Psych 101 test
Positive punishment is
exemplified by a spanking
high-reactive infants
exhibit much distress with unfamiliar stimuli
A stimulus is an event or occurrence
that generally leads to a response
primary sex characteristics
the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible
puberty
the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing
Trust vs. Mistrust
(infant)
Genes are found in
Chromosomes
Gender identity or gender expression
-Transgender -Gender dysphoria -Transsexual -Sexual assignment surgery
XX =
Female
goal of reinforcement
To make a behavior more likely to recur
fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, symptoms include noticeable facial misproportions
Reinforcement
process by which an organism learns to associate a voluntary behavior with its consequences
conservation
refers to the idea that certain physical characteristics of objects remain the same, even when their outward appearance changes such as volume or masa
adolescence
refers to the life stage from puberty to independent adulthood, denoted physically by a growth spurt and maturation of primary and secondary sex characteristics, cognitively by the onset of formal operational thought, and socially by the formation of identity
Denial
refusing to believe or even perceive painful realities
law of effect
says behavior with favorable consequences tends to be repeated, while behavior with unfavorable consequences tends to disappear
successive approximations
small steps in behavior, one after the other, that lead to a particular goal behavior
critical period
specific time frame in which an organism is sensitive to environmental factors, and certain behaviors and abilities are readily shaped or altered by events or experiences
Neutral stimulus
stimulus that does not cause a relevant, automatic, or reflexive response.
authoritarian parenting
style of parenting in which parent is rigid and overly strict, showing little warmth to the child
Stimulus discrimination
the ability to differentiate between a CS and other stimuli sufficiently different from it.
Fluid intelligence
the ability to think in the abstract and create associations among concepts
Acceptance
the action of consenting to receive or undertake something offered, accepting death
Psychology
the scientific study of behavior and mental processes
Critical periods suggest that
there are at least some definite periods or "stages" in development.
Piaget proposed that children
think differently than adults and experience cognitive development in distinct stages.
Goal of punishment
to decrease or stop a behavior
With negative reinforcement a(n)
unpleasant stimulus is removed following a behavior increasing the likelihood it will occur again.
Albert Bandura's Bobo doll experiments were intended to demonstrate
Observational Learning
Spontaneous recovery
is where the reappearance of the CR following its extinction occurs in response to the CS after a period of rest.
Maturation refers to
Physical Development
3 major categories of human development
Physical, cognitive, socio emotional
In _____, something unpleasant is added following an unwanted behavior.
Positive Punishment
Reinforcers that satisfy a biological need are called
Primary reinforcers -They are inate
Erikson
Proposed human development is marked by 8 psychological stages from infancy to old age Suggested each age is marked by a developmental task or an emotional crisis that must be resolved Unsuccessful resolution results in difficulty in next stage
ego identity vs role confusion
Puberty-20 years old
Kohlbergs stages: precovential level stage 1
Punishment and obedience orientation: Moral behavior is determined by what is punished
B.F. Skinner
Radical Behaviorilist, American Psychologist Through the process of shaping he taught his pigeons to perform behaviors such as tennis. Shaping and operant conditioning
Intersexua
Refers to having conflicting or ambiguous biological indicators of male or female sexual structures and organs.
attachment
Refers to the degree to which an infant feels emotional connection with primary caregivers •Secure attachment •Avoidant attachment •Ambivalent attachment
negative reinforcement
Removal of an unpleasant stimulus following a target behavior
accommodation
Restructuring of old ideas to make room for new information
Gender identity
Sense of being either male or female; the compatibility, contentment, and conformity with one's gender
socio-emotional development
Social behaviors, emotions and changes people experience in relationships, feelings and over all disposition
Kohlbergs stages: post conventional level stage 5
Social contract, legalistic orientation: Moral behavior is determined by societal laws, which adapt to meet needs of society
negative punishment
Something desirable to removed following the unwanted behavior.
Gene
Specified segment of a DNA molecule
Epigenetics
Studies the process involved in the development of phenotypes
uninvolved parenting
Style of parenting that provides neither warmth nor control and that minimizes the amount of time parents spend with children
Acquisition
The initial learning phase in both classical and operant conditioning.
crystallized intelligence
The knowledge we gain through learning and experience
cognitive map
The mental representation of the layout of a physical space. Involves a mental layout, provides a spatial representation to aid in navigation of environment, are created through latent learning that occurs without awareness and regardless of reinforcement.
biological preparedness
The predisposition or inclination of animals (and of people) to form certain kinds of associations through classical conditioning.
gender schema
The psychological or mental guidelines that dictate how to be masculine or feminine
Behaviorism
The scientific study of observable behavior
stability and change
The stability-change debate describes the developmental psychology discussion about whether personality traits that are present in an individual at birth remain constant or change throughout the life span.
instinctive drift
The tendency for instinct to undermine conditioned behaviors
menopause
The time when ovulation and menstruation cease and reproduction is no longer possible.
