PSYC212
Allport prejudice reudction
'Prejudice may be reduced by equal status contact between majority and minority groups in the pursuit of common goals. The effect is greatly enhanced if this contact is sanctioned by institutional supports (i.e. by law, custom or local atmosphere) and provided it is of a sort that leads to the perception of common interests and common humanity between members of the two groups
Correll et al (2002)
'The Police Officer's Dilemma': - White and black individuals in different situations holding gun or phone - Black men perceived to be holding guns more frequently
Message learning approach to persuasion
'The Yale Attitude Change Approach' = Hovland, Janis and Kelley (1953): - To persuade someone, you have to go through a series of steps - It won't work if these steps are interrupted, as the person has to be able to process the info effectively - Many different factors effect attitude change, including who is asking the question/is the communicator, what is the communicator saying and who is the communicator trying to persuade?
What is social psychology
'the scientific study of how people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviours are influenced by the real or imagined presence of other people'
Use of 2D vs 3D scanning in security screening
- 2D (x-ray) screening = better image resolution, widely tested and trained, but single view of bag (unless rotated and re-scanned) - 3D (CT) screening = better automated explosive detection, rotatable images, but lower resolution
Research by Hattenschwiler, Medes and Schwaninger (2019) on hold baggage suggests
- 2D training is transferable to 3D - Detection performance (d') is similar for 3D and 2D, despite differences in image quality - RTs are longer for 3D, but fewer false alarms - so potential overall efficiency gain
What is screening?
- A pre-employment assessment -> occurs just before hiring to determine if they're suitable for the job - Psychologist may be the last person seen in many jurisdictions (us federal law, people are conditionally hired before screening) - Screening out vs screening in -> depends on the job
Observational study
- A researcher identifies the variables to be measured, the methods to be employed for observing and recording each variable, conditions under which observation will occur, the observational timeframe, and so forth. - E.g. develop 'vehicle status categories', to assign each phone use (e.g. vehicle stopped, during turn, city street, freeway etc) = define a taxonomy. - Taxonomies are normally based on pilot data, so that an observer can use a checklist to record and classify each instance of new info, condensing the new info as needed.
What is vigilance?
- Ability to maintain attentional focus and remain alert to stimuli over prolonged periods of time - Common topic in basic/pure experimental research (sustained attention)
Target prevalence
- Accuracy in visual search tasks depends on target prevalence - If target appears in 50% of bags, there are relatively few misses, and much faster for 'target present' vs 'target absent' decision, and there are some false alarms - If target appears in 2% of bags there is a high proportion of misses (up to 50%), almost no false alarms, and faster 'target absent' decisions - Further reducing prevalence to 1%, 0.1%, <0.01% further reduces accuracy
How can cognitive dissonance be reduced?
- Adding new, congruent beliefs to counteract the discrepancy - Directing discrepancy to an external source - Changing behaviour to be consistent with attitudes (give up smoking) - Changing attitudes to be consistent with behaviour
Body-face discrepancy (criticism of emotions)
- Alot of communication from the face is perceived, and so the context is very important, and can change interpretation - Sad face in angry body position still perceived as sad, angry face in sad body position seen as angry.
Incident analysis
- An incident may be an accident, crash, near hit, or other event where safety was compromised - Investigations and analyses focus on identifying all factors that contributed to the incident, to prevent similar incidents in the future - Lots of qualitative information (e.g. interviews, event descriptions, transcripts, photographs, simulations) -> but can collate to identify trends
What does loosening social constraints lead to?
- Anonymity - Deindividuation e.g. Zimbardo's Stanford Prison Experiment
Issue with evaluations
- Approach to evaluation -> everyone will put their best foot forward - Under-reporting -> don't say they smoke weed, nothing phases me (e.g. don't care about explosions, imply they have no weaknesses) Multi-source info is key, as many people under report
History of ergonomics
- Arose from the study of work - Particularly strong in military, aviation e.g. WWII, design of equipment - Recent decades expanded beyond work to encompass any task involving human interaction with systems (e..g driving incl automated vehicles, computer and technology use) - Links to cognitive psychology, perception, engineering, design, neuroscience and physiological psychology
What do educational practitioners do?
- Assess behaviour, social and emotional functioning, cognitive abilities and intelligence (neuropsych) • Determine eligibility for special education services (diagnostic interviews) • Develop and administer educational and psychological tests (determine who has special abilities for individual support) • Administration of school psychological services units, clinical interventions • Teacher/Instructional consultation • Parent consultation • Paediatric consultation on educational issues • Primary (directly address pregnancy problem) and secondary (problems at home) prevention programs • Organisation and operations of schools • Systems-level intervention with schools • Have/apply knowledge of child psychopharmacology
Stereotype activation (cognitive influences on stereotyping)
- Automatic attitude activation (Fazio) - Attitudes that are very strongly held eventually become automatic -> some of these process now account for why we make our stereotypes Object -> evaluation
Other forms of aggression
- Awareness of perpetrator/victim -> are you aware of the harm? - Rules/norms -> rugby is conducted with rules, so is it aggressive? - 'positive' aggression e.g. parents smacking - Self-harm - Microaggression = aggression through words
Cross-cultural agreement of basic emotions
- Basic emotions are recognised across cultures, despite these cultures not having any interaction/being segregated - Some people argue that this is due to underlying biological recognition of emotions
Replication and generalisability
- Basic research is expected to replicate but not in applied psychology - If you reproduce the experimental conditions -> reproduce the results - 'Failure' if statistically significant results are not obtained consistently
Models of stereotype change
- Bookkeeping model - Conversion model - Subtyping -> all these models show that stereotype change is difficult
Implicit/indirect measures of attitude (formation)
- Can't just ask people about sensitive topics, as someone may not tell you/know how racist they are. Olson and Fazio 2006: - AA man followed by either the word 'disgusting' or 'fabulous' -> positive or negative feelings
According to Kelley's Covariation model, what happens if we don't have information over time?
- Causal schemas - Discounting principle = any one factor is discounted as a function of presence of other potential causes - Augmenting principle = the role of a potential cause is enhanced in the presence of other inhibiting factors
Which 3 forms of AP are recognised by the NZ psychology board?
- Clinical psychology - Counselling psychology - Educational psychology
Types of applied psychology
- Clinical psychology - Counselling psychology - Educational psychology - Forensic psychology - Health psychology -Industrial/organisational psychology - Human factors and ergonomics - Sports and exercise psychology - Environmental psychology - Traffic psychology
Components of social psychology
- Cognitive psychology - Economics - Individual psychology - Social anthropology - Sociology - Sociolinguistics language communication
Cognitive psychology of motorcycle crashes
- Compared with car drivers, motorcyclists are over-represented in serious crashes - In NZ, motorcyclists' risk of being killed or injured is 21 times higher than for car drivers - Right-of-way violations are the lading cause of car-motorcycle crashes (approach-turn, angle crossing, angle merging)
Emotions as determinants of thoughts
- Content and process effects - Mood congruence - Processing style - Affect infusion model (Forgas, 1995)
Indirect measures of driver behaviour
- Crashes (offical record, police reported) - Crashes (self reported) - Self-report measures of driving behaviour
Which communicator factors influence persuasion?
- Credibility and expertise - Trustworthiness - Attractiveness
Prisoner's dilemma (social dilemma)
- Criminals are separated, and will be given a lighter sentence if they turn each other in - The most rational thing is to confess so they both get 2 years
Simple RPD
- Decision making cases vary in complexity - Simple case: familiar situation, familiar response - implement immediately - Sometimes can be more complex -> see situation and recognise it, but might be a bit more complex than last time
What things may human factors professionals help design?
- Design or help design new products or systems, especially their interface. - Modify the design of existing products to address human factors problems. - Design ergonomically sound environments, such as individual workstations, large environments with complex work modules and traffic patterns, home environments for the handicapped, and gravity-free environments. - Perform safety-related activities, such as conduct hazard analyses, implement industrial safety programs, design warning labels, and give safety related instructions. - Develop training programs and other performance support materials such as checklists and instruction manuals. - Develop methods for training and appraising work groups and teams. - Apply ergonomic principles to organisational development and restructuring.
Examples of poor design
- Detergent handed out at cycling race, cyclists though it was energy drink - Gear shifter -> resulted in death, spring loaded so shifter comes back to centre, don't get tactile feedback about where it is -> no sensible reason to design like this, thinking of form and not function
What are developments and emphases in organisational psychology jointly influenced by?
- Developments in society and technology - Developments in psychology
Limitations of DeKalb driving study
- Didn't control for licenses or exposure -> positive effects of training offset by these - Curriculum details unknown, so don't know why the programs didn't lead to safer driving. - Wasn't properly piloted; small-scale pilot was conducted but there was no follow-up evaluation of participants due to admin probs - Amount of practise for SPC group was lower than other programs
Key issues relating to sports psychologist practitioner training
- Difficult to bridge theory-practise divide - Difficult to estimate the total number of applied sports psychologists world wide, as different country lists were used at the 3 time points, and individuals at various stages of training were included, with some countries reporting only those who were fully trained and accredited whereas others included postgrad students -> therefore raw figures are an overestimate - Sports psychology develops differently in countries depending on the legislation involving psychology. e.g. in AUS psychologist = protected by law, all sports psychologists must be licensed psychologists. Not so many legislative barriers in developing world, so quality control barriers need to be established
Cognitive stability (con of schema use)
- Difficult to disconfirm prior beliefs, as schemas bias these - Shown in 'the perseverance effect' (Ross, Lepper and Hubbarb, 1975). - Subjects get success or failure on bogus 'social sensitivity' test - After debriefing, subjects are asked to predict their actual social sensitivity, and predictions were consistent with test feedback -> can never plug in info and take it away, as people cognitively reinforce this information
Basic emotions
- Discrete states that evolved to mobilise the organism to deal with fundamental life tasks - Discovered by Paul Ekman -> these basic emotional states are the most important states, and helped us in our evolutionary past
Miligram's obedience from a compliance perspective
- Dissonance/self perception - Importance of decision points (disobedience comes between decision points)
How does who the communicator is trying to persuade affect persuasion?
- Distraction -> a more distracted audience is harder to persuade. - Age - Self-esteem - Personalities
Self-perception theory (Bern, 1980)
- Drawing logical inferences from observation of our own behaviour -> behaviour reflects actual attitude - No motivational component - Main opponent to dissonance theory (no dissonance required) - Over-justification effect = undermining intrinsic motivation (Greene et al)
Explanations for decision errors
- Due to their small size relative to other vehicles they are perceived as being farther away - they also provide fewer motion cues and so are perceived as travelling slower
Job analysis/competency assessment (POST-required info sources)
- Duties, powers, demands, working conditions and agency-specific standards - Jobs will have different requirements for different jobs e.g. difference between firefighters and policemen - different agencies have different requirements of what they want
Normative decision making
- Early decision making research focused on optimal decision making, if people made a rational assessment of alternatives, which option should they select? Many models of normative decision making including: - Expected value theory - Subjective expected utility - Multi-attribute utility analysis
Changing behaviour to be consistent with attitudes
- Easier said than done - Some behaviours have already been done in the past so changing them is not an option
Where do other (i.e. non basic) emotions come from?
- Emotional families e..g anger -> lots of different emotions can be categorised into the 6 types - Emotional blends = 2 or more of the basic emotions forming another emotion - Emotion plots = an emotion in a particular perspective (e.g. anger -> jealousy)
Dimensional model of emotions
- Emotions are not set discrete states, but fit into dimensions - States don't have special significance except for what we put on them - Core effect = emotions aren't fundamental, they're a construct of the environment
Emotions as pure attribution (appraisal theories)
- Emotions don't require any particular arousal, feel them from emotional experience - Weiner -> locus, stability, controllability - Smith and Ellsworth (1985) -> pleasantness, responsibility, certainty, attention, effort, situational control
Causes of indicidents
- Environmental (aren't really that many freak accidents, it's more that there's an environmental trigger to some extent) - Product/equipment design -> manufacturing defect, design defect (inherently unsafe, set people up to fail), warning defect (failure to specify conditions of use, etc) - Human behaviour (number 1 cause of incidents) -> negligence/incompetence, deliberate sabotage, honest mistake
Active vs latent failures (reason)
- Error taxonomies and incident analyses typically focus on the 'sharp end' e.g. people directly involved in the incident - Latent failures are underlying conditions that allow active failures to occur (may make them more likely) -> less obvious but more effective if rectified e.g. Pike River -> due to there not being enough people to regulate the mining industry
Pragmatic reasons why all policy isn't evidence-based
- Evidence doesn't exist - Evidence is low quality (Swedish evidence for 120 hours was shaky) - Policy makers are unaware of evidence or can't access it - Not enough time and/or money to conduct/review research (expensive to access research articles online) - Don't understand evidence - Evidence has been suppressed or misrepresented (if there's evidence that something doesn't work, it's often suppressed) - Policy predates evidence -> not updated to reflect updated knowledge
Research methods used to study applied psychology questions
- Experimentas and quasi-experimental studies - Surveys and questionnaires - Interviews - Focus groups - Observation - in labs, field - Randomised trials/interventions - Epidemiological studies - Case studies - Simulation - Incident analysis
Motivation study (Petty, Cacioppo and Goldman, 1981)
- Expert vs non-expert source (peripheral cue) - Strong vs weak arguments (central cue) - Relevant vs irrelevant message (motivation) Strong argument was more persuasive, regardless of the peripheral cue when relevant, therefore central cue was weighted more Expertise (peripheral cue) was weighted more when the argument was not relevant When you're not distracted, only then does the type of argument (e.g. weak or strong) for attitude change matter
Solutions for social dilemmas
- Explicit communication -Tacit communication - Changing the payoff matrix - Changing group membership
improving security screening
- Fake targets ('threat image projection') -> artificially increase prevalence - Automated assistance (highlight possible targets) - Automation works best if there is a direct cue (specific location vs something in this bag) as if it's highly reliable Chavaillaz et al (2018) found benefit for 'adaptable automation' -> free choice of automation mode: - Only 67.5% used direct cues >50% of the time - 15% continued with no cue >50% of the time (people don't always choose what's best for them)
Pros of schemas
- Fill in the gaps of experience and memory, which is good if schemas accurately represent the world, and we can fill in the missing information
Methods of practise testing
- Flashcards, study questions - Use retrieval - Provide feedback (can be delayed) - Repeat testing until all correct - Distribute testing over time -> optimal gap between study sessions = 10-20% of retention time
Causes of incidents diagram
- Hazards can be exacerbated by natural factors - Across any type of job there are a range of factors which increase the probability of you being place in a dangerous situation
Problems with Safety-I
- Historically dominant approach, still followed in many fields - Doesn't fully explain why things go wrong, as it doesn't explain why most of the time (99.99%) things are fine - Overly simplistic, binary view of system safety -> right or wrong, good or bad, safe or unsafe
Biological approaches to aggression
- Hobbes - Darwin - Freud - Lorenz
Different requirements for cabin vs hold baggage
- Hold baggage (checked) = fully functioning IEDs only - Cabin baggage = weapons, components that could be assembled into IED
Effect size
- How large is the difference? - Can be standardised (e.g. Cohen's d) - Usually still represented in statistical terms -> not standardised, so still not what we need to know
Event rate (variability in vigilance tasks)
- How often stimuli are presented (including non-signals) -> really tough if events are presented v slowly? - Are events discrete (x-rays) or continuous (CCTV)? - Time pressure?
