience stressors, the body responds by releasing certain hormones. As people age, the hormones stimulated by stress remain at --- levels longer than when people were younger. These prolonged, elevated levels of stress-related hormones are associated with increased risks for many diseases, including cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes, and hypertension. Researchers are exploring stress-buffering strategies, including ---, in an effort to find ways to attenuate some of the negative effects of stress on the aging process
hormonal stress theory elevated exercise
In older adults, 64 percent of men and 69 percent of women 65 to 74 years of age have --- (high blood pressure). Consistent blood pressures above --- should be treated to reduce the risk of heart attack, stroke, or kidney disease. Various drugs, a healthy diet, and exercise can reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease in older adults
hypertension 120/80
Recently, a variation of hormonal stress theory has emphasized the contribution of a decline in --- functioning with aging. In a recent study, the percentage of --- (a type of white blood cell essential for immunity) decreased in older adults in their seventies, eighties, and nineties. Aging contributes to immune system deficits that give rise to infectious diseases in older adults. The extended duration of stress and diminished restorative processes in older adults may accelerate the effects of aging on immunity
immune system T cells
Scientists have accumulated considerable evidence that calorie restriction (CR) in laboratory animals can --- the animals' life spans. Research indicates that calorie restriction (CR) slows RNA decline during the aging process. Animals that are fed diets restricted in calories, although adequate in protein, vitamins, and minerals, live as much as --- percent longer than animals that have unlimited access to food
increase 40
--- versus --- is Erikson's eighth and final stage of development, which individuals experience during late adulthood. This stage involves reflecting on the past and either piecing together a positive review or concluding that one's life has not been well spent
integrity despair
Socioemotional selectivity theory also focuses on the types of goals that individuals are motivated to achieve. Two important classes of goals are (1) --- related and (2) ---related. The trajectory of motivation for ---related goals starts relatively high in the early years of life, peaks in adolescence and early adulthood, and then declines in middle and late adulthood. The --- related trajectory is high during infancy and early childhood, declines from middle childhood through early adulthood, and increases in middle and late adulthood. In a recent commentary, --- noted that when older adults focus on emotionally meaningful goals, they are more satisfied with their lives, feel better, and experience fewer negative emotions
knowledge emotion knowledge emotion Laura Carstensen
Six factors are most likely to predict high status for older adults in a culture: Older persons have valuable ---. Older persons control key --- resources. Older persons are permitted to engage in useful and valued ---as long as possible. Age-related --- changes involve greater responsibility, authority, and advisory capacity. The extended family is a common family arrangement in the culture, and the older person is integrated into the ---. In general, respect for older adults is greater in --- cultures (such as China and Japan) than in individualistic cultures (such as the United States). However, some researchers are finding that this collectivistic/individualistic difference in respect for older adults is not as strong as it used to be and that, in some cases, older adults in individualistic cultures receive considerable respect
knowledge family/community functions role extended family collectivistic
Changes in --- may provide one type of adaptation in aging adults. Recall that --- is the specialization of function in one hemisphere of the brain or the other. Using neuroimaging techniques, researchers found that brain activity in the prefrontal cortex is lateralized --- in older adults than in younger adults when they are engaging in cognitive tasks. For example, Figure 2 shows that when younger adults are given the task of recognizing words they have previously seen, they process the information primarily in the --- hemisphere(s); older adults are more likely to use --- hemisphere(s). The decrease in lateralization in older adults might play a compensatory role in the aging brain. That is, using both hemispheres may improve the cognitive functioning of older adults.
lateralization lateralization less right both
____ is the number of years that the average person born in a particular year will probably live. The average life expectancy of individuals born in 2017 in the United States was ____ years. Sixty-five-year-olds in the United States today can expect to live an average of ____ more years (____for females, ____for males). People who are 100 years of age can only expect to live an average of ____ years longer
life expectancy 79 19.5 20.6 18.4 2.3
_____, the maximum number of years an individual can live, has remained steady at approximately ____ to ____ years of age.