Shaping
The use reinforcers to change behaviors through small steps toward a desired behavior.
Kohlbergs stages: post conventional level stage 4
Universal ethical principle orientation: Moral behavior is guided by universal principles of justice and equality
infant-directed speech (IDS)
Used by caregivers worldwide to stimulate infant attention to socially appropriate partners
Assimilation
Using existing information and ideas to understand new knowledge and experiences
Playing a slot machine is reinforced on a _____ schedule.
Variable-Ratio
Operant conditioning applies to
Voluntary Behavior
Operant conditioning applies to _____ and involves associations between _____
Voluntary behavior; behavior and consequences
Transgender
Whose gender identity or gender expression does not conform with the sex they were assigned at birth.
Prosocial behaviors
actions that tend to benefit others, such as doing favors or helping, kindness, and generosity
Transsexual
an individual who undergoes sex reassignment surgery and hormone treatments; a social transition
In the first phase of the classical conditioning process
an unconditioned stimulus elicits an unconditioned response.
avoidant attachment
attachments marked by discomfort over, or resistance to, being close to others
Ivan Pavlov is associated with the study of classical conditioning. This means that he studied how
organisms associate two different stimuli.
identity
our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles
authorative parenting
parents are both demanding and responsive, sets high goals, shows warmth
Habituation
A basic form of learning evident when an organism does not respond as strongly or as often to an event following multiple exposures to it.
Early maturing girls
More negative outcomes; social anxiety, higher risk of emotional problems and unhealthy and delinquent behaviors; lower self-confidence
Heredity versus environment is another of way of referring to the _____ debate.
Nature versus Nurture
Gender
- Dimension of masculinity and femininity based on social, cultural, and psychological characteristics
Zygote
-A single cell formed by the union of sperm and egg -Travels down fallopian tube while dividing into more cells
vocabulary explosion
-Around the second year of life, the rate at which a child learns new words begins to increase dramatically -By 5 or 6 years old, most children are fluent in their native language, although their vocabulary does not match that of an adult
Growing old with grace
-As of 2000, fewer than 5% of Americans older than 65 years lived in a nursing home -Most older adults in the United States enjoy active, healthy, independent lives -Positive emotions are more frequent; emotional stability increases; stress and anger decreases
Baumrind identified four parenting behavioral styles
-Authoritarian -Authoritative -Permissive -Uninvolved
Researchers report that difficult babies are unusually sensitive to parental input
-Children who have mothers with higher-quality parenting style were more likely to succeed academically and socially. -Children with detached and controlling mothers showed more difficulty in school adjustment. -These effects were magnified for difficult babies.
fetal period
-Clear sleep-wake cycles established -Under normal circumstances, all organs, systems, and structures fully developed at birth -Average birth weight is approximately seven pounds in North America -Brain approximately one-quarter the weight of adult brain
Adulthood: Cognitive Development: Middle adulthood and late adulthood
-Cognitive function does not necessarily decrease -After age 70, decline becomes more apparent; some skills become more refined •Crystallized intelligence •Fluid intelligence
Teratogens
-Embryo not protected from all environmental dangers -Teratogens can damage a zygote, embryo, or fetus -Damage depends on the agent, timing, and duration of exposure
Views of death are related to religion and culture
-Every culture has its own collection of ideas about death. -Like other developmental steps, the experience of death is shaped by countless social, psychological, and biological factors.
How exactly did you get your genes from your biological parents?