User error vs designer error
- Ideally we should have user-centred designs, so how do we differentiate a design/warning defect from user error? -> trace back to people most directly involved and what they did - Was this a reasonably foreseeable action? -> historically, some people make the same errors over and over again - Would other reasonably competent people experience the same issue? -> what are the similarities between events where people are making the same errors? - Ideally, should try and make things as user-proof as possible -> should be able to do anything and not suffer any problems
What do you do with self schemas?
- Identify your own traits with speed and confidence - Tend to use your own traits more in the judgement of others e.g. apply self-schemas to others
Contributing factors to accidents
- If at any stage you can't avoid a hazard (but may avoid an accident) -> unsafe behaviour - Sometimes you can still do everything right but will still have an accident
Csiks (Csikszentmihalyi) and Figurski (1982)
- If self is in the centre, does it dominate thoughts? - Paged participants at random times in the day to see what they were thinking about, self was only the 4th most frequent type
Attitude inoculation (William McGuire)
- If your attitude is attacked weakly, you can get your counter arguments ready for hard attacks - This acts as practise to defend your attitudes later
Cognitive influences on stereotyping
- Illusory correlation - Attention theory (Kruschke) - Stereotype activation
Associated network model
- Important concept in social and cognitive psychology, way of representing relationships between memories and concepts in our brain (not an actual place in the brain) - In terms of the self, it is located at the centre of everything, therefore when you think of yourself you'll think of other things
What issues need to be considered when doing a cost-benefit analysis?
- In cost/benefit analysis, estimating the costs is normally relatively easy as the designer tends to be familiar with the costs for personnel and materials - Estimating the benefits tends to be more difficult and must be based on assumptions, so is best if the designer errs on the conservative side in making these assumptions, as some types of benefits are more common for one type of manufacturer or customer than another.
Levels/focus of analysis in organisational research
- Individual worker - Interpersonal - Teams - Overall organisation
What is organisational psychology?
- Industrial psychology (historical) - Industrial/organisational psychology (IO, NZ/AUS/US) - Work psychology (UK/EU) Involves applying psychological principles to work
Which forms of psychology work with organisations?
- Industrial/organisational psychology - Human factors and ergonomics
Vigilance tasks history
- Initial research with TBI patients (1920s), who had obvious deficits in attention/vigilance - Post WWII systematic research began, with focus on 'healthy' observers and their limitations - Mackworth's 'Clock Test' -> monitor second hand of a clock, report 'double jumps' -> very boring task, wanted to see why we stopped focusing
Emotions as physical arousal
- James-Lange = physiological responses cause emotion e.g. we experience fear because we run away - Embodied emotion (modern version) = emotion concepts are grounded in bodily simulations -> fear = interaction with fearful stimuli - Emotions don't come from the head, they're just products of bodily responses (pen in teeth makes you feel happier)
POST-required information sources
- Job analysis/competency assessment - Written tests - Personal History info - Situation judgement tests - Clinical interview - Mental health records
Why is safety important?
- Just over 6% of all deaths in NZ are from external causes - Can include accidents, falls, assault, animal attack, poisoning, operations of war, complications from medical and surgical care - Enormous spike (especially for males) from late teens -> 30s - People are dying early from accidents, or can be very injured which can impact their ability to work
APA's 'Parameters to define professional practise in school psychology'
- Know effective instructional processes - Understand classroom and school environments - Understand the organisation and operation of schools and agencies - Apply principles of learning to the development of competence both within and outside school - Consult with educators and other professionals regarding cognitive, affective, social and behavioural performance - Assess developmental needs and develop educational environments that meet those diverse needs - Coordinate educational, psychological and behavioural health services by working at the interface of these systems - Intervene to improve organisations and develop effective partnerships between parents and educators and other caretakers
Criticisms of emotions
- Kuleshov effect (cinematic technique) - Body-face discrepancy
Attitudes and behaviour
- LaPierre's study (1934) showed a discrepancy between people's attitudes and their behaviour - Attitude accessibility (Fazio) = attitudes are an association in memory
Average things as attractive
- Langlois and Roggman (1990) found that the more average (blended) and washed out a face appeared, the more attractive it was perceived - Average animals/objects are also viewed as the most attractive, with those that are most extreme from the normal = least liked
What can be done about policy not being evidence-based?
- Learn to understand original evidence a.g. read journal articles and think about their implications - Practise describing and explaining research evidence in a way that is accurate, but easy to understand for the general public (no jargon, definitely no copying and pasting from papers) - Think critically about research evidence - Synthesis and summarise research evidence (reviews, meta-analyses) - Evaluate policies before and after implementation (especially where direct evidence is lacking) - Keep up to date -> knowledge progresses and so does best practise!
What are examples of theories, concepts and findings developed in other subareas of psychology which have been applied to organisational psychology?
- Locus of Control - judgment heuristics and Prospect Theory - Attribution Theory - self-efficacy theory - conceptions of ability and goal orientation - Identity Theory The application of these theories from psychology is a source of innovation for OP research, however, there is also the risk that new concepts obtain a fashionable or fad status and escape the rigorous early evaluations that are the norm for most OP research publishing
Weiner's attributional taxonomy (1 classic approach to attribution theory)
- Locus, stability and controllability - Emotional consequences of attribution - Behavioural consequences of attribution - Self-handicapping
Why can we not assume a linear relationship between individual differences and performance?
- May be moderated by task parameters e.g. effects of age, impulsivity may be larger or smaller depending on task difficulty; some effects may occur for some types of vigilance but not others (e.g. successive but not simultaneous discrimination tasks, or vice-versa) - May be moderated by contextual factors e.g. trait anxiety may only affect vigilance under threat conditions, time of day may increase or decrease associations
Strengths of DeKalb driving study
- Most comprehensive evaluation of school-based driver training - Over 16000 students randomly assigned to SPC, PDL or control group - Results indicated that training increased driving skills immediately after training
Direct measures of driver behaviour
- Naturalistic driving studies - Instrumented vehicles - Driving simulation
User testing
- Need representative sample (think about extremes of users, as well as the average) - Characteristics of user group (is there an existing user base, is the group homogenous/heterogenous, what will be their context of use) - Some guidelines specify the number and characteristics of users that should be tested during system development
Consequences of poor design
- Negative emotions (annoyance, frustration, anger) - Exclusion - discrimination if systematic (physical or knowledge requirements) - Financial cost (people not using product, helpdesk support, product upgrades) - Injury and death
Statistical significance
- Null hypothesis testing = assuming no difference - p < .05
pike river mine info (incident analysis)
- Officially opened Nov 2008, decades of exploration, planning, projection of $$$ - By Nov 2010 functioning but still in development, running behind - Underground explosion occurred 3:45pm, Fri 19 Nov 2010 (immediate cause = methane explosion, methane presumably accumulated during coal mining process, ignition source unknown) - 31 men working in the mine at the time of the explosion (2 men in access tunnel able to escape, 29 initially missing declared dead after subsequent explosions
Written tests (POST-required info sources)
- One designed and validated to identify patterns of abnormal behaviour e.g. depression, anxiety - Another designed and validated to assess normal behaviour e.g. agreeableness, conscientiousness - Must have documented evidence of their relevance for evaluating public safety officer suitability Together, the instruments shall provide info about each candidate related to: - Freedom from emotional and/or mental conditions that might adversely affect the exercise of the powers of a peace officer and, - Psychological suitability per the POST psychological screening dimensions
Karpicke et al (2009) results
- Only 11% of students used evidence-based study -> active recall - Most used rereading, which is ineffective as it gives you a false sense of security
What fields are related to organisational psychology?
- Organisational behaviour - Human resource management -> related topically, but they're broader, not just psych, inter disciplinary
What are the different types of organisational research?
- Organisational context - personal factors - Performance - Personal well-being - Voluntary turnover - Interactions of individuals and organisations - Leadership - Teams - Positive discretionary behaviour - Justice in organisations - Organisational culture
Why does vigilance decrement occur?
- Original theory = under-stimulation (repetition, monotony) -> reduced alertness - Subsequent research = vigilance tasks are demanding and stressful (especially successive discrimination tasks) Has been demonstrated by: - Self-reported workload (e.g. NASA task load index NASA-TLX) - Self-reported stress e.g. Dundee Stress State Questionnaire (DSSQ) - Neuroimaging studies (emerging research in 'neuroergonomics')
Heiders 'Naive psychology' (1 classic approach to attribution theory)
- People are driven to determine the causes of others' behaviour in an effort to predict and control their environment - People act as though they are amateur scientists, gathering info and testing their personal theories of causes and effect - 2 kinds of attribution = internal and external
Self complexity theory study (Linville, 1985)
- People got false feedback about themselves - People with simpler selves responded more drastically (positively or negatively) than complex selves -> having simpler selves isn't good or bad, it's just a thing.
Physical attractiveness
- Presence of extreme/distinctive traits? - Lack of extreme traits = attractive -> anti-caricatures (minimisation of the difference between a face and the 'average') are seen as more attractive - Average things as attractive
Crashes - self-reported (indirect measure of driver behaviour)
- Pro: captures minor and unreported crashes, crashes outside current jurisdiction, can collect cheaply and in conjunction with other data - Con: subject to memory and response biases (e.g. social desirability)
Self-report measures of driving behaviour (indirect measure of driver behaviour)
- Pro: captures varying aspects of driving behaviour, not just crashes (which are rare/extreme events), can collect cheaply and in conjunction with other data - Con: subject to memory and response biases; people may be unaware of some of their behaviours (especially unintentional errors/lapses)
Driving simulation (direct measure of driver behaviour)
- Pro: experimental control; each driver has the same scenario, can expose people to specific situations - Con: often one-off measurements with small samples, possibly expensive, people may take risks that they would not otherwise (studies need to be thoughtfully designed to avoid limitations)
Crashes - official records (police reported) (indirect measure of driver behaviour)
- Pro: objective, historical records, may specify details (e.g. severity, culpability, contributing factors) - Con: not all crashes reported, omits other jurisdictions; need access (& link to other data)
Instrumented vehicles (direct measure of driver behaviour)
- Pro: real-world driving, all participants have same route, less data/lower cost than NDS - Con: small samples, expensive, one-off measurement, varying situations between drivers, possibly unfamiliar vehicle/roads (depending on design)
How do errors and violations differ?
- Psychological origins = errors are unintentional, whereas violations are deliberate - 'Mode of remediation' - solutions to mitigate/prevent in future
testing methods for evaluations
- Psychometrics (reliable and valid for testing various things in PSOs) - Cognitive/aptitude tests -> need to have enough intellectual capacity/intelligence for a job - Personality tests -> very commonly used, but may not always be valid (e.g. MB sucks) - Issue of mass screening
Instrumental vehicles
- Real, fully-functional vehicles fitted with video cameras and data logging equipment and cameras to capture the operator's behaviour - More real, have highest construct validity - Can be fully naturalistic e.g. driver's own car, normal day to day drives - Can also be experimental (ish) -> closed road, test track etc., pre-determined route on public roads with specific characteristics - Disadvantage = people will do different things in different situations
Why should we care about traffic psychology?
- Road crashes kill 1.35 million people and injure approx 50 million worldwide each year - In NZ in 2016 there were 328 deaths and 12456 people injured in road crashes - All of these deaths are preventable
Objective self awareness (Dural and Wicklund, 1972)
- Seeing self as target of thoughts is not associated with positive emotions - Put participants in front of mirror/camera, assess how accessible people's thoughts are. - Researchers presented words of different colours (which did or didn't relate to self) and asked to name the colour. - Subjects looking in the mirror were more distracted by self-related words, as they had their attention drawn automatically to self because of mirror
Variability in vigilance tasks
- Signal discrimination type - Event rate - Sensory modality - Source complexity
Source complexity (variability in vigilance tasks)
- Single vs multiple signal source? - 2D vs 3D? - Homogenous vs heterogenous 'signal' category?
Factors affecting conformity
- Size of the majority - Unanimity of the majority - Ambiguity of the situation - Motivation and opportunity - Expertise - Individual and cultural differences
Applied issues
- Specific individuals = is this defendant mentally competent to stand trial? - Subgroups = how can we improve quality of life for patients with chronic illness? - The general population = at what age should people be allowed to hold a driver's licence? - Organisations = what policies do we need to adopt to improve workplace culture? - Places = how can we redesign our suburbs to reduce crime rates? - Objects, systems or tools = can we design an interface that is more intuitive and user-friendly than eVision?
Who do educational practitioners deal with?