life span 120 125
Among the factors that are associated with living to be 100 are ____ and the ability to cope effectively with ____
longevity genes stress
The --- is a cellular pathway that involves the regulation of growth and metabolism. TOR stands for "---," and in mammals it is called mTOR. --- is a naturally derived antibiotic and immune system suppressant/modulator, first discovered in the 1960s on Easter Island. It has been commonly used and is FDA approved for preventing --- rejection and in --- transplants. Recently, proposals have been made that the mTOR pathway has a central role in the life of cells, acting as a cellular router for growth, protein production/ metabolism, and stem cell functioning. Rapamycin has not been approved as an anti-aging drug and has some serious side effects, including increased risk of infection and lymphoma, a deadly cancer. Some critics argue that scientific support for sirtuins and the mTOR pathway as key causes of aging in humans has not been found and that research has not adequately documented the effectiveness of using drugs such as rapamycin to slow the aging process or extend the human life span
mTOR pathway target of rapamycin rapamycin organ bone marrow
Activity theory suggests that many individuals will achieve greater life satisfaction if they continue their --- roles into --- . If these roles are stripped from them (as in early retirement), it is important for them to find substitute roles that keep them active and involved.
middle-adulthood late adulthood
---- is linked to reproductive fitness, which is present only in the earlier part of adulthood. For example, consider Alzheimer disease, an irreversible brain disorder, which does not appear until late middle adulthood or late adulthood. According to evolutionary theory, possibly if Alzheimer disease occurred earlier in development, it might have been eliminated many centuries ago
natural selection
Researchers have found that ---, the generation of new neurons, does occur in lower mammalian species, such as mice. Also, research indicates that exercise and an enriched, complex environment can generate new --- in rats and mice, and that stress reduces their survival rate. For example, in a recent study, mice in an enriched environment learned more flexibly because of adult --- . One study revealed that coping with stress stimulated hippocampal neurogenesis in adult monkeys (Lyons & others, 2010). And researchers have discovered that if rats are cognitively challenged to learn something, new brain cells survive ---
neurogenesis brain cells hippocampal neurogenesis longer
Of course, for individuals with disorders such as Alzheimer disease, --- loss occurs. Further, in a recent study, global --- predicted mortality in a large population of stroke-free community-dwelling adults
neuron brain volume
Aging also has been linked to a decline in the production of some ---. Reduction in ---- is linked to memory loss, especially in people with Alzheimer disease. Severe reductions in --- are involved in a reduction in motor control in Parkinson disease
neurotransmitters acetylcholine dopamine
As we have discussed aging, it should be apparent that there are large individual differences in the patterns of change for older adults. The most common pattern is ---, which characterizes most individuals. Their psychological functioning often peaks in early midlife, plateaus until the late fifties to early sixties, then modestly declines through the early eighties, although marked decline often occurs prior to death. Another pattern involves ---, which characterizes individuals who in late adulthood show greater than average decline. These individuals may have mild cognitive impairment in early old age, develop Alzheimer disease later, or have chronic disease that impairs their daily functioning. A third pattern of change in old age is ---, which characterizes individuals whose physical, cognitive, and socioemotional development is maintained longer than for most individuals and declines later than for most people
normal aging pathological aging successful aging
There is increasing interest in the role that --- might play in Alzheimer disease . It occurs when the body fails to defend itself against free-radical attacks and oxidation
oxidative stress
In a study of individuals from 18 to 94 years of age, as they grew older they had fewer ---- but retained close relationships with people who provided them with emotional support
peripheral social contacts
In other research, --- emotions increased and --- emotions (except for ---) decreased from 50 years of age through the mid-eighties
positive negative sadness
The --- is one area that shrinks, and research has linked this shrinkage with a decrease in working memory and other cognitive activities in older adults. The --- regions of the brain—such as the primary visual cortex, primary motor cortex, and somatosensory cortex—are less vulnerable to the aging process. A general slowing of function in the --- and --- begins in middle adulthood and accelerates in late adulthood. Both physical coordination and intellectual performance are affected. For example, after age 70 many adults no longer show a --- reflex, and by age 90 most --- are much slower. Slowing of the brain can impair the performance of older adults on intelligence tests, especially timed tests
prefrontal cortex sensory brain spinal cord knee jerk reflexes
In a more recent study, the following four factors emerged as best characterizing successful aging: --- engagement, --- resources, --- spirit, and valued ---