-Genes are found in chromosomes -Chromosomes are inherited from biological parents -The sperm and the egg both contain 23 chromosomes = 23 pairs -Twenty-third chromosome pair determines genetic sex •XX = female •XY = male
Middle adulthood
-Genes influence height and bone mass; exercise slows shrinking process -Wrinkles, sags, and skin spots may appear; hair thins and turns gray; hearing loss continues; eyesight may decline; bones weaken
Stages or Continuity
-Imprinting phenomenon -Sensitive and critical periods
Genotype
-Includes an individual's complete collection of genes -Does not change in response to environment, but interacts with it—outcome is not predetermined
synaptic pruning
-Increase in neural connections is not uniform in brain -Unused synaptic connections eliminated -Decrease in neural connection by 40% to 50% by puberty
Erikson's stage of ego identity versus role confusion
-Involves adolescent identity formation and trying out new roles -Influenced by positive resolution and success at earlier stages •Positive resolution = Stronger sense of values, beliefs, and goals •Negative resolution = Role confusion
conditioned taste aversion
-Involves powerful form of classical conditioning -Occurs when organism learns to associate taste of particular food or drink with illness -May have adaptive value
legal
-Law/Public policy -consequences for those who break the law -law controls what people can or cannot do -Society
Adulthood: Cognitive Development: early adulthood
-Measures of aptitude remain stable from early to middle adulthood -Processing speed begins to decline
multiples
-Monozygotic twins develop from one egg inseminated at conception -Dizygotic twins occur when two eggs are inseminated by two different sperm
sexually transmitted infections (STIs)
-More than 25% of girls between the ages of 14 and 19 years are infected with an STI -More than one-half of new infections affect 15- to 24-year-olds -Adolescent infections are especially risky; often untreated
The criticisms
-Most of the early work studied mothers; subsequent research should examine attachment to multiple caregivers -The artificial environment does not mirror the natural environment -Cross-cultural differences are not always addressed
Hereditary and environmental influences
-Nature and nurture -Trait research
Emerging Adulthood
-Occurs between the ages of 18 and 25 years -Involves a period of exploration and opportunity -Influenced by dependency on families for longer periods -Provides opportunities for seeking relationships, education, and new world views
Two important components of normal language acquisition
-Physical development, particularly in the language-processing areas of the brain -Exposure to language
Erikson
-Proposed human development is marked by eight psychological stages from infancy to old age -Suggested each stage is marked by a developmental task or an emotional crisis that must be resolved -Unsuccessful resolution results in difficulty at next stage
Kohlbergs stages of moral Development (Kohlberg)
-Proposed three sequential, universal levels of moral development -Focused on specific changes in beliefs about right and wrong -Noted that environmental influences and social interactions support continued moral development
Behaviorism
-Proposes that all behavior—including language—is learned through associations, reinforcers, and observations -Suggests that language is learned through positive attention to correct behavior and unpleasant attention to incorrect behavior
Phenotype
-Refers to observable characteristics of an individual -Includes unique physical, psychological, and behavioral characteristics
Rosenzweig's rats
-Rosenzweig and colleagues demonstrated how environment influences animal brain development -Rats with enriched environments experienced
Morals
-Rules of behavior -Conscience -Guidelines -Consequences -May only be strained behavior
overview
-Social and cultural factors influence cognition. -Children are apprentices in relation to more capable and experienced others.
language acquisition device
-The amount of language in the home correlates with SES -A lag in reading, math, and academic achievement in general is found in lower SES status children as they begin school
Rooting and sucking reflexes
-Unlearned patterns of behavior -Some necessary for survival (i.e., rooting, sucking) -Some fade early in life; many resurface as voluntary movements
Formal operations (Piaget)
-Use of deductive reasoning and critical thinking begins -Characterized by abstract reasoning, classification, symbol use, thinking beyond the moment, and considering many possibilities and hypothetical situations
Ethics
-Usually influences in fields of practice (law, medicine, politics) -Charged to not impose your personal morals/values on your clients -Apply to groups organization
Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development Criticisms
-Women's moral reasoning not represented; importance of caring and responsibility is discounted (Gilligan) -The theory is primarily applicable to Western, collectivist cultures -Moral behavior is defined, but it is not predicted
Automony vs shame and doubt
1-3 years old
Initiative vs. Guilt
1-6 years old
3 debates
1. Stages or continuity 2. Nature vs. Nurture 3. Stability and change
Researchers with the Human Genome Project have decoded the entire human genome, which contains about
21,000 DNA segments known as genes.
The sperm and egg both contain
23 chromosomes= 23 pairs
permissive parenting
A parenting style characterized by the placement of few limits on the child's behavior.
Depression
A prolonged feeling of helplessness, hopelessness, and sadness
Variable Ratio schedule
A schedule in which the number of desired behaviors that must occur before a reinforcer is given changes across trials and is based on an average number of behaviors to be reinforced.
fixed-interval schedule
A schedule in which the reinforcer comes after a preestablished interval of time goes by; the behavior is only reinforced after the given interval is over
variable-interval schedule
A schedule in which the reinforcer comes after an interval of time goes by, but the length of the interval changes from trial to trial.
fixed-ratio schedule
A schedule in which the subject must exhibit a predetermined number of desired behaviors before a reinforcer is given.