- Students (individuals or groups) - Parents and families (if child is small) - Teachers - Also more broadly -> schools, education departments, and non-education services including hospitals, medical and health practitioners - Usually part of multi-disciplinary teams (teachers and others) - Engage in ongoing professional development
Gilbert, Pelham and Krull (1988, two-stage model of attribution)
- Subjects listen to a pro- or anti-abortion speech prepared by the experimenter - 1/2 of the subjects just listen to the speech, 1/2 of the subjects think they have to give the next speech. - Dependent variable = how does the person reading the anti-abortion speech feel about abortion? - Those that had to give the speech (under cognitive load) were unable to adjust to the cognitive load, and therefore perceived the writer's attitude as more extreme (in both directions)
Security screening
- Successive discrimination task - Visual inspection - Relatively complex (single source, but either 2D or 3D images, and multiple 'signals to search for i.e. highly variable appearance) - Event rate controlled by operator (to an extent), but time pressure - High consequence (don't want to be the person to let the person through)
Dunlosky, Rawson, Marsh, Nathan and Willingham (2013) evaluated the effectiveness of 10 learning techniques
- Techniques that students frequently report using, and other techniques that would be easy for students to implement - Evaluated 'utility' based on whether effects generalise across four dimensions: 1. Materials being learned - vocab, definitions, narratives, maps, diagrams, maths 2. Criterion tasks - cued vs free recall, problem solving, essay writing, tests, quizzes 3. Student characteristics - age, IQ, working memory, motivation, knowledge, interests 4. Learning conditions - environment, study time, instructions, reading vs. listening, group vs. individual study
Trustworthiness of persuasion communicator
- The 'sleeper effect' was a study done by Hoveland and Weiss, on attitude change and trustworthiness - Participants were presented with either trustworthy info, or info from a discredited source - Initially, more were persuaded by the trustworthy source, although after 4 weeks the source of attitude change no longer mattered -> the same number of participants from each source group reported an attitude change
Jones and Davis Correspondent inference theory (1965, 1 classic approach to attribution theory)
- The challenge of attribution is to determine whether a person's behaviour corresponds to underlying stable qualities in that person - People use various cues to draw correspondent inferences e.g. non common effects, social constraints, social roles, social norms (only when people violate social norms are you confident they're a bad person) - Hedonic balance and personalism
Limitations of incident and accident analysis
- The large size of the qualitative database makes it difficult to search to develop or verify causal analyses. - Even though people who submit reports are guaranteed anonymity, not all incidents are reported. - The reporting person may not give information that is necessary for identifying the root causes of the incident or accident. The more recent use of follow-up interviews has helped reduce but not completely eliminated the problem
Social facilitation
- The presence of others improves performance on a simple task (even in cockroaches) - Performance on a more difficult task is impaired if others are observing -> Michaels et al (1982) found that performance of good pool players increased when others were watching, but that of poor pool players decreased
Simulators in applied research
- There are many different types e.g. car, motorcycle, truck, train, bicycle, pedestrian, plane, hellicopter etc - May be combined with EEG, fMRI, eye movement monitoring, skin conductance and other physiological responses - Vary in fidelity (realism) - In-between computers and real-life - Can be like a very controlled experiment, but in a semi-controlled setting
Political and ideological reasons for why policy isn't evidence-based
- Tradition - Personal beliefs - Decision making limitations/biases - Vested interests, lobbying - Priorities (trade off between mobility and safety -> if no ones on the road no one can die, but then you can't get anywhere)
Key differences between applied and basic research methods
- Type of research question asked - Research design/approach - Participant sample/recruitment - Experimental tasks and apparatus e.g. use of simulators, field studies - Interpretation of results e.g. practical significance
Research in screening
- Typically 'outcome' focused -> trying to screen out maladaptive personalities - Naturalistic applied research (no control, no random assignment, as can't randomly assign people to the police) - Usually only testing procedures - Pre-selection and selection factors (so will see very small levels of predictability) - Range restriction - Underestimates of validity
Attitude accessibility (Fazio, attitudes and behaviour)
- Under controlled conditions, correlation between attitude and behaviour is quite small - Strength of associations increases with attitude rehearsal and direct sensory experience - The strongest attitudes are automatically accessible -> pop into consciousness/we don't have to think about them - Highly accessible attitudes predict behaviour and facilitate decision making (as you experience less stress when forming decisions if you have strong attitudes)
Where can you do postgrad dip programs in educational/developmental/family and child psychology?
- University of Canterbury - Massey University - Victoria University of Wellington
Attention Theory (Kruschke) (cognitive influences on stereotyping)
- We can get negative beliefs just from the methods through which we learn categories - We don't encode things in new groups, we do them in terms of things we already know - Obama just like everyone else except for his skin, so that's the most notable feature of him
Effects of cell phone use on driving performance in light vs. heavy traffic
- compare driving performance with two different cellular phone designs (e.g., hand-dialed and voice-dialed), and also with a "no phone" control condition. - Then combine that first three-level variable with a second variable consisting of two different driving conditions: city and freeway driving -> 3 X 2 factorial design. - test how different forms of cellular use and traffic conditions affect driving ability
What can sport and exercise psychology differentiate between?
- competitive sport - physical activity (exercise)
What are the basic emotions?
- happiness - Sadness - Anger - Fear - Disgust - surprise
What are the subfields of organisational psychology?
- managerial psychology - Personnel psychology - Vocational psychology
Which types of organisational research are most likely to be outcomes/dependent variables?
- personal factors - Performance - Personal well-being - Voluntary turnover
Surveys
- used in both basic and applied research - Big disadvantage is their validity, as many people don't fill them out if they're voluntary surveys, so those who do respond may be a confound - Can gather qualitative data from open-ended questions, or numerical ratings can give quantitative data - Subjective
Why isn't replication possible in applied psychology?
- you may not be able to replicate the study/want to replicate e.g. 9/11 - Also may not need to, as conceptual replication may be possible - Limitations to generalisability are ok as long as they are understood and acknowledged -> it may be a bit naive to expect the same results across every study, so need to explain the results
Advantage of adding independent variables to 2x2 factorial design
1. Allows designers to vary more system features in a single experiment -> is efficient. 2. It captures a greater part of the complexity found in the real world, making experimental results more likely to generalise. - Allows the experimenter to see if there is an interaction between independent variables, in which the effect of one independent variable on performance depends on the level of the other independent variable, as we describe in the box.
Schacter and Singer's two-factor theory of emotions (1962)
1. Awareness of unexplained arousal 2. Interpretation of the arousal Experiment = participants given a drug, and then told the correct or incorrect effects of the drug and asked how they're feeling: 1. Awareness = participants given epinephrine with correct or incorrect info 2. Interpretation = confederate acts euphoric or angry - When we are not given info, we look to our environment - Emotions depend on context and interpretation -> could be positive or negative depending on situation
MicInerney (2005) four basic focuses in educational psychology research
1. Cognitive psychology = learning, memory, metacognition 2. Behavioural psychology: operant conditioning, reinforcement, praise vs punishment, learning through demonstration, instruction, checklists ―Skinner: emotions and cognitions exist but we cannot observe them so science should focus on observable behaviour that we can directly measure 3. Social cognitive theory: social learning via modelling, self-efficacy and regulation -> most relevant to actions 4. Humanism: student-centred, learning as a 'personal act', self-evaluation and self-determnation rather than 'cold' and 'mechanistic' focus on learning outcomes
California POST dimensions
1. Emotional Regulation & Stress Tolerance (have to be calm e.g. not stressed in traffic) 2. Avoiding Damaging & Excessive Risk-Taking Behaviour 3. Impulse Control/Attention to Safety 4. Assertiveness/Persuasiveness 5. Social Competence 6. Teamwork 7. Decision-Making & Judgment 8. Adaptability & Flexibility 9. Conscientiousness/Dependability 10. Integrity/Ethics
Factors influencing contact
1. Equal social status 2. Institutional support 3. Sustained, close, informal contact 4. Pursuit of common, superordinate goals
5 sports psychology phenomena with the largest effects
1. Exercise on depression 2. Cohesion on performance 3. Goal-setting on performance 4. Imagery on performance 5. Exercise on anxiety
Two perspectives on relationships between people and their work
1. Fit the person to the job - vocational guidance, employee selection, training 2. Fit the job to the person - design of tasks, equipment, work environment and conditions IO do both, but 1 is more common
Compliance techniques
1. Foot in the door 2. Lowballing 3. Imaging compliance 4. Reciprocity
4 classic approaches to attribution theory
1. Heider's naive psychology 2. Jones and Davis' correspondent inference theory 3. Kelleys covariation model 4. Weiner's attributional taxonomy
Cons of schemas
1. Interpretation (hostile media phenomenon) 2. Information search -> creating a reality consistent with schema 3. Cognitive stability -> schemas bias prior beliefs
What are the 3 forms of attitude formation?
1. Mere exposure effect (Zajonc) 2. Instrumental conditioning 3. Classical conditioning
Four characteristics of decision making
1. Must select one option from a number of alternatives 2. Some info is available 3. Timeframe is relatively long (>1s) 4. Uncertainty about which choice is best
What are the problems in trying to use individual difference measures as predictors of vigilance performance?
1. Not all measures are created equal (e.g. MBTI sucks), and results are only meaningful if the predictors (individual differences) are validly measured 2. We cannot assume a linear relationship between individual differences and performance 3. Different studies report different outcome measures e.g. hit rates, hit RT, false alarms, misses, and different factors may influence these These then limit our ability to generalise from one study to the next, and then from labs to real world
What were the 6 statements that Simons and Chabris investigated?
1. People suffering from amnesia typically cannot recall their own name or identity 2. In my opinion, the testimony of one confident eyewitness should be enough evidence to convict a defendant of a crime 3. Human memory works like a video camera, accurately recording the events we see and hear so we can review them later 4. Hypnosis is useful in helping witnesses accurately recall details of crimes 5. People generally notice when something unexpected enters their field of view, even when they're paying attention to something else 6. Once you have experienced an event and formed a memory of it, that memory does not change
What are the 3 factors which allow us to know what schema to use?
1. Salience 2. Priming 3. Accessibility
What is the best approach for learners drivers and practise? (in the absence of clear, non-confounded evidence)
1. Set a high requirement e.g. 100-120 hours -> higher than what most people would otherwise do, and more practise will increase skill 2. Set a moderate requirement e.g. 40-50 hours -> that should be achievable for most people, USA studies suggest this is beneficial 3. Do not set a specific requirement -> make the test harder to encourage more practise and skills development in the learner phase Example of an issue where it's tricky to know what to do -> grey areas
What was demonstrated in Wyer and Srull study (1979)
1. Study 1 = create sentences from neutral or hostile primes 2. Study 2 = interpret Donald (passage about man) Hostile-primed Donald is judged more negatively than neutral-primed Donald
2 pathways through which attitude change can occur
1. The message learning approach 2. The dual process approach
What are the 18 IAAP divisions?
1. Work and organisational psychology 2. Psychological assessment and evaluation 3. Psychology and societal development 4. Environmental psychology 5. Educational, Instructional and school psychology 6. Clinical and community psychology 7. Applied gerontology 8. Health psychology 9. Economic psychology 10. Psychology and law 11. Political psychology 12. Sport psychology 13. Traffic and transport psychology 14. Applied cognitive psychology 15. Psychology students 16. Counselling psychology 17. Professional psychology 18. History of applied psychology
What are the different types of validity?
1. criterion-related validity 2. Faith validity 3. Face validity 4. Content validity 5. construct validity
What are the 2 kinds of attribution in Heiders naive psychology theory?
1. external = influences the situation and the target (the floor is slippery so the person tripped) 2. internal = influences the perceiver/actor (the person is clumsy so they trip) - People prefer internal attributions as they are easier to predict and attribute a person's behaviour to than external attributions (which are harder to predict)
6 steps to develop a new user-centred design
1. front end analysis 2. iterative design and test 3. system production, 4. implementation and evaluation 5. system operation and maintenance 6. system disposal
What are the 3 fundamental processes a driver needs to successfully execute in order to avoid colliding with a motorcycle?
1. look at the motorcycle 2. recognise it as a motorcycle (detection errors) 3. appraise it appropriately -> speed, distance etc (decision errors)
Shortcuts (heuristics) and errors in attribution
1. naive psychologists vs cognitive misers 2. Representativeness - judgements based on similarity 3. availability 4.fundamental attribution error 5. anchoring and adjustments 6. two-stage model of attribution 7. mental stimulation
Different types of human failures (Reason's taxonomy)
1. slips and lapses e.g.forgetting something 2. mistakes, which can be rule-based (misapply a good rule) or knowledge-based (encountering a novel situation which you aren't experienced in 3. errors e.g. forgetting (informational problem) 4. violations e.g. speeding (motivational problem) 5. Active failures (failures at sharp end) e.g. dr operates on wrong thing 6. Latent failures e.g. poor decisions at higher end of organisation
Devine's two-stage theory of prejudice (1989)
1. stereotypes are automatically activated in the presence of a member or symbol of a stigmatised group -> idea behind implicit association test 2. If the person becomes aware of these thoughts and is motivated, he or she will feel 'compunction' and actively inhibit discriminatory behaviour ->cognitive dissonance triggers you to take steps to inhibit discriminatory behaviour, which determines if you're prejudiced or not
What are the different types of reliability?
1. test-retest reliability 2. parallel forms 3. internal reliability
What determines the cost effectiveness of personnel selection procedures?
1. the selection ratio, i.e. number of jobs/number of candidates; 2. the financial benefit of improved job performance
Learner drivers and practise
120 hours came from Sweden, who lowered the minimum age for supervised practise from 16.5 to 16 years: - Age for unsupervised driving remained 18 Found that new 16yo had less crashes than new 17.5
Karpicke et al (2009)
177 undergrad students. - Survey = two questions aimed at identifying how often the students practised recalling information while studying. - Question 1 = open-ended free report question in which students listed the strategies they used when studying and then rank ordered the strategies in terms of how frequently they used them. - Question 2 = forced report question that asked students to imagine they were studying a textbook chapter for an exam and to choose one of three alternatives: (1) repeated reading of the chapter, (2) practising recall of material from the chapter (with or without the opportunity to reread the chapter, in different versions of this question), or (3) engaging in some other study activity.
When was the first school psychologist appointed in USA?
1915
When did NYU begin offering training in school psychology?
1928
When was school psychology included in the APA?
1945 - APA reorganised into new subdivisions
Emotional blends
2 or more of the basic emotions forming another emotion
Hatfield and Walster (1981, exposure, attraction)
3 factor theory of love, whereby these 3 factors must be present in order for love to occur: - Love = concept of love (must exist in your culture) + arousal stimulus + target for arousal
Reference group
A (real or imagined) group with whom beliefs, attitudes etc are shared
Non social group
A collection of independent people who are not interacting (although the group still influences us)
Social group
A collection of interdependent, interacting people Have a shared goal/thing they're trying to achieve
What is cognitive dissonance?
A feeling of discomfort caused by two or more inconsistent cognitive elements: - These elements can be two thoughts, as well as behaviours or emotions - you can measure this physical discomfort, which people are motivated to change in some way
Similarity in attraction
A good predictor of liking: - Matching hypothesis (Walster) Proximate use -> - Self-verification (Swann) - Dissonance/balance theory (Heider) - Emergent behaviour - Similarity as safety
What is self-perception?
A non-motivation alternative explanation for many dissonance effects
Salience (factor for schema use)
A property of the target that attracts attention
Theory of reasoned action
A theory suggesting that the decision to engage in a particular behaviour is the result of a rational process in which behavioural options are considered, consequences or outcomes of each are evaluated, and a decision is reached to act or not to act. That decision is then reflected in behavioural intentions, which strongly influence overt behaviour.