proactive wellness positive relationships
In one investigation, older adults' strategies were more likely to be aimed at contributing to the --- while younger adults' strategies were more likely to focus on optimizing personal ---
public good financial gain
In working with older clients, some clinicians use ---, which involves discussing past activities and experiences with another individual or group. Therapy may include the use of photographs, familiar items, and video/audio recordings. It can improve the mood and quality of life of older adults, including those with dementia. In a study with older adults who had dementia, it reduced their depressive symptoms and improved their self-acceptance and positive relations with others
reminiscence therapy
Why can women expect to live longer than men? Social factors such as health attitudes, habits, lifestyles, and occupation are probably important. Men are more likely than women to die from most of the leading causes of death, including cancer of the ____, _____ accidents, ____ of the liver, ____, and ____ disease. These causes of death are associated with lifestyle. For example, the sex difference in deaths due to lung cancer and emphysema occurs because men are heavier ____ than women. However, women are more likely than men to die from some diseases such as ____ disease and some aspects of cardiovascular disease, such as ____-related problems
respiratory system motor vehicle cirrhosis emphysema coronary heart smokers alzheimer hypertension
Leading expert Phyllis Moen (2007) described how today, when people reach their sixties, the life path they follow is less clear: (1) some individuals don't --- from their careers; (2) some retire from their career work and then take up a --- job; (3) some retire from career jobs but do --- work; (4) some retire from a --- job and go on to yet another job; (5) some move in and out of the workforce, so they never really have a "---" job from which they retire; (6) some individuals who are in poor health move to a --- status and eventually into retirement; and (7) some who are laid off define it as "---"
retire new volunteer post retirement career disability retirement
----, which consists of focusing on a specific aspect of experience that is relevant while ignoring others that are irrelevant, generally decreases in older adults. For example, a recent study found that selective attention deficits were linked to older adults' less competent driving . However, on simple tasks involving a search for a feature, such as determining whether a target item is present on a computer screen, age differences are minimal when individuals are given sufficient practice
selective attention
In a recent study of individuals from 22 to 94 years of age, on days when middle-aged and older adults, as well as individuals who were less healthy, used more ---- strategies, they reported a higher level of happiness
selective optimization with compensation
In recent years, the term --- has often been used to describe perceived control over the environment and the ability to produce positive outcomes
self-efficacy
In the --- model of social relations, individuals go through life embedded in a personal network of individuals to whom they give, and from whom they receive, social support. Social support can help individuals of all ages cope more effectively with life's challenges. For older adults, social support is related to their physical health, mental health, and life satisfaction. For example, a recent study found that a higher level of social support was associated with older adults' increased life satisfaction. Social support also decreases the probability that an older adult will be institutionalized or become depressed
social convoy
To capitalize on the high presence of ____ in cancerous cells, researchers currently are investigating gene therapies that inhibit telomerase and lead to the death of cancerous cells while keeping healthy cells alive. A recent focus of these gene therapies is on ---- and their renewal. Telomeres and telomerase are increasingly thought to be key components of the stem cell regeneration process, providing a possible avenue to restrain cancer and delay aging
telomerase stem cells
adult daughters are --- times more likely than adult sons to give parents assistance with daily living activities
three
---- is closely linked to short-term memory but places more emphasis on memory as a place for mental work. Explanation of the decline of it in older adults focuses on their less efficient inhibition in preventing irrelevant information from entering it and their increased distractibility
working memory
In late adulthood, the changes in physical appearance that began occurring during middle age become more pronounced. --- and --- are the most noticeable changes. We also get --- as we get older. Both men and women become shorter in late adulthood because of bone loss in their ---. Our weight usually drops after we reach --- years of age. This likely occurs because we lose muscle, which also gives our bodies a "sagging" look
wrinkles age spots shorter vertebrae 60
The United States is no longer a ____society. As more individuals are living past age 65, the proportion of individuals at different ages has become increasingly ____. Indeed, the concept of a period called "____," beginning in the sixties or seventies and lasting until death, is relatively new. Before the twentieth century, most individuals died before they reached ____
youthful similar late adulthood 65