Biological Perspective
Acquisition as a result of in utero influences
The pairing of the NS (neutral stimulus) and US (unconditioned stimulus) occurs during
Acquisition phase
Social-cognitive perspective
Acquisition through active information processing and development of gender schemas
Stimulus Generalization
After Association is forged between Conditioned stimulus and Conditioned response, learner often responds to similar stimuli as if these are the original Conditioned response.
Positive
Always means increase
conditioned emotional response
An emotional reaction acquired through classical conditioning.
Androgyny
Androgyny is the combination of masculine and feminine characteristics. Usually used to describe characters or people who have no specific gender,
Which scenario exemplifies negative punishment?
Astrid sends her daughter to her room alone when she misbehaves.
partial reinforcement effect
Behaviors take longer to disappear (through the process of extinction) when they have been acquired or maintained through partial rather than continuous behavior
Scaffolding
Children are pushed to go just beyond what they are competent and capable of doing, while providing help in a decreasing manner
criticism
Cognitive stages with distinct characteristics; transitions are more likely continuous -Cognitive abilities underestimated •Object permanence occurs sooner •Formal operational stage may not be last stage; distinctions needed between adolescents and adults of various ages
Thorndike
Conducted famous experimental setup involved putting a cat ina latched cage called a puzzlev box and put treats outside of it. Each time the cat freed itself faster Attrubuted this to the law of effect. Also operant conditioning.
Operant conditioning
Connections between voluntary behaviors and consequences are made or associated.
Reinforcers
Consequences, such as events or objects, that increase the likelihood of a behavior reoccurring.
Acquiring behavior is to maintaining behavior as _____ reinforcement is to _____ reinforcement.
Continous, Partial
In _____ reinforcement, every instance of a behavior is reinforced.
Continuous
Models
Demonstrating behaviors that could be observed and imitated
Twenty third chromosome pair
Determines genetic sex
low-reactive infants
Do not respond to stimuli with great distress
Early adulthood
Early adulthood •Sensory systems, muscular and cardiovascular abilities are sharp •Hearing starts to decline; lifestyle choices affect health •Fertility-related changes occur
Physical Development: Adulthood
Early adulthood, middle adulthood, Late adulthood
Operant conditioning is associated with _____ and _____
Edward Thorndike; B. F. Skinner
cognitive development
Encompasses changes in memory, learning, language, and in intelligence, follows universal pattern through room for individual variation.
Human Development, also called developmental psychology
Examined psychical, Cognitive and Socio emotional changes across the lifespan.
Estrogen
Female sex hormone
temperament
From birth infants display characteristic differences in their behavioral patterns and emotional reactions
Early maturing boys
Generally a more positive experience; however: aggressive behavior, cheating, and temper tantrums are common
Erikson and adulthood; socio emotional development;middle adulthood;
Generativity versus stagnation
physical
Growth of the body from conception and continues until growth ends known as maturation.
Which scenario describes extinction?
Now that Alexis, a former cocaine user, no longer uses, her hands no longer shake and her heart no longer pounds when she hears a car pull into her driveway, like her dealer used to do in his car.
Adapative value
Helps organisms survive
Negative reinforcement _____ a given behavior.
Increases
Chromosomes are
Inherited from biological parents
Chromosomes
Inherited threadlike structures composed of deoxyribonucleic acid
Pavlov
Initially his dog's associate various stimuli with his assistant's footsteps. He then conditioned his dogs to salivate in response to auditory stimuli, such as bells, tones, and ticking.
Kohlbergs stages: preconvential level stage 2
Instrumental-relativist orientation: Moral behavior is determined by what is received in exchange
Erikson and adulthood; socio emotional development; Late adulthood
Integrity vs despair
Kohlbergs stages: Conventional level stage 3
Interpersonal concordance orientation: Moral behavior is determined by the approval of others
Erikson and adulthood; socio emotional development, Young adulthood
Intimacy versus isolation
Benefits of sign language
Introducing sign to children as young as 6 months may help them communicate before they use verbal speech Early use of sign may also provide a verbal advantage down the road when they enter elementary school
Classical conditioning applies to
Involuntary behavior
adolescent egocentrism
Involves intense focus on self and feelings of immortality Influences increased risk taking behavior
menarche
Involves the point at which menstruation begins •Can begin as early as age 9 or as late as after age 14; typical age is 12 to 13 years
Spermarche
Involves time when boys experience first ejaculation
Pre conventional moral reasoning
Kohlberg's first level of moral reasoning, emphasizing rewards and punishments; also consequences of good and bad
conventional moral reasoning
Kohlberg's second level of moral reasoning, emphasizing social rules
Post conventional moral reasoning
Kohlberg's third level of moral reasoning, emphasizing moral principles
Kohlbergs stages: Conventional level stage 4
Law and order orientation: Moral behavior is determined by strict adherence to societal laws
operant conditioning
Learn to link consequences with behavior through repeated pairing of consequence and behavior
classical conditioning
Learn to link different stimuli through repeated pairing of stimuli
A relatively permanent change in behavior or thinking due to experience is called
Learning
observational learning
Learning occurs by watching and imitating others.