Example of incident and accident analysis
ASRS - Aviation Safety Reporting System
Common written tests (in screening)
Abnormal functioning tests: - Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory - 2 - Restructured Form (MMPI-2-RF), most common personality test - Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI) - Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory - IV (MCMI-IV) - These other 2 are not nearly as common as the first one Normal functioning tests: - California Psychological Inventory (CPI) - 16 Personality Factors (16PF) - NEO Personality Inventory - 3 (NEO-PI-3) - M-PULSE AVOID myers-briggs -> it sucks
Safety-II
About understand performance variability, flexibility and resilience: - Human responsiveness creates and maintains safety - Embrace variability -> facilitate success under as many conditions as possible Sometime good things -> bad, and sometimes bad things -> good There are things people do, which result in success or failure
Utilitarian/instrumental function of attitude
Achieving rewards, whereby holding an attitude towards something is good for you, as it brings you towards good things or keeps away bad things
Errors of commission
Action that should not have been done, or was done incorrectly
Errors of omission
Action that was not done (failure to execute action) e.g. should've put safety equipment on but didn't
Unintended uses
Affordances = qualities of objects that allow the use to perform an action, regardless of whether that action is intended by the designer e.g.: - Twitter = originally designed as a short message service (SMS) service to communicate with a small group of people - Kleenex facial tissues -> originally designed to remove face cream
instrumental aggression
Aggression as a means to a goal other than causing pain (e.g. prison experiment, value of own goals compared to the rest of the group)
Darwin approach to aggression
Aggression as an adaptation (rather than a side effect): - Adaptation = behaviour or trait which has evolved to serve a particular problem - Adaptive problems = acquiring resources, enhancing status, defense, sexual rivalry, discourage infidelity, acquire/retain mates - Counter examples = family violence between people who are genetically related
Lorenz aggression theory
Aggression is elicited by environmental signals: - Overcrowding in animal environment -> aggressive animals -> death -> decrease for resource demand
Freud approach to aggression
Aggression is our drive to destruction turned outwards -> the 'death instinct': - Hydraulic theory - Frustration-aggression hypothesis
Within-subjects/-groups
All participants complete all conditions
Outcome of observational studies
Allow observation of a risk factor without changing who is exposed to it, so allows analysis of real-world occurances
Basic research equipment
Alot on computers and labs, which is not so useful if you're interested in context
Increasing participation pathways
Alternative inclusive model increase participation by: • Providing pathways for all performance levels and ages • Modifying games to encourage participation, fair play, team work • Better educating coaches and PE teachers • Implementing appropriate, evidence-based policies
Kin selection and similarity (attraction)
Altruism, whereby you engage in behaviours that are unhelpful to you for the sake of someone else: - You aren't the only one with your genes, many people in your family have your genes, so it could be beneficial to sacrifice yourself if the other people in your group will benefit as a result - Look @ gene survival -> can see similarity where your genes are (as genotype -> phenotype) - We used to use similarity as a means to determine who was similar to you, and therefore who had the same genes as us
Emotion plots
An emotion in a particular perspective (e.g. anger -> jealousy)
What is a public safety officer?
An individual serving the public in an official capacity, paid or unpaid, to protect, serve, or otherwise maintain public order: - Police officers - Firefighters - Emergency personnel - Correctional officers - Chaplains Military personnel generally not included in this rubric -> usually not 'domestic' or 'interior' public safety
Forensic psychology
Application of psychological knowledge with the legal and judicial systems - huge range of issues including civil and criminal proceedings, including assessment and evaluation of individuals in legal proceedings - Can be clinical psychologists or just people who apply psychology. - Could be profiles of criminals (but this is small)
Cognitive engineering IAAP division
Applied cognitive psychology
Which IAAP division most relates to human factors and human-centred design, and naturalistic decision making?
Applied cognitive psychology
Which IAAP division most relates to research methods in applied psychology
Applied cognitive psychology
Which IAAP division most relates to safety and human error?
Applied cognitive psychology, work/organisational psychology
What do sports psychologists do?
Applied sport psychologists tend to work either in academia, teaching into sport psychology programs and supervising the next generation of practitioners; or in private practice, consulting with individuals and/or teams of athletes; or they are employed by organizations responsible for helping to develop and prepare athletes for high - level competition, such as at the Australian Institute of Sport (AIS).
Sports and exercise psychology
Applying psychological knowledge to improve athletes' performance and well-being, increase participation in sport, and address organisational, cultural and systemic issues in sporting organisations: - Represents many 'types' of psychology which are applied to a sporting context - Can be with organisations or athletes (e.g. improving bad behaviour)
Ringlemenn (1913)
As the number of individual people increases, effort exerted decreases
Social impact theory
As the number of people increases so does conformity, but only to a point Influences by strength and distance (physical and psychological)
Why do we need to define what emotions are?
As there is an ill-defined number of emotions
Behaviour analysis in every day life IAAP division
Assessment, counselling, applied cognitive psychology?
Social learning theory
Assumes that children do learn to be aggressive, but there's a cognitive mediator involved: - Bandura found that children who had watched adults hitting a Bobo doll where more likely to hit it themselves than those who had not watched the violent adults - Those who had watched live committed the most aggressive acts, then videotape (important for today), cartoon and then control
Functional exposure (contact hypothesis, exposure, attraction)
Attraction results not just from contact, but also from the increased opportunities to interact when in closer proximity
Misattribution
Attributing your arousal to the wrong cause: - Dutton and Aaron (1974) = interviewed participants in the middle or end of a long swing bridge, and recorded the proportion of participants who asked the experimenter for a date - More asked for a date when on the bridge, as they misattribute anxiety on the bridge for lust for the experimenter
C Kelley's Covariation (ANOVA) model (1967, 1 classic approach to attribution theory)
Attributions depend on the assessment of 3 sources of info 1. Consistency = does this actor behave this way across different situations, or only this situation? 2. Distinctiveness = does this actor behave this way toward all targets, or just this target? 3. Consensus = do other actors behave in this way towards the target, or is it only this actor?
Improving vigilance
Automated systems: - Difficult or impossible in some situations to fully remove humans, as human judgement is often required (does this even require intervention, and what type is required?) - Increasingly vigilance tasks involve monitoring automated systems Personal selection = individual differences in vigilance performance -> find people who are naturally better at vigilance tasks
Why doesn't applied research focus on averages?
Averages doesn't give us what we need -> look more at variation e.g. really good athletes or really poor students
Personality theory
Based on factor analysis -> way of correlating lots of factors together, regardless of nature of traits, almost always comes back to the big five (the five basic personality traits)
The 'big five'
Basic personality traits: 1. Extraversion 2. Neuroticism 3. Agreeableness 4. Conscientiousness 5. openness to experience/intellect
Which research method focuses on averages?
Basic research
Why do people prefer internal attributions to external attributions?
Because internal attributions are easier to predict and attribute a person's behaviour to than external attributions
Why is it important to understand discrepancies between lay person beliefs and expert knowledge?
Because people often dismiss behavioural science research as merely recapitulating common sense, but many important psychological findings are counterintuitive. e.g. is seen in memory -> when people recall an emotionally charged event, they believe that their vivid memories are precise and accurate, largely because they rarely encounter evidence for distortions in their own memories.
Why are self-schemas more complicated than other schemas?
Because the schema is now related to emotional experience and motivation
Hostile aggression
Behaviour aimed at inflicting pain
What does a large incentive result in
Behaviour change
Conformity
Behaviour change due to assimilation -> other people are not intentionally effecting you, but you're still affected Can be informational or normative
obedience
Behaviour change in response to a direct order e.g. Miligrams electric shock experiment
Emergent behaviour (proximate use, similarity, attraction)
Behaviour of a system that does not depend on its individual parts
Situation judgement tests (post info sources)
Behavioural observation in-vivo -> intimidating guy pretending to be supervisor -> some candidates behave well, others don't
Consistency
Belief that one's behaviour should be consistent over time (causal dissonance)
Reciprocity compliance technique
Belief that receiving anything positive from another person requires you to reciprocate in response ('much obliged'): - This can be exploited through the 'door in the face' technique - If asked a large request and then a moderate request, participants were more likely to agree than they had been to just the moderate request (Cialdini et al, 1975)
Information on learner drivers and practise
Better evidence can be obtained through: - Foreign jurisdiction e..g in USA require between 40-50 hours, but still could have differences between states - Self-reports of NZ drivers (record how many hours and follow up the crash rate, but difficult to remember pratise hours and there are confounds -> 150 hours person might be a shit driver) - Objective data on NZ drivers -> Naturalistic (app on phone to log, but could have confound of people chosing to drive more than others, and don't know reasons for this) Experimental (could have ethical concerns as person practising 50 hours might need 100)
Applied and basic research benefits
Both can and should be high quality, useful and should inform each other
Contact situations which have failued
Busing system in the US -> race relations still bad
How can a person evaluate an option without comparing it to others?
By evaluating the course of action by using a mental simulation to imagine how it would play out within the context of the current situation - If it would work, then the action would be initiated. - If it almost worked, they could try to adapt it or else consider other actions that were somewhat less typical, continuing until they found an option that felt comfortable. - Used by firefighters
Variation in p-value
Can vary a lot between studies: - Effect size - Sample size - Variability within the sample -> often misunderstood
Moods
Chronic, non-specific feeling states -> go on for longer period of time
Kuleshov effect (criticism of emotions)
Cinematic technique, whereby displaying a different image between two of the same image can result in an identical picture being interpreted differently: - The different context of the second image 'changes' the subjects expression
Myth: learners have specific personal learning styles and teaching methods should match the individual's preferred style
Classification is complex (can't discretely put people in boxes), no clear evidence matching teaching to learning style improves outcomes (stronger evidence for negative outcomes)
Abnormal psychology IAAP division
Clinical and community psychology
self-schemas
Cognitive generalisations about the self, derived from past experience, that organise and guide the processing of self-related information contained in an individuals social experience -> schema applied to ourself, which represents who we are
Heuristics
Cognitive shortcuts/tools which people use to make attributions and other judgements, which produce predictable errors -> using cognitive representations or experiences as proxies for objective data: - People using internal states to make judgements about data -> applying what they already know - People make judgements about others in terms of how similar they are to their heuristics/model
Performance measures
Combine hit and false alarm data to obtain signal detection measures, e.g. perceptual sensitivity
Recognition-primed decision making
Commanders are not really making decisions, as not doing multi-attribute decisions -> not comparing options, are drawing on expertise -> if one option doesn't work will move onto the next one Expertise helped them recognise key features in the situation e.g. what type of situation, is plan suitable, if not move onto next plan -> may consider multiple response options, but you're not comparing them - evaluating one at a time until the first workable option is selected
Downward social comparison
Comparing to someone worse than you in the same dimension, has self-esteem enhancing role
Central traits
Concepts that have a disproportionate influence on impressions of others: - Some things carry more weight than others e.g. the words 'warm' and 'cold' - The interpretation of ambiguous things (e.g. critical) is driven by these central traits - Shown with warm/cold coffee experiment in elevator
Moreland and Beach (1992) (MEE, attraction)
Confederate showed up to class 0-15 times, and had their attractiveness and familiarity rated: - Slight effect for familiarity - Linear effect for attractiveness People aren't sure if they recognise someone, but do know if they like someone, as simply being around people is enough to increase likeability
Realistic conflict theory (creation of prejudice)
Conflict arises between groups when competing for common resources e.g. in Robber's Cave when the 2 groups had to compete for one prize
Informational conformity (informational social influence)
Conformity due to ambiguous physical reality: - Others are used as a source of information - Produces private acceptance (attitude change) - Sherif's 'auto-kinetic effect' - Schacter's (1959) 'affiliation studies'
Normative conformity (normative social influence)
Conformity in unambiguous physical reality: - Based on a motivation to be liked or accepted by your reference group - Produces compliance (without necessarily attitude change) - Asch's line judgements -> have to judge line length, confederates give wrong measurement, participant eventually conforms with confederates
What is the key difference between basic and applied research?
Context: - Basic = simple type of topics in a way, e.g. is the human brain capable of multi-tasking? - Applied = consequences of doing it in the real world,is it dangerous to text while driving?
Classic vigilance tasks
Continuous performance task - press space when you see 'x': - Add complexity by adding conditions e.g. press space if X follows A, can analyse different types of false alarms - usually 60 items/sec - Used in some diagnostic settings (but validity debated)
Equity theory
Cost/reward ratio, must be comparable for both partners (Berscheid; Walster; Homans)
Mental simulation (counterfactuals, error of attribution)
Counterfactuals = judgements based on the ease of imagination: - Ease of imagining something is related to the likelihood of the real event taking place BUT other things affect imaginability e.g. recency - Actions vs inactions - Typical vs unusual events (e.g. driving a different way to normal)
Why might we want a minimum hour policy?
Crash profiles of NZ novice drivers, 1999-2005: - Supervised learner drivers crash infrequently - Newly-licenced drivers have very high crash rates In Australia: Vic, NSW require 120 hours of supervised practise
Information search (con of schema)
Creating reality consistent with schema: - Self fulfilling prophecy (Snyder and Swann 1978) - Asked 'is this person an extravert or intravert' -> given questions to ask the person which are biased towards being extraverted, introverted or neutral -> perceive person consistent with the questioning style
Which form of validity is most important in personnel selection?
Criterion-related validity is the most important type of validity as far as selection is concerned because the main purpose of selection procedures is to select people who are likely to perform well in the role
Manchester Driver Behaviour Questionnaire
DBQ - most widely used self-report measure of driving behaviour (Reason et al., 1990) • Aggressive Violations • open displays of hostility/annoyance towards another road user • Ordinary Violations • disregarding road rules and driving-related social etiquette • particularly related to illegal/inappropriate speeds • Errors • failing to notice things, misjudging situations • seem to result from to insufficient/misallocated attention • Lapses • zoning out, getting into wrong lane, forgetting things, misreading signs • usually "low stakes" situations - reversing, parking, getting lost
Suitability determination
Data integration: - Identify all risk-related findings from all info - Eliminate risk-related findings that are mitigated by divergent data Suitability decision: - Determine whether the surviving risk-related findings are sufficiently consequential (with respect to the hiring agency's selection criteria) to warrant disqualification
Naturalistic driving studies (NDS) (Direct measure of driver behaviour)
Data loggers fitted in people's cars for 7-52 weeks: - Pro = most valid/reliable measurement of day-to-day driving behaviour, own vehicle, both familiar and unfamiliar situations - Cons = small samples, extremely expensive, lots of data, each person has different experiences and routes
Limitations of Swedish driving study
Data: - Preliminary report - Correlation=/=causation - Didn't directly assess/report correlation between hours of practise and crashes -> making inference that crash rates decreased when practise increased, but wasn't specifically investigated Methodology: - Self-selection to conditions (confound, as those that chose to drive at 16 were more motivated, and therefore more likely to be safe) - Different requirements for starting practise at 16 vs 17.5 (at 17.5 could just start driving, at 16 had to apply for learners permit and have a registered supervisor) - Change in policy not widely known
health psychology
Deals with aspects of psychology relating to health, illness, disability and medical treatment: - Education and behaviour change programs to improve health and help people recover or manage health conditions - Address or relieve mental health issues associated with illness and injury, including coping with terminal conditions - improve relationships between patients and health professionals - Can be overlap between this and clinical psychologists
Hydraulic theory (freud aggression)
Death and life are in a hydraulic relationship, so that when death increases, life increases and vice versa
Jones and Harris Castro study
Demonstrated fundamental attribution error: - Participants read statements in favour/against Castro - Told the writer had a choice about what to write about or not (choice or no choice) - Those who were told the writer had a choice believed those writers were more pro-castro
Implications of RPD
Depends on expertise and experience: - Using knowledge to select a feasible course of action first time - Using knowledge to mentally simulate actions and anticipate consequences - RPD strategies reflect 80-95% of naturalistic decisions made by experts, but <50% made by novices - Novices and experts rely on similar cues when decision making (difference is how they use them -> lack of/inappropriate inference) - Harder to quantify and define 'poor' decision making, as it depends on outcome -> heuristics can result in 'good' and 'bad' decisions
Hawthorne studies (1920s)
Designed to assess effects of light levels: - Found productivity increased for both intervention and comparison groups (except at extremely low light levels) - Effect of being observed, measured caused people to work more(Hawthorne effect)
What are policies intended to achieve?
Desirable outcomes e.g. we want to reduce the number of people killed and injured in road crashes -> how can we best achieve this outcome -> need policies to put steps in place to get to the best outcome!
What is vigilance decrement?
Detection performance in vigilance tasks declines over time: - Usually within first 15 mins - In difficult tasks can be within first 5 mins - sensitivity declines, and response bias increases over time (bias towards responding no)
Incident and accident analysis
Determines the overall functioning of a system, especially with respect to safety. - There are a number of methods for evaluating safety, including the use of surveys and questionnaires. - Another method is to evaluate the occurrence of incidences, accidents, or both.
Anonymity
Diener and colleagues (1976) found that anonymous (masked) children stole more candy than masked ones, and those in a group stole more than individuals
Between-subjects/-groups
Different participants complete (or represent) different conditions -> more for comparing groups which were different already
What is counterbalancing and why is it important?
Different subjects receive the treatment conditions in different orders, to keep order from confounding the independent variables
What is applied psychology?
Difficult as it's very broad: - Using psychological theories, methods and findings to solve real-world problems - Differentiated from 'pure' psychology (knowledge for knowledges sake) - Aims to extend and improve knowledge
What does compliance rely on?
Dissonance and self-perception mechanisms, and an overapplication of consistency and reciprocity norms
What does organisational psychology draw on?
Diverse subfields and findings from basic/pure psychology: • Social psychology - group behaviour, leadership, attitudes, etc (big part of OP as you're often working with people) • Personality and individual differences (selecting the right person for the job?) • Cognitive - thinking, information processing, decision-making (understanding what will happen with task structuring, what cognitive max people have) • Physiological - relationship between mind and body (e.g. stress) • Developmental - how people change over the lifespan (less interested in early life as you start working in adulthood)
Validity
Does the study actually measure what it claims to measure? - Many different aspects of validity, especially relevant to applied research, as it is about behaviour in the real world
Prevalence effects in driving
Driving differs from x-ray screening - x-ray images are static, driving is dynamic - targets are constantly moving • There are similarities between driving and luggage screening: in both we have to search for "potential hazards" that appear infrequently, but pose great danger • Simulator Experiment: can target prevalence effects explain some instances of "looked but failed to see" errors while driving? • Manipulated target prevalence - 2 levels • High prevalence targets: every 20 secs • Low prevalence targets: every 7-8 mins • Also manipulated vehicle type - 2 levels - motorcycles (small) & buses (large)
Arousal and Misattribution theory (exposure, attraction)
Dutton and Aaron bridge study -> people were more attracted to the interviewer on the high swing bridge than on the low one, as they misattribute arousal for attraction: - You know that some of your arousal is due to the ravine, but don't know how much is due to the experimenter
Which IAAP division most relates to educational psychology?
Educational, instrumental and social psychology
Agreeableness
Empathy, politeness, compliance, kindness, unselfishness
Why traffic psychology
Engineering is important to design safe and efficient systems, but we also need to think about the people who use these systems: - Different people will use the same system in different ways - Sometimes people use systems inappropriately - People make mistakes (errors, lapses) - Sometimes people deliberately do the 'wrong' thing (violations) need to understand how people actually behave, and not how engineers think they should
Errors are not so much causes as consequences
Errors are the product of a chain of causes in which the individual psychological factors (momentary inattention, forgetting, haste, etc) are the last and often the least manageable link.
Error classification
Errors of commission and omission - Focuses on what was done, but does not give any particular insight as to why it occurred
Error/violation taxonomy
Errors take many forms: - Unintentional errors e.g. due to cognitive failures can be slips (unintended action, error of commission) or lapses (unintended error of omission - forgetting, not noticing something) - Mistakes -> actions are planned, but it doesn't all work e.g. rule-based mistakes (operator misapplies or doesn't follow rule) or knowledge-based mistakes (operator's knowledge of the world is inadequate for them to take appropriate action) Violations are more deliberate deviations from 'what one ought to do'
Social identity theory (Tajfel and Turner)
Everyone has both personal and group identities, but we feel strongly about our in-group as we get self-esteem from the group we belong to: - Low self-esteem produces more prejudice -> negative attitudes - prejudice increases self-esteem - Group associations (and group you feel you belong to) and therefore stereotypes are constantly in flux
Zimbardo's Stanford Prison Experiment
Example of how evil doesn't lie in individuals, but is a product of social situations which foster aggression
Sherif's autokinetic effect
Example of informational conformity: - Light is shone in a dark room, and wiggles differently for everyone - On their own, everyone's beliefs about the light vary - Over time, group members judgements about light conform, as the movements are ambiguous so they rely on others to make their judgement -> when the world is ambiguous, you rely on others to make sense of what's happening
Scahcter's affiliation studies (1959)
Example of informational conformity: - Those about to do a high shock study were more likely to want to wait with other participants than those doing the low shock study -> people don't know what they should be feeling so look to others for cues - However, participants who were going into a high shock experiment did not want to be around non-participants -> only wanted to be around those in the experiment
Forbidden toy paradigm (Freedman, 1965)
Example of insufficient punishment -> children were threatened with a mild or severe punishment if they played with a toy, and were then told they actually could play with the toy: - Those threatened with mild punishment didn't play with the toy, as they'd internalised their behaviour and believed they didn't like the toy - Those threatened with severe punishment played with the toy, as they believed their disliked for the toy was due to the punishment and not the toy
Myth: learns as self-educators who can learn by Googling content online
Existing knowledge determines what you search for, find, select and understand - can't address the gap if you don't know what you don't know
Difference between experimental and descriptive research methods
Experimental method = consists of deliberately producing a change in one or more causal or independent variables and measuring the effect of that change on one or more dependent variables (control -> holding everything else constant) Descriptive methods = describing relations that exist, even though they could not be actually manipulated or controlled by the researcher.
Mechanisms of attraction
Exposure: - Contact hypothesis - mere exposure effect - Arousal and misattribution theory - Hatfield and Walster Similarity: - Matching hypothesis - Self-verification - Dissonance/balance theory - Emergent behaviour - Similarity as safety
Aim of applied psychology
Extend and improve conditions and conduct of human life (PP = extend and improve knowledge)
What is a confounding variable and why is it important
Extraneous variables which have the potential to interfere in the causal relationship (influence the dependent variable) and are not controlled. -> important to be controlled so that the different groups of people in a between-subjects experiment differ only with respect to the treatment condition and not on any other variable or category, allowing us to view the actual influence of real life variables and therefore apply important findings to our lives
Qualification of basic emotions theory (Ekman)
Facial action coding system (FACS) -> each facial movement has a different action code e.g. inner brow raise = IC
Kurt Levin (1943)
Father of social psych - When predicting behaviour, think about what people think about the world, and not the world
Mode model of attitude
Fazio's integrative framework for automatic attitudes and complex series of expectations/outcomes: - Motivation and Opportunity as DEterminants of attitude-behaviour relationship - When motivation and opportunity are high, attitudes will be reasoned out - When either is low, people will rely on their most accessible attitudes
Panic (social dilemma)
Fire in the room and need to get out -> should you push your way out or panic? If everyone fights you'll be in trouble
Science vs practise in organisational psychology
Follows the scientist-practitioner model - Scientific knowledge (research) and practical application must inform each other - Disconnect/tension can occur, if practise outpaces research, or if research focuses on theory at the expense of relevance/problem solving
Multi-attribute utility analysis
Form of normative decision making Combining info about multiple attributes to identify the optimal selection e.g. picking a car
Subjective expected utility
Form of normative decision making The probability (expectation) of satisfaction (utility) resulting from choosing a specific alternative in a decision -> what is each outcome worth to me?
Expected value theory
Form of normative decision making get the highest expected value -> people don't always make expected decisions however, as they have their own priorities and worth of outcome e.g. would you rather: - Chance of winning $50 with probability 0.2 or - Chance of winning $20 with probability 0.6
Creation of prejudice
Formation of groups is easy, and people show in-group bias (Jane Elliot, Robber's Cave) - Realistic conflict theory - Minimal group paradigm - Social identity theory
Evidence-based learning
Found practise testing and distributed practise to have the highest utility in learning
Lightner Witmer
Founder of 'school psychology' in late 19th/early 20th century: - Reported cases of children with school-related difficulties (e.g. problems reading and/or spelling) - No framework or principles for dealing with these issues, so Witmer had to systematically investigate to develop evidence-based interventions - Wanted to look at the nature of problems and find evidence for treatment
When does negative affect occur?
From discrepancy -> can vary in terms of different degrees of arousal/activity: - Dejection = feel as though you're not meeting ideas/dreams, depression, low arousal - Agitation = not achieving obligations and what you need to achieve, high arousal
Frustration-aggression hypothesis (freud aggression)
Frustration builds up like pressure and is released as aggression (Dollad, Berkowitz) -> but is more complicated than this
Aaronson and Carlsmith (1959, insufficient reward)
Gave participants a very boring task, and then asked them to lie to the incoming participants and say that the task was really very interesting: - Those that were paid nothing said the task was boring (no attitude change) - Those who were paid $20 didn't change their attitude, as they had an external justification for doing a boring thing, so didn't require internal attributions - Those who were only paid $1 experienced an attitude change and said they did actually enjoy the behaviour -> they had no external justification so had to change their attitude to reduce their dissonance
Social dilemma
General term for when needs of an individual person may not be consistent with needs of a group e.g.: - digging a hole (want to dig the hole quickly so you can go home, but can't be bothered to dig, so leave it to others so no one digs and you're there for ages) - prisoner's dilemma - arms race - Commons problem - Free-rider problem - Panic
Spreading Alternatives (Brehm, dissonance)
Got participants to rank the objects they liked, then were offered one of 2 objects they liked equally well, or ones they liked unequally, and were asked their attitude towards the objects again: - Objects that were unequally liked didn't show attitude change - The rejected object showed a large negative attitude change, while the selected object was viewed more positively
Interventions in the perfect world
Groups are divided in half randomly and you get a perfect match for subject variables (but world isn't perfect, so interventions are not random)
Cycle of human factors
HF professionals can be involved at any stage of the design/evaluation process, but typically get called on when something 'isn't working right': - People can't use a system - People won't use a system - Frequent 'user error' - Accidents or incidents
Violence in the media
Hard to research this, either have to do correlational studies, or causal studies in the lab, which can only measure mild aggression: - Numbing = become immune to emotional responses over time - Priming aggressive schemas - Informational/normative conformity = might believe media does make you more aggressive - Interaction with pre-existing violent tendencies and environmental causes
Ego-defense function of attitude
Have attitude to protect self-esteem e.g. people distance themselves from others who may out perform them in an important domain
High fidelity simulators
Have plates which stimulate bobbles/bumps etc
Trucking game (Deutsh and Krass, 1960)
Have to get goods across bridge which must be unlocked by the other player -> even when they have the intercom, they just use it to get mad at each other, so neither of them gets to where they need to be
Healthy psychology IAAP division
Health psychology
Counselling psychology
Helps people with mental health, emotional and physical issues deal with crises, reduce feelings of distress and improve well-being
Fidelity and validity
High fidelity simulators have higher face validity (they look more like driving a real car) but not necessarily higher construct validity (i.e. behaviour in the sim does not always correlate with real driving)
LaPierre study (1934)
Hotels which had allowed a Chinese couple to dine later said they wouldn't be allowed in their restaurant -> discrepancy between attitude and behaviour
Commons problem (social dilemma)
How do you maintain a shared pool of resources when there isn't enough for everyone (e.g. dumping rubbish)
What is educational psychology? (school psychology)
How people learn, especially formal educational settings; including design of curriculum, school-based interventions, and assessment and evaluation of students: - Educational psychologists can be practitioners (applying knowledge) and/or researchers (creating knowledge) - Taught in both psychology and education departments
Educational psychology (school psychology)
How people learn, especially in formal educational settings; including design of curriculum, school-based interventions, and assessment and evaluation of students - Dealing with disorders impeding their study -> may be learning disability, may be clinical counselling stuff -> what's the best way to test/assess someone?
Human Factors in NZ
Human Factors and Ergonomics Society of NZ: - Contains info on HF education in NZ (specific papers, OHS quals) - Some countries have dedicated HF/E qualifications - in NZ and AUS HF/E professionals typically come from other disciplines (e.g. psych, engineering) or are trained overseas
Aberrant behaviour
Human behaviour contributes to incidents in diverse ways Reason (and others) differentiated two categories of aberrant behaviour: - Violations = deviating from defined procedure, rule breaking, usually deliberate, may or may not be malicious, usually relate to social context - Errors = unintentionally inappropriate action, usually relate to mental activity (e.g. faulty cognitions)
User-centered design
Human error is often designer error Don't need to reinvent the wheel (lots of info is already out there): - Design standards - requirements (e.g. ISO, AS/NZS) - HF design guidelines - Data about human performance (RT, tolerance, etc) Follow principles of user centered design, considering: - Your intended users (their abilities and preferences) - Their goals, functions and tasks - Conditions of use - likely vs possible
Contact hypothesis (Allport, 194)
Idea the you need people to get to know each other to overcome stereotypes: - Deutch and Collins (1951) housing study = participants are randomly assigned to housing units which are either segregated or integrated, then asked their opinions on the other race -> those who were integrated had more positive opinions However, often contact isn't enough, as the conditions of the Allport study aren't often met in social conditions
Intervention standards
Ideally interventions should have been evaluated, under real-world conditions, in at least two studies that: 1. Used defined samples from defined (relevant) populations 2. used sound measures and data collection procedures 3. Were analysed with appropriate, rigorous statistical methods 4. Showed positive effects, of practical importance 5. Included at least one long-term follow up, as well as testing of short term effects - Include info about how/when/to who the findings will generalise (ok for studies to have limitations, but need to include info on this) - Have appropriate documentation (manuals, training) to allow others to implement the intervention
Screening-in
Identifies only the best qualified candidates for the applicant pool -> determining best personality for the job Psychs less involved as there's lots of variation in personality
Disadvantage of observational study
If categories are undefined, observation results in a large number of specific pieces of info which can't be reduced into any meaningful descriptions or conclusions
How does unanimity of the majority affect conformity?
If one person breaks the norm, there is a large drop in conformity
how does expertise affect conformity?
If people are more expert, you're more likely to conform with them
When do violations of safety occur?
If rules aren't well justified/important to people -> I know you said we need two people to life this, but I've done it before and it's been fine -> does it -> eventually has an accident
Reliability
If we repeat the measurement, will we get the same result? - Test-retest reliability - Inter-rater reliability = between experimenters studying
Foot in the door compliance technique
If you can get people to accept a small request, they'll be more likely to accept a large request: - Freedman and Fraiser (1966) found that people were more likely to put up an anti-DD sign if they had signed a petition beforehand that supports safe driving (small request) - This is because you experience dissonance if you don't engage in the second task
Openess to experience/intellect
Imagination, curiosity, creativity, intelligence, artistic and intellectual interests
Where is vigilance important?