latent learning
Learning that occurs without awareness and regardless of reinforcement, and is not evident until needed. Rats learned how to navigate mazes at remarkably different rates
Testosterone
Male sex hormone
Negative
Means to take away or remove
Research Methods in Developmental Psychology: longitudinal
Measure a single group at different points in time
Research Methods in Developmental Psychology: Cross-sectional
Measure groups of people of different ages at a single point in time
Research Methods in Developmental Psychology: Cross-Sequential
Measure groups of people of different ages, following them across different points in time
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
Molecule that provides the instructions for the development and production of cells
Schema
a collection of ideas that represent a basic unit of understanding
Positive reinforcement occurs when
a desirable stimulus is added following a behavior, increasing the likelihood of it occuring again.
classical conditioning
a learning process that occurs when two stimuli become associated with each other when an originally neutral stimulus is conditioned to elicit an involuntary response.
emerging adulthood
a period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many in Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults
secure attachment
a relationship in which an infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his or her caregiver
Learning
a relatively enduring change in behavior or thinking that results from experiences
Anger
a strong feeling of annoyance, displeasure, or hostility.
stimulus discrimination(differentation)nci
ability to differentiate between a particular CS and other significantly different stimuli.
recessive gene
cannot overcome the influence of the dominant gene
Three types of learning
classical conditioning, operant conditioning, observational learning
cognitive equilibrium
cognitive balance between a mental schema and environment
Sequence of acquisition
cooing, babbling, telegraphic speech
Negative punishment ____ a given behavior.
decreases
monozygotic twins
develop from a single fertilized egg and therefore have identical genes
embryo
developing stage of a multicellular organism
An introductory psychology student expresses an interest in growth and change during childhood and adolescence. Which upper-level psychology course should she consider taking next semester?
developmental psychology
Neutral stimulus
does not cause a relevant automatic or reflexive response
secondary reinforcers
does not satisfy biological needs effectiveness often tied to association with primary reinforcers may be seen in social interactions
cooing
early vowel-like sounds that babies produce
Stimulus
event or situation that evokes a response. With repeated exposure the stimulus is increasingly ignored and habituation ignored
dominant gene
governs the expression of inherited characteristics
ambivalent
having contrary feelings or attitudes, uncertain as to course of action; babies wanted their mothers but at the same time didn't
androgen
hormone that promotes masculine characteristics
Extinction
if the conditioned response is presented time and again without being accomponied by the unconditioned stimulus the association may fade. Conditioned response decreases and eventually dissappears.
concrete operational stage
in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events or physical things
formal operational stage
in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development during which people begin to think logically and more systematically about abstract concepts
babbling
making speech like but meaningless sounds
XY =
male
secondary sex characteristics
nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair
dizygotic twins
often called fraternal twins, occurring when two eggs each get fertilized by two different sperm, resulting in two zygotes in the uterus at the same time
Based on the textbook's discussion, B. F. Skinner is known for the study of
operant conditioning and shaping.
high-order conditioning
when a second neutral stimulus is paired with a conditioned stimulus instead of being paired with the original unconditioned stimulus, this occurs. Once a learned association has been made through classical conditioning, the new conditioned stimulus can be used to aquire new learned associations.
Continuous reinforcement
when an reinforcer is presented every time a target behavior is produced.
Partial reinforcement
when an reinforcer is presented intermittently not continuously.
spontaneous recovery
with presentation of a conditioned stimuli after a rest period the conditioned response may reappear The Conditioned response was not forgotten but suppressed during extinction.
Culture and Cognition
•A man and a boy work together threshing rice in the fields of Madagascar. What this child learns and how his cognitive development unfolds are shaped by the circumstances of his environment. •Children reared in agricultural societies may not acquire the same cognitive skill set as those raised in urban, industrialized settings.
Late adulthood
•Characterized by decline in physical and psychological functions •Vision declines (cataracts; impaired night vision) •Hearing declines; reaction time increases; information processed more slowly; memory deteriorates •Exercise fosters development of new neural networks
Socioemotional Development In Adolescence
•Relationships between teens and parents are generally positive, but most involve some degree of conflict. •Many disputes center on everyday issues, like clothing and chores, but the seemingly endless bickering does have a -