Important in many real-world tasks: - Aviation = air traffic control, cockpit monitoring - Health care = anaesthesia monitoring, ECG monitoring, cytology screening - Surveillance = CCTV monitoring - Security = x-ray baggage screening - Industry/manufacturing = industrial processes and quality control
When is discrepancy created?
In post-decision dissonance = the choice of one alternative is inconsistent with indifference towards the options: - If you like 2 things equally but have to select one -> dissonance - Dissonance is reduced by changing your attitude, and saying you actually like the object you chose over the other object
How does size of the majority affect conformity?
In the Asch line study beyond 6 confederates there was no increase in conformity
Pike river mine incident analysis
Inadequate legislation, regulation and oversight of health and safety matters: - too few mining inspectors, with insufficient training in some aspects - lack of capacity, potential for another mining disaster noted in Feb 2010 Issues with ventilation and gas monitoring within the mine: - Standards for ventilation, wiring, etc - Inability to monitor gas levels prevented entry, so couldn't assess risks Emergency response lacking (no guidance, no testing to expose problems): - Equipment and facilities for workers' self-rescue was impractical - Delay in identifying something was wrong (30 mins), calling emergency services
Personal History Info (POST-required info sources)
Includes the candidate's relevant work, life and developmental history based on info collected during the background investigation and as part of the psychological evaluation
Self complexity theory (Linville, 1985)
Instead of ideal and ought, people have multiple, distinct selves: - Can have any number of these, and can measure the degree of number of selves (participants given cards to sort into different piles representing their different selves) - People differ in the degree of complexity of these selves - How you feel about yourself is a function of emotions related with different selves - Social identity theory
Organisational psychology in NZ
Institute of organisational psychology NZ, part of NZ psychological society, has 4 categories of members: 1. Chartered Member: those practicing Organisational Psychology - must have completed supervised practice and a Masters or Honours degree • In NZ practical component now only via postgrad dip 2. Student Member: studying postgrad Organisational Psychology • Canterbury, Massey, Waikato, Auckland 3. Academic Member: teaching or researching in Organisational Psychology 4. Affiliates: Society members interested but ineligible in other categories, e.g. have not completed supervised practice, no longer working in the field
Affect infusion model (Forgas, 1995, emotions as determinants of thoughts)
Integrates content and process effects Understands in terms of native judgement Four types of social judgements vary in terms of effort required to make the judgement: - Direct access = retrieval of stored evaluation, easy - Motivated processing = strong desire for something to be true/reach particular state which motivates processing - Heuristic processing = shortcuts/not full analysis - Substantive processing = most effortful and accurate, needs lots of time, people only do this if you have enough effort and motivation The more construction require for judgement, the more room there is for emotions
Real-world research
Interventions are not random: - We usually seek interventions because something has gone wrong, so before-after comparisons are biased (e.g. the 'before' will be abnormally bad) - Random assignment may not solve this (e.g. if all participants are volunteers, participants may also do things to help themselves in control group) Groups are not perfectly matched...especially in a small population: - Contamination may occur if you try to deliver an intervention to a subgroup -> give questions from treatment to control There can be ethical issues in conducting randomised controlled trials: - e.g. withholding treatment from a group/site to use it as a control Some naturalistic research has no control/comparison condition al all
Relationship between realism and construct relationship
Inversely proportional - as construct increases, realism decreases
Aaronson and Mills (1959, effort justification)
Investigated effort justification by studying participants judgements of how interesting a group discussion was, depending on how much effort it took to get into the group: - Participants could either join right away, have a mild initiation or a severe one - The discussion group was very boring, but the participants who participated in the most severe initiation reported the greatest enjoyment level = effort justification
Nisbett and Wilson (1977)
Is self-perception possible? - People don't know why they feel the way they do - No privileged introspective access - Causal schemas are often right -> not buying into your own internal schema - Trying to introspect can change your judgement for the worse
Complex RPD
Is situation familiar -> if it is do the same as simple RPD If situation is not familiar, have to seek more info and feed back to original plan -> change what you're doing to fit with the new info
Representativeness (error in attribution)
Judgements based on similarity: - Objects/events in the same category do tend to resemble each other - People don't have a very good category of what randomness is like e.g. hot hand
Availability (error in attribution)
Judgements based on the ease with which info comes to mind: - Objective frequency is related to ease of retrieval, as is salience, priming and accessibility -> many more Americans are shot by other Americans annually, but we see Jihadist shootings in the news far more frequently, so would think those were more common - Salient, primed and accessible factors are more likely to be judged as causal e.g. closer to actor = that actor is more important
Anchoring and adjustments (error in attribution)
Judgements tied to initial statements -> a previous judgement is often a good approximation
Difference between ergonomics and human factors
Just depends where you are in the world: - Some people think human factors are more people based, and ergonomics is more around equipment
Task analysis
Key things to think about: - What needs to be done? - How is this currently done? - How could it be done? What changes would be required? Use task analysis to identify: - Opportunities for improving design - Potential issues and errors - if steps are missed, done in correct order etc Conduct before starting the design, then refer back to TA at later stages, refine if necessary
Instrumental conditioning (form of attitude formation)
Learning in which behaviours become more or less probable depending on their consequences -> based on probability: - Attitudes can develop and change because expressing those attitudes results in reward or punishment
Theories of attraction
Learning theories: - Instrumental vs classical conditioning - Social exchange theory - Comparison level - Equity theory - Exchange (earl stage) vs communal Biological theory = sexual selection theory
Incident analysis components
Looks at human behaviour, action and decision-making across a range of levels - individual workers, supervisors, organisational management, regulators, and government legislators -> identify all contributing facotrs Most evidence is descriptive, correlational, but attempting to make causal inferences: - Key data sources may be missing/destroyed - Can draw on data from experiment, simulations - What could have happened/contributed?
Hostile media phenomenon
Lord, Ross and Lepper 1985 - Everyone believed that the news was biased against them, as a function of their prior schemas - con of schema intepretation
Emotional families
Lots of different emotions can be categorised into one of the basic emotional types e..g anger
Self-discrepancy theory (Higgins, 1989)
Main self organisation theory -> 3 dimensions of self: 1. Actual self = self concept, what you say when asked 'who are you'? - Self guides = not who you are, but who you could be in different conditions: 2. Ought self = who you think you should be (from parents and society) 3. Ideal self = your fantasy self, who you could be in the world - People are motivated to reach a state where their actual self matches their self-guides - Discrepancies between different selves produce different types of negative affect -> when they don't match up, self awareness is uncomfortable
obtaining and evaluating evidence
Many models of policy 'life cycles'
Which fidelity is most commonly used?
Medium fidelity, as tends to give most accurate representation of behaviour
Conversion model of stereotype change
Meeting a radical person leading to stereotype change
Subtyping model of stereotype change
Meeting something you like, and it doesn't fit your stereotype -> you don't change your stereotype, but instead make a subtype This is the most accurate model for stereotype change
Contact hypothesis (Allport, 1954, attraction)
Mere physical contact is enough to initiate attraction between strangers; conducted a housing study with integrated and segregated areas -> segregated areas had more positive opinion of other race - Festinger study - Functional exposure
What is 'hot hand' an example of?
Misperception of randomness: - 'hot hand' = belief that you have good days and bad days in basketball, and you're more likely to make the shot with hot hand - There is no evidence of 'hot hand' and no evidence of shooting better than chance, given ability - The belief of 'hot hand' is attributed to peoples problems attributing randomness
What is dissonance associated with?
More extreme discrepancies
Medium fidelity simulators
More like real car, have proper pedals
Myth: learners as digital natives who can effectively multitask with technology
Most students have only basic functional knowledge of technology (just using it as communication tool, not complex), most 'multitasking' is actually task-switching (which causes interference)
What is a vigilance task?
Must monitor 1+ information source(s) for a prolonged period: - Experiments: 5min-2 hours - Work tasks: shift lengths up to 8-12 hours Must detect small or subtle changes -> 'targets', 'critical stimuli', 'signal' (in amongst distractors or noise) Can be among static background or constantly changing environment of non-signals (so have to keep the normal in mind) Signal probability is low Usually require a response to a signal only
Clinical interview (post info sources)
Must take place 'subsequent to a review and evaluation' of the test results -> all psych tests need to be interpreted in some level of context
Emotional arousal and attribution theory
Need both input from world (e.g. schemas) to produce arousal + some kind of attribution -> emotion Schacter and Singer's 2-factor theory of emotions
Integration of dissonance theories (Fazio, Zanna and Cooper, 1977)
New look approach: - Presence of arousal is critical - Dissonance explains bigger discrepancies - Attitudes have a lattitude of acceptance (e.g. +/-1), and attitudes outside of the lattitude of acceptance = dissonance e.g. Zanna and Cooper (1974) pill experiment
Is the 'self' one thing?
No -> people have different views of themselves and can be different psychological people in different situations. The particular schema activated -> changes how you think of yourself -> has implications
Does hazard perception training improve drivers training?
No, Isler et al. (2011) evaluated a 1-week vehicle skills course for young post-licence drivers in New Zealand, which focused on vehicle manoeuvring and peer feedback. They found improved on-road skills (e.g., appropriate speed choices) but no improvement in hazard perception or risky driving attitudes.
is NZ drivers reducing their restricted time by doing a training course evidence-based policy?
No, as these drivers had higher crash rates, and official crash databases were used for these (although driving exposure or discount times weren't included -> may have had unique characteristics
Price's Law (social loafing)
Number of people doing 50% of work in the total organisation increases with square of employees: - Organisations tend to collapse on themselves when they get too big, as there are too many people doing too little
Conscientiousness
Organisation, industriousness, diligence, self-discipline
Which types of organisational research are most likely to be predictors/independent variables?
Organisational context, personal factors, justice in organisations
Emotions as adaptations
Our display of anger now has similarities to when it was evolutionarily functional to display anger (e.g. bared teeth) -> emotions may have developed from this
Dependent variable (DV)
Outcome, the factor/s you measure
Classical conditioning (form of attitude formation)
Pavlov, learning through association: - Aim is for association between 2 things to elicit a good response e.g. concert at Forsyth bar -> enjoy concert -> association between Forsyth Barr and feeling good
Credibility and expertise of persuasion communicator
People are more persuaded by expert sources: - People can make trustworthiness statements in 30 ms - Dominance and trustworthiness = account for all judgements people make
Actual decision making
People aren't very rational in their decision making, so use other methods such as heuristics: - often involve stereotyping/assumptions, can result in biases and discrimination - Tend to focus on a limited number of cues, and disproportionately emphasis some cues (e.g. early information) - Anchoring heuristic = first impressions last - Availability heuristic - tendency to make decisions based on info that can be easily recalled, can be biased by recent media coverage
Attitude functions
People have argued different roles which attitudes have (Katz, 1960): - Knowledge function - Utilitarian/instrumental - Ego-defense - Value-expressive
Matching hypothesis (Walster, similarity, attraction)
People seek out others who match them on various dimensions: - Couples are normally similar in attractiveness, height/weight, intelligence
Festinger study (Contact hypothesis, exposure, attraction)
People were assigned to housing units, and rated their neighbours as friends more than other people in the unit: - Who were close to often ended up being who you were friends with
Similarity as safety (attraction)
People who are similar to us and familiar things = safer
Personalism
Perception that an actor intended to benefit or harm the target
Why are average objects seen as more attractive?
Perceptual fluency = ease with which stimuli can be categorised and thought about: - Objects closer to the median = easier to categorise - Effort to classify something is measurable, and predicts negative emotions towards the object Cue for genetic quality and familiarity
Peripheral route of persuasion (dual process model approach)
Persuasion depends on cues peripheral to the content of the message e.g. a person's attractiveness or perceived credibility
central route of persuasion (dual process model approach)
Persuasion depends on reactions to (elaborations of) the message content: - Elaborations = counter arguments you make to yourself -> outcome of these determines whether you're persuaded or not
Detection errors with motorcycles
Physical attributes -> motorcycles are low salience: - small - irregular contours - dark - poor contrast Cognitive attributes -> motorcycles are low prevalence: - ~1% of traffic in developed countries Target prevalence effects demonstrated in security screening, medical diagnoses
Zanna and Cooper (1974)
Pill experiment for dissonance theories, gave participants a pill which did nothing, but allowed them to attribute their feelings for something else to the pill: - Participants wrote an essay about something they didn't agree with - When they were told the pill made them aroused -> said they still didn't agree with essay topic - When they were told the pill would make them relaxed -> greater attitude change occurred, as they needed to feel relaxed but were aroused from the dissonance of writing about something they didn't believe in - The pill can be used through attribution logic, without physiological stuff -> can look if attitude change is driven by discomfort or not
Which IAAP division most relates to intuition, common sense and the need for evidence based policy
Political psychology, and psychology and societal developments
What are alot of disasters/accidents attributed to?
Poor decision making, e.g. Chenobel
Process effects (emotions as determinants of thoughts)
Positive emotions appear to produce more global interpretations of world, negative emotions produce more fine-grain view
Independent variable (IV)
Predictor, the factor/s your manipulate
Traffic psychology
Primarily concerned with road user behaviour and how road safety can be improved by changing behaviour through various countermeasures (e.g. enforcement and policing, road signs, licensing, speed limits): - We can look at individuals, but also at changing environments
What are policies
Principles or rules that guide decision-making and actions by organisations and individuals: - Government - Organisations and companies - Individuals
Self-handicapping
Protecting self esteem by creating attributions for poor performance in advance
Clinical psychology
Provides assessment, treatment and prevention of behavioural and mental health issues: - Assessment through psychological testing, diagnostic interviews, behavioural assessment - Interventions and therapy primarily with individuals, but can be families, groups Helping people
Industrial/organisational psychology
Psychological knowledge applied to organisational functioning, especially workplaces: - Employee selection, training, development, assessment, coaching, well-being - Change management and optimising performance of organisations - Can be consultants, or within organisations. - Objectively judge performance -> how can we optimise this organisation
Which IAAP division most relates to vigilance and security screening?
Psychology and societal development
Performance pathways
Pyramid models = a broad base of PE and community support increases performance at top levels: - Elite athletes do need basic athletic skills (running, coordination, etc) - But greater mass participation at the lower levels does not necessarily = higher performance by elites -> lower levels may not receive good foundational training, + exclusionary and limiting - up or out? (what if you don't reach the next level)
Data analysis approach of organisational psychology
Quantitative, measuring: - What happens? - Is there a difference? - How large is it? - e.g. attitudes on likert scale Qualitative, insight, exploratory: - Why did it (not) work? Mixed-methods -> complementary findings
What is 'that's not all' technique an example of?
Reciprocity compliance technique: - People are more likely to buy a $1 cupcake if cookies are a bonus than a cookie and a cupcake for $1 (people are doing you a favour by throwing in the cookies, so you're more likely to pay) (Burger, 1980)
Minimal group paradigm (creation of prejudice)
Reducing formation of groups to the most minimal conditions: - People are assigned to groups randomly, and the given the chance to divide resources between their own group and the other group - There is no reason to favour one group over the other, but they still show in-group bias
Social exchange theory of attraction
Relationship satisfaction depends on the balance of rewards and costs -> love our partners to the point where rewards > costs
How does motivation and opportunity affect conformity?
Relying on others could be seen as a heuristic, so if you have enough resources to not rely on them, conformity drops
Research, theory and practise in organisational psychology
Research is normally theory or problem driven 1. Theory-driven research • Borrowing/extending theories from other areas of psych (e.g. social) • Developing organisational-specific theories • Why do people do what they do? Why does this intervention work? 2. Problem-driven research • What do people do? How can they do it better? 3. Practice / consulting • No "new knowledge" - solutions for a specific context/organisation
Kelin and Calderwood (1996, naturalistic decision making)
Research report for US army, aim to investigate expert decision making in situations that share characteristics with military command-and-control decision making: - Real-time info processing - Shifting goals (uncertainty, time pressure) - High-risk consequences Several field studies, mainly with fire commanders (as making decisions with fire chiefs is stressful, high pressure and with not much time -> just have to go off info they have. Could involve serious damage to property, or threaten lives if serious) - Wanted to develop descriptive models of naturalistic behaviour (in contrast to normative models) -> what people actually do (experts vs novices)
What increases the minimal group effect?
Ritual = conventional, repetitive, synchronised, causally opaque behaviour
Safety-I
Safety as the absence of accidents and incidents -> focuses on failure (when things go wrong), leads to questions such as: - What causes the failure? - How can we prevent future failure? In alot of cases we assume there's a single root cause, but it's often more complex than this
Comparison level of attraction
Satisfaction depends on 'comparison level' of their relationships and of the alternatives
Example of directing discrepancy to an external source to reduce cognitive dissonance
Saying your an addict (which you can't control) to reduce dissonance from smoking
Lowballing compliance technique
Securing commitment to a course of action by undervaluing its true cost: - Once people commit to something, they're unlikely to back out, even once true cost is revealed - Cialdini et al (1978) found that participants were more likely to agree to a 7am psych experiment if they were told the time last, and not first
Self-evaluation maintenance theory (Tesser, 1988)
Self-esteem deficit depends on 3 things: 1. Performance of the other person 2. Closeness of the other person to the self 3. Importance of task to the self Doing tasks that were either important or unimportant to the participant, and measured how close the participant wanted to sit to the confederate: - Didn't mind sitting close to a confederate doing well on unimportant topic, but wanted to sit far away if they did poorly on unimportant, or well in important topic - Wanted to sit close for poorly on important topic
Social identity theory
Self-esteem is a function of the positivity of our group memberships -> how we feel about ourselves is also a function of how group is doing
What predicts self esteem?
Self-structures and self-comparisons
Models of performance
Several theories and models attempt to explain how to optimise performance -> can be applied to sport/exercise even if not developed in this context: - Yerkes-Dodson Law (inverted u) - Zajonc's drive theory (refer to social psychology lectures) - Hull's drive reduction theory of motivation - Atkinson's achievement motivation theory
Driving licences
Should learner drivers be required to accrue a minimum amount of supervised practise? - NZ does a staged model, but in some places they require a set # of hours of driving for learners
Methods of applied psychology
Similar, but AP focuses on correlation, separation and differentiation -> not isolated to just one factor or principal (PP = simplification, isolation, abstraction)
Ultimate explanations of similarity
Similarity contributes to attraction through ultimate explanations, which appeal to our evolutionary past (e.g. what function did these serve in our past?): - Similarity as safety? - Similarity as kin selection?
Proximate use (similarity, attraction)
Similarity is explained as a contributing factor for attraction by use of proximate (immediate psychological explanations): - Self verification (Swann) - Dissonance/balance theory (Heider) - Emergent property
Signal discrimination type (variability in vigilance tasks)
Simultaneous vs successive - differ in memory/info processing requirements: - Simultaneous = target and distractors present together, comparison (x-rays) - Successive = target and distractors at different times, memory (ECG, clock)
Systematic review
Single studies give limited info, so you need to collate evidence across multiple studies, through using CIMO to structure systematic reviews: - Context. Which individuals, relationships, organisations or systems are being studied? • Intervention. What is the event, action, or activity being studied? • Mechanisms. What mechanisms explain the relationship between interventions and outcomes? Under what circumstances are these mechanisms activated or not activated? • Outcomes. What are the effects of the intervention? How will the outcomes be measured? What are the intended and unintended effects? -> best one to show interaction effects
Miligram's obedience from a conformity perspective
Size/unanimity of the majority, ambiguity of the situation, expertise, strength etc all influence conformity
Case studies
Small scale studies/very remarkable people -> studying because they are far from the norm (e.g. elite athlete)
Extraversion
Sociability, assertiveness, positive emotion, enthusiasm
Changing the payoff matrix
Social for social dilemmas e.g. in prisoner's dilemma, individuals could step in and increase cost of certain actions: - rewards for cooperation - penalties for non-cooperation
Explicit communication
Solution for social dilemma, which doesn't always work, as communication doesn't always improve cooperation e..g Trucking game
Changing group membership
Solution for social dilemmas -> if people see themselves as part of the whole group, you could change the structure of the problem
Tacit communication
Solution for social dilemmas: - Tit-for-tat strategy -> nice, provokable and forgiving
Emotions
Specific and transient feeling states Don't know where balance of these begins and ends
Which IAAP division most relates to sport and exercise psychology
Sports psychology
Attitude structure
Stable positive or negative evaluations Debated, but 3 components have been decided upon: 1. Cognition = thought component, beliefs to object 2. Affect = feeling component -> emotional experience, feeling towards object 3. Behaviour = action component -> action toward object These components are all relative to understanding attitude, as they all interact with each other -> when one component changes there's pressure for the others to come in line
2-stage model of attribution (error in attribution)
Stage 1 = automatic internal attribution serves as an anchor (FAE) Stage 2 = effortful adjustment for situational factors, if time and motivation permit - Prediction = if a person is stressed (under 'cognitive load') he or she will be more likely to make an internal attribution e.g. is Gilbert, Pelham and Krull (1988)
Why is stereotype change difficult?
Stereotypes and prejudices are like schemas, which are resistant to change, as they are self-sustaining and recruit their own evidence (bias for info which supports your evidence): - Perseverance effect - Self-fulfilling prophecy Therefore it's difficult for people to change their stereotypes and prejudice
What is self organisation?
Structure of self and how you respond to feedback - Self-discrepancy theory (Higgins, 1989) - Negative affect (from discrepancy) - Higgins et al (1986)
Yerkes Dodson study (1908)
Studied learning in mice: - Incorrect responses received electrical shocks - Measured association between stimulus strength (shock intensity) and habit formation (learning correct response) = medium, easy, difficult - U-shaped relationship for medium/difficult tasks -> learning best under moderate stimulation - optimal level of stimulation shifts lower as the task gets harder
Preferences (evaluations, attitudes)
Subjective responses to people, objects or events
Standpoint of applied psychology
Subjective, focused on utility and specific individuals or situations (objective, seeking universally valid scientific laws)
Research design of organisational research
Surveys/questionnaires: - flexible - large samples (potentially) - usually correlational Interviews Observations (interested in how people perform at work, can now do this unobtrusively with cameras) Experiments: - Causal (if done well) - Usually smaller samples - More resource intensive - Done to test an idea Interventions: - Alot of IO psyc add interventions to change the offfice
Fundamental attribution error (error in attribution)
Tendency to over-attribute behaviour to internal factors: - There is a big effect of this in Western cultures - Jones and Harris Castro study - Actor-observer effect = the tendency to make the fundamental attribution error more with others than with ourselves
Key finding from naturalistic decision making regarding expert decision making
That the first decision that experienced decision makers make is normally satisfactory
Illusory correlation (cognitive influences on stereotyping)
The belief that 2 factors/things in the world co-vary more than they actually do: - Cooccurrence of distinctive events are especially available (Chapman, 1967) -> studied memory for pairs of words, bread and butter were judged to occur more frequently than they actually did, as they come to mind more easily = bias - Minority group/negative behaviour is especially distinctive (hamilton and Gifford, 1976) -> people estimated minority members as performing negative behaviours more frequently than the minority
What are non-common effects?
The distinctive consequences of a course of action -> the more distinctive options are, the harder it is to be confident about any 1 attribution
Accessibility (factor for schema use)
The ease with which a schema comes to mind: - This varies person to person, with environment, genetics and childhood etc - Chronically accessible schemas are often applied in stressful situations (Correll et al 2002)
Practical significance
The focus of interpreting results: - Is the difference meaningful? - How much (training, medication etc) is required for benefit? - Will the benefit outweigh the cost?
Deindividuation
The loss of an individuals self-awareness in a group: - Individuals see themselves as anonymous members of a larger group - People who perform aggressive behaviours in the group are those who would never do it individually
What is complexity (in terms of selves) positively related to?
The number and independence of the selves
What are ergonomics? (human factors)
The scientific discipline concerned with the understanding of interactions among humans and other elements of a system, and the profession that applies theory, principles, data and methods to design in order to optimise human wellbeing and overall system performance: - Takes a system approach (looking at bigger picture in the context of what people are doing) - Design driven - Focuses on outcomes -> enhance performance, increase safety, increase user satisfaction
What is traffic psychology?
The study of how psychological processes affect road user behaviour, and how behaviour can be changed using psychological principles: - is academic -> not a formal practitioner job title in most places - different subfields of psychology can be applied in the context of transport - disproportionate focus on car drivers (but some work on 'vulnerable' road users and other modes of transport) - focuses on how humans function within the complex road network system
What has implications for how we design our research?
The type of research (basic or applied): - Sample (e.g. just needing to use police men as studying police behaviour) - Tasks and apparatus (can't do super easy tasks because of ceiling effects) - Interpretation of results
Dual Process Model Approach (The elaboration likelihood model (ELM), Petty and Cacioppo, 1986)
Theorists propose both fast (heuristics) and slow (more effortful) mechanisms + 2 routes of persuasion: 1. The central route 2. The peripheral route Whether you use central or peripheral route depends on MODE model (and therefore motivation) -> whether you want to learn and pay attention, or not
Practitioner knowledge
Theory and research in social, historical, cultural and developmental foundations of sport psychology • Issues and techniques of sport specific psychological assessment and mental skills training for performance enhancement and participation satisfaction • Clinical and counselling issues with athletes • Organizational and systemic aspects of sport consulting • Developmental and social issues related to sport participation • Biobehavioral bases of sport and exercise (e.g., exercise physiology, motor learning, sports medicine) • Specific knowledge of training science and technical requirements of sport and competition, IOC and NCAA rules, etc.
Why is forming policies difficult?
There are lots of conflicting opinions and everyone has one, therefore policies need to be evidence-based
Evidence for basic emotions theory (Ekman)
There is a limited number of emotional expressions
Dissonance/balance theory (Heider, proximate use, similarity, attraction)
There may be motivational pressure to like people who are similar to you: - Balance theory = motivational pressure to balance a triad (2 people + 1 object) - Experience dissonance if you don't balance the triad
What is the problem dealing with catastrophic, rare events?
They are rare and unlikely to occur -> good for safety/survival/health, bad for demonstrating causality
Familiarity (average as attractive)
Things at the central part of their category tend to be more familiar, even if they haven't been seen before
Theory of reasoned action (attitude formation)
Through reason, logic and debate, you may come to a certain belief -> weigh up options to get to attitude (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980)
How do you make improvements in life?
Through reliable and valid research findings e.g. evidence about the effectiveness of interventions, treatments etc
Low fidelity simulators
Tiny step up from computers, very basic graphics and handles
Why was research on naturalistic decision making necessary?
To describe how people actually make decisions in the real world
What is the aim of educational psychology?
To improve educational processes and outcomes: - Individual level = specific students with special requirements - Group/organisational level = for everyone
What is a key aim of applied psychology?
To improve human wellbeing - conditions and conduct of life
Example of adding new congruent beliefs to reduce cognitive dissonance
To reduce the dissonance felt when engaging with smoking, you may tell yourself smoking helps you to lose weight, or looks cool
Which IAAP division most relates to traffic psychology?
Traffic and transport psychology
Olson and Fazio (2006)
Training people to have positive and negative attitudes to things - African American men photo, followed immediately by positive (happy old white guys) or negative (skulls) photos - Affective priming = doesn't rely on any processing of the meaning of pictures -> picture of skulls has a natural negative affect -> primes negative view of AA man - This study found that you can shift people's views by preceding stimuli with a positive or negative visual conditioning stimulus
What is the link between exercise and sport, and community and elite sport?
Trickle-down models - fund the elites to benefit everyone: - International sporting success fosters national identity and pride - Elite success will increase participation at community level -> larger talent pool -> more elite success - Appealing but little support -> ignores other factors that constrain advancement (location, family, $$$, opportunity -> which depends on the sport's structure etc)
Over-justification effect (Greene et al, self-perception theory)
Undermining intrinsic motivation: - Intrinsic desire can be undermined if there are too many explanations - Kids were playing with markers, then got rewards for playing with markers, which resulted in an increase in marker play - When reward was removed, playing stopped (despite previously playing with markers)
How does ambiguity of the situation affect conformity?
Unsureness of the stimuli gives alot more conformity
Naive psychologists vs cognitive misers (error in attribution)
Use of heuristics instead of normative models
Human factors and ergonomics
Uses knowledge of human abilities and limitations (including psychological) to design objects, organisations and systems: - Historically focused on work contexts (jobs, tool design, military aviation) and some people still classify it alongside industrial/organisational - Particularly focused on individual interactions with technology/systems - Improving performance, safety, efficiency and comfort for users
Mixed subjects design
Uses within and between designs -> used 2 different groups but they do the same levels
How do we detect under-reporting?
Validity tests -> designed to detect when people are honest: - Questions such as 'I gossip a little' can say you don't to some, but shouldn't not do any of them Inconsistency -> records say they've had a mental health problem but they deny ever having one
Sensory modality (variability in vigilance tasks)
Visual (very common), auditory (other modes aren't really looked at, but could potentially do smell in the lab)
Which people is the majority of research done on?
WEIRD -> Western Educated Industrialised Rich Democratic, therefore not all findings generalise -> normally just applicable to weird people
Bookkeeping model of stereotype change
We have stereotypes about the world, and encounter people who disagree with these stereotypes -> keep a book of these people -> gradually adjust stereotypes
Self-presentation
Weiner = people use attributions as strategies for managing others' reactions Self-handicapping
How does what the communicator says influence persuasion?
What they say affects whether the message is believed or not: - Good arguments are more persuasive - Presenting both sides of the issue (this is important if the person you are trying to persuade is not on your side) - Cognition vs emotion -> beliefs and attitudes can be held to a greater/lesser extent depending on thoughts and emotions - Fear appeals e.g. drink-driving ads -> need to have enough fear to grab attention, but not so much that you distract from the message
Priming (factor for schema use)
When exposure to a stimulus makes a subsequent mental process more likely or efficient -> 'I'll have what she's having'
Arms race (social dilemma)
When only the US had nuclear arms, everyone thought they should nuke the Soviet Union before they made arms as well. Rational choice is for both to arm -> both arm -> then hard to disarm
Zajon's Drive Theory (1965)
When others are around, you experience physiological arousal, and therefore perform your dominant response -> individual does what they were going to do
Testing effect
When students have been tested on material they remember more in the long term than if they had repeatedly studied it.
Free-rider problem (social dilemma)
When you have a project or resource which needs to maintained, not something which everyone needs to do, but some have to do it e.g. blood donation
What is an incident?
Where a noticeable problem occurs during system operation, but an actual accident does not result from it.
How are prevalence effects caused by criterion shifts?
With tasks that produce false-alarm errors, prevalence effects appear to be primarily criterion shifts, to use the terms of signal-detection theory (Green & Swets, 1967). That is, while miss errors increase at low prevalence, false-alarm errors decrease.
Which IAAP division most relates to organisational psychology?
Work and organisational psychology
Which IAAP division most relates to personnel selection?
Work and organisational psychology
Insufficient reward/induced compliance (dissonance)
You behave counter to your attitudes/principles for no apparent external reason e.g. Aaronson and Carlsmith (1959)
Mere exposure effect (Zajonc, form of attitude formation)
You feel more positive to something the more you've been exposed to it: - Exposure to characters was plotted with attitudes -> increased with frequency until it levelled of @ ~10 exposures - ME effect is potentially stronger when stimuli are subliminal/subconscious - Zajonc argues in some sense emotional system gives you info cognitive system can't
What do you have to have to have an attitude?
You have to have an affective emotional reaction to something
Effort justification (dissonance)
You put in more effort towards achieving a goal than the goal seems to warrant e..g Aaronson and Mills (1959) e.g. Baht Mitzfah = painful experience, but dissonance means you're then motivated more the join the group (Judaism)
Insufficient punishment (dissonance)
You refrain from behaving in accordance with your attitudes/principles for no apparent external reason e.g. Forbidden toy paradigm
Imaging compliance technique
You're more likely to comply if you've already imagined yourself complying: - People are more likely to say they'd volunteer if they'd previously predicted they would volunteer
What is a schema?
a cognitive structure that represents knowledge about a concept or stimulus, including its attributes and the relations among those attributes -> visual representation which captures knowledge
Exercise psychologist
a specialist who works under the supervision of a physician to develop, implement, and coordinate exercise programs, and administer medical tests to promote physical fitness
Replication crisis
a systematic problem in which a large proportion of studies are not reproducible
2 x 2 factorial design
an experimental design that has two independent variables, each with two levels, resulting in four conditions
Random assignment
assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups -> gives a better understanding of actual events
What does a small incentive result in
attitude change
Why did Wolfe et al. report normalised hit and false alarm rates, instead of raw accuracy?
because raw accuracy is perceived to be security-sensitive info, so the normalised forms of the data were designed to preserve the relative differences between blocks and the statistical measures of those differences without presenting the actual error rates
Why is reliability important?
because we want a measurement to perform the same under different test conditions
Compliance
behaviour in response to illicit/explicit requests, which relies on a number of different factors of motivation
aggression
behaviour intended to cause physical or psychological harm to another person
Sexual selection theory
biological theory of attraction, whereby attraction is a mechanism to identify appropriate mates: - Attraction is just a way for us to ensure we're mating with someone with good genes -> when we see someone attraction we're seeing someone with attractive genes - Men have lower standards for sex, and how long they need to know someone before having sex (as they don't have to bother with caring for the child) - Men are most likely to respond yes to a request for sex, and then apartment -> go on a date has the lowest positive response rate
Feasible potential solution for reducing miss errors in TSOs (Transport security officers)
brief epochs of high-prevalence search with feedback reduce miss errors in a subsequent epoch of low-prevalence search
What are microexpressions
brief facial expressions reveal true feelings and may break through false ones -> leak out when people are lying (controversial theory)
Upward social comparison
comparing to someone better than you in the same dimension -> good for learning how to do better/improvement
Content effects (emotions as determinants of thoughts)
content of emotions colours thoughts -> mood congruence Congruity between emotional state and contents of thoughts
Social comparison
evaluating one's abilities and opinions by comparing oneself with others - Can be upward and downward -> interpretation of feedback partially connected to how we look at ourselves in relation to others - Self evaluation maintenance theory (Tesser, 1988)
Affect
general term for entire range of feeling states -> variation within this
Gorilla video
if we're designing something we want people to pay attention to we need to think of the implications -> are people negligent or just paying attention to other stuff (like in the gorilla video) -> our intuitive perception doesn't always match reality, and there are implications for this which we can't overlook
Hedonic balance
impact that an actor's behaviour has on the perceiver -> the more extreme the impact, the more confident we seem to be about internal attributions, which we generally only make if behaviour was intentional
Environmental psychology
interactions between humans and their environment e.g. how built environment influences poverty and crime: - This doesn't get much interest as it's normally about talking with people. - But still need to change environment to change peoples behaviour
Yerkes Dodson Law
later research generalised the U-shaped curve to aspects of performance beyond learning
Intervention evaluation (organisational psych)
measure before for baseline -> intervention -> measure after for satisfaction - Need to control for potential confounds -> productivity boost could just be Hawthorne effect - One way to avoid HE is to have a control group -> still going to have confounds happening, as measurement itself alters things
Educational researchers focus
memory and learning • metacognition • reading ability • motivation • behaviour change • social dynamics and interaction • lifespan development • individual differences • intelligence testing • psychological assessment
Neuroticism
negative emotion, anxiety, vulnerability, irritability
Does skid training improve drivers' safety?
no - evaluations indicated that skid training led to increased crash rates because students focused more on vehicle manoeuvring than avoidance (Katila et al., 1996) and focusing on vehicle handling skills fosters overconfidence. Subsequent research indicates that skid training does not increase crash rates if it strongly emphasises anticipation and avoidance of dangerous situations; however, even with this strong emphasis on risk avoidance, the drivers who received skid training were more confident and less likely to avoid driving in dangerous conditions
Did William James give a shit about his Greek abilities?
no - he only cared about being the best at psych, didn't care if others were better than him at Greek because he was bad at it
Control group/condition
no manipulated variable/IV
Cue for genetic quality (average as attractive)
not much evidence, but shows that hardships you experience as a child/compromised immunity can influence your face as an adult, therefore more average faces have stronger immune systems?
Changing attitudes to be consistent with behaviour
often easiest path as it requires the least effort, so peoples' attitudes change to reduce dissonance
Self-verification (Swann, proximate use, similarity, attraction)
one of the key motivations people have in attraction is self confirmation: - People seek out others and activities that make them feel confident in themselves, so other people who are similar to you reinforce your own beliefs
Normative models
optimal strategies that ensure objectively correct answers: - however, people have limited cognitive capacity and so exert the least amount of effort necessary - therefore people don't follow normative models, and instead follow heuristics
Hobbes approach to aggression
people are inherently aggressive by nature, without the state control life would be nasty, brutish and short: - we give up some of our control to the state, in exchange for living in a safer environment
Why do we need evidence?
people's knowledge and beliefs are not always accurate: - Although people may think their belief's are correct this isn't always the case e.g. 65% of people think their intelligence is above average, but only 50% are -> overconfidence occurred across all demographic groups and education levels - Study done on memory -> many participants agreed with statements about memory, but none of the memory experts agreed with these statements
Attractiveness of the persuasion communicator
physically attractive sources are believed to be more persuasive than physically unattractive sources
Knowledge function of attitude
prediction and control of environment
Why does vigilance matter?
prevalence of vigilance tasks is increasing e.g. self-driving cars are still a vigilance task -> still sitting there making sure nothing goes wrong
Personality traits
probabilistic descriptions of relatively stable patterns of behaviour, motivation, emotion and cognition, in response to classes of stimuli that have been present in human cultures of evolutionary time
Screening-out
process of identifying police applicants who are unqualified and removing them from consideration, while leaving all those who minimally qualify in the applicant pool Easier for psychs, particularly in PSO
Cognition
representations of knowledge, thoughts and beliefs, and the process by which these representations are acquired and manipulated
Epidemiological studies
reveal the incidence and prevalence of a disorder in a particular population -> close to just health research
Higgins et al (1986)
self-discrepancy study: - Found people with dejection and agitation discrepancies. - Ideal self priming shows larger dejection response - Ought self priming shows larger agitation response
Value-expressive function of attitude
self-verification -> attitude we hold because it's important for verifying ourselves to ourselves and others: - We feel motivated to know ourselves, and holding attitudes is one way to do this - Expressing attitudes brings you into contact with others with similar attitudes -> confirmation of what you want to be like
Social loafing
the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable e.g. for a simple task (such as digging a ditch), if you got lots of friends to help you, theoretically you'd be able to dig much faster, but some people would slack off -> people don't work as hard when others are working with them
Interventions
used to test treatment/design -> give some treatment and some placebo
Triplett (1898)
usually cited as publishing the first sports psychology paper -> origin of sports psychology
Who is helped by sport and exercise psychology?
• Elite athletes • Aspiring high level athletes • Members of team sports • People who do not undertake any physical activity • Community in general • Sports psychology researchers (knowledge gains)
What do HF professionals do?
• Equipment design - ergonomics. Can be small scale (medicine bottles and labels) through to large scale (radar displays) • Task design - e.g. analysing the steps people must perform in their job, to eliminate unnecessary or difficult steps • Environment design - usually focused on ambient design (lighting, temperature, noise) - vs. I/O which looks at things like open plan offices • Selection - tends to emphasise skills testing (different from I/O's focus more on personality and aptitude tests) • Training (training peeps to use HF systems) • Accident and incident analysis - when things go wrong, analysing how the factors above contributed to the incident
What does sport and exercise psychology cover?
• Helping motivate individual athletes to boost performance • How brain/CNS functioning influences sporting performance • Therapeutic interventions associated with sports & physical activity • Psychology of physical activity more broadly
Difference between IO and HF/E
• Human factors and ergonomics (HF/E) is sometimes 'lumped together' with industrial/organizational psychology (I/O) - both [can] focus on work • They overlap and some tasks could be done by either HF or I/O practitioners (e.g. job/task analysis is important in both!) • Some universities offer combined program (e.g. Uni of Adelaide MPsych in Organisational and Human Factors) • Other universities offer HF subjects in their I/O postgrad programs • I/O is more oriented towards social psych, personality and individual differences - understanding individuals and their relationships with each other • HF/E is more oriented towards cognition and engineering - how people interact with systems ―How can we design 'things' so that they fit with people's expectations, physical and neurological abilities, way of thinking and behaving?
DBQ validity
• Instrumented vehicle study of 108 US drivers (Zhao et al., 2012) • DBQ Ordinary Violations correlated with aggressive driving style • drove slightly faster on average, executed more lane changes, spent more time in left lane (=right lane in NZ), more sudden accelerations • DBQ Lapses correlated with increased variability in speed and steering wheel positioning, more rapid throttle accelerations • DBQ Errors did not show clear correlations with any measures • researchers primarily used vehicle-based DVs, rather than measures that would provide direct evidence of errors such as failing to check mirrors (e.g. eye-tracking) • DBQ scores are also correlated with crash rates, especially self-reported crashes
Practitioner competencies
• Job analysis - using systematic processes to describe job tasks, working conditions, etc. à determine required qualifications, selection procedures, better job design • Personnel selection and assessment - developing tools to use in selection and assessment (tests, structured interviews), administering tests • Training and development - using job analysis to identify training needs, developing training programs and materials, administering and evaluating training • Career counselling - career development, CV help • Personal counselling - personal and interpersonal issues • Employee relations - improving interpersonal relationships in workplace, health and wellbeing, performance management programs and incentives • Organisational development and change - organisational design, change management, team building • Workplace design - OHS, human-machine interaction
Topics which IO psychs work on
• Measurement and effects of arrogant bosses/managers • Leadership: Traits of good leaders, effective leadership practices • "Neuroleadership" - neuroscience, brain imaging applied to I/O context • Talent identification and development, employee selection, performance management, training • Job characteristics - which tasks promote engagement/motivation vs. boredom? • Job satisfaction, work-related stress, motivation, well-being • "Collective intelligence" of teams and team composition (gender) • Workplace bullying - forms, effects, management • "Organisational citizenship" - behaviours that improve the organisation's functioning, but aren't necessarily recognised or rewarded • Employee compensation - pay everyone the same? Merit? Seniority? • Occupational health and safety (OHS) practices • Organisational behaviour
Triplett's social facilitation research
• Participants used reels to wind a flag around a circuit 4x (16m total) • Worked either alone or in pairs, alternating (counterbalanced) • Reported results for 40 children • 20 children showed "positive stimulation" - faster in company • 10 children showed "little stimulation" - no effect • 10 children showed "overstimulated" - slower in company • No statistical comparison but has been interpreted as evidence that the presence of others improves performance • Subsequent research has confirmed that the presence of others can improve performance on simple, well-practiced tasks
Implications of prevalence effects in driving
• Prevalence effects occur during dynamic, interactive tasks... but they are different • When viewing static images, people make "present/absent" judgements - rare targets are completely missed • In dynamic tasks people search continuously and gradually get closer to key targets - so rare targets are detected later • Suggests that implicit expectations (I won't see motorcycles) over-ride explicit task demands (search for motorcycles) ...also explains why "looked but failed to see" errors can occur for large and/or highly salient objects • marked police cars (Langham, Hole, Edwards, & O'Neil, 2002) • passenger trains (Salmon, Read, Stanton, & Lenné, 2013)
Intervention evaluation example (OP)
• Question: Does competition between workers increase productivity? • Context: Employees on a customer service phone line • Intervention: reward $ for highest number of calls handled (with high rating) • Which result would be most convincing? a) Single group design: 35% increase in productivity from pre to post b) Control group design: 30% increase from pre to post for intervention group, 20% increase for control group c) Solomon design: 25% increase from pre to post for intervention group 1, significantly lower post-intervention scores in groups 2-4 (all similar) d) Solomon design: 20% increase from pre to post for intervention group 1, significantly lower post-intervention scores in control groups 2 & 4 but not 3
DBQ and personality
• Specific personality traits predict specific negative driving behaviours • Aggressive Violations most strongly correlated with hostility, antagonism, trait anger • Ordinary Violations correlated with hostility, risk taking, thrill-seeking, impulsivity, disinhibition, etc., across many studies • Errors and Lapses correlated with negative affectivity, disinhibition, irresponsibility • Conscientiousness negatively correlated with all DBQ subscales • The relationship between personality and driving behaviour has implications for: • rehabilitation & deterrence programs for driving offenders • acceptance of new safety technologies (e.g., speed limiters) • driver training • and more - what else can you think of?
Which aspects of psychology are relevant to traffic psychology?
• cognitive psychology • perception (visual, auditory, haptic) • personality • social psychology • biological psychology • developmental psychology • clinical neuropsychology • clinical psychology