Psych 2035 chapter 11 Gender and behaviour
gender bias in teachers' treatment of boys n girls in class - Boys are given more attention, given more help, praised more often, and scolded more often - Gender bias in academic and career counseling - males are suggested to go into the maths or science field/ pursue higher status career, even when girls' grades are higher in these areas
Schools roles
variability - race and socioeconomic status boundaries between males and females stereotypes have become less rigid since the 1980s
factors regarding to gender stereotypes
combines the statistical results of many studies of the same questions, yielding an estimate of the size of consistency of the variable's effect
meta analysis
traditional male stereotype is seen as more complimentary - belief that the male is the norm
Androcentrism
Perceived discrimination is related to increased depression, distress, and stress response. Sexual harassment is related to lower job satisfaction, less engagement at work, poorer physical and mental health, and posttraumatic stress disorder
Effects of sexism and sexual harassment
Gender differences are found in many cultures. Evolutionary psychologists argue these differences come from a time in which different demands were placed on males and females for survival. - aggression needed when it comes to competing with others spatial advantages relate to hunting
Evolutionary explanations
the state of being a male or female
Gender
actual disparities in behaviour between males and females, based on research observation
Gender differences
Males have more cerebral specialization than females. Thus, they depend more heavily on the right hemisphere for visual-spatial tasks, and on the left hemisphere for verbal tasks. Females have a larger corpus callosum, which allows greater communication between hemispheres when completing similar tasks.
Gender differences and brain organization
In most popular violent crimes that sentenced prisoners - 90% are males rape sexual assault murder assault
Gender differences in violent crime convictions
an individuals's perception of himself or herself as male or female
Gender identity
Sexism - discrimination against people on the basis of their gender Benevolent sexism - to have positive feelings toward an individual but still treat the person in restricting ways based on his or her gender.
Gender in workplace
a person's identification with the traits regarded as masculine or feminine (one's sense of being masculine or feminine)
Gender role identity
The concept of androgyny does have limits - embraces "moving beyond gender roles" as a way of perceiving themselves and others. - Instead of dividing human characteristics into masculine and feminine categories, we should use gender-neutral terms such as "instrumental" and "expressive."
Gender role transcendence
in the past, gender roles relate to survival resulted from divisions of labour - aggression in men --> hunting - nurturing in women allows for childrearing but these traditional roles dont make economic sense - advanced in technology and both parents can rear children
Gender roles in the past and future - why are they changing
widely shared beliefs about males' and females' abilities, personality traits, and social behaviour
Gender stereotype
phenomena where men employed in traditionally female fields are promoted more quickly than female counterparts Queen Bees can distance themselves from their gender identity by acting more masculine, but this perpetuates idea that only masculinity can lead to success
Glass elevator
Testosterone plays an important role in sexual desire for both men and women failed to link testosterone level to aggressive behaviour, bc aggressive behaviours can cause an increase in testosterone
Hormonal influence and sexual and aggressive behaviour
orientation toward action and accomplishment - masculine traits
Instrumentality
findings are inconsistent Differences in socialization occur as developmental changes in the brain are emerging and environmental experiences shape the brain. Type of task matters. Overall, male and female brains are more similar than they are different.
Limitations of brain organization explanations of gender differences
occurs when a child's behavior is influenced by observing others, who are called models According to social cognitive theory, young children are especially likely to imitate same-gender adults.
Observational learning
"involves behavior that is intended to hurt someone, either physically or verbally." Great differences depend upon the form that aggression takes Males are consistently more likely to engage in physical and verbal aggression. Males' aggression is associated with crime.
Personality and social behaviour - aggression
meta analyses show that females score somewhat lower than males on measures of GLOBAL self esteem - no support for a dramatic drop for girls during adolescence - differences in self esteem may not apply to all ethnic groups
Personality and social behaviour - self esteem
Diminished career aspirations - Young women continue to have lower career aspirations than young men with comparable backgrounds the ability and achievement gap - many women worry that they will be seen less feminine and less likely to attract a mate if they are too successful juggling withe multiple roles - women experience more conflicts when they have a family and a successful career - most men have one major responsibility, whereas women have 3 major responsibiltities, work, spouse, mother
Problems with the female role
Ambivalence about sexuality Many women have problems enjoying sex. - Girls are taught to deny or suppress sexual feelings - Girls are taught to emphasize pursuing romance over sexual experience -Sex is associated with fear of pregnancy and, sometimes, pain
Problems with the female role -Pt 2
pressure to succeed - pressure to succeed creates undue stress - particularly true for African American and Hispanic men. The emotional realm - cultural emphasis on suppressing the expression of emotions can lead to stress-related disorders. Suppressed emotions also can create problems in relationships
Problems with the male role
Obsession with sexual performance can create anxiety that interferes with sexual responsiveness Men may confuse feelings of intimacy and sex Sexualization of intimacy can cause inappropriate anxiety when men feel affection for another man, promoting homophobia Homophobia - intense fear and intolerance of homosexuality
Problems with the male role - sexual problems
gender differences are quite small and similarities typically outweigh the difference Gender accounts for a small proportion of the differences between individuals When gender differences are found, they do not mean that one gender is better than another. Differences seem larger, according to social role theory, because they are exaggerated in our culture. Differences also seem larger, according to social constructionism theory, because we construct our own realities in accordance with societal expectations.
Putting gender differences in perspective
Provide opportunities for success for disadvantaged group members and have more transparent policies for hiring and promotion. Adopt a clearly communicated zero-tolerance policy, safe ways to report violations, and diversity training
Reducing sexism and sexual harassment
achievement aggression autonomy sexuality stoicism
Role expectations for males - the 5 key attributes comprise the male
the marriage mandate The motherhood mandate expectations focus on heterosexual success - "learning how to attract and interest males as prospective mates" working outside the home (in addition to having a satisfying family life)
Roles expectations for females
172 studies shows that parents encourage play activities that are "gender-appropriate." Boys have less leeway to play with "feminine" toys than girls do with "masculine" toys The picture books parents buy tend to depict gender-stereotypic activities
Roles of parents
Females appear less often on TV, are less likely to be employed, more likely to be younger, and more likely to appear in secondary and comedy roles Males are more often shown as competent, reaching goals, and showing ingenuity TV commercials emphasize traditionally gender roles american children watch a lot of TV Those who watch more TV hold more stereotyped beliefs about gender than those who watch less TV the content of the commercial is very gender stereotypical
Roles of the media
around 2-3 yrs of age, children identify themselves as "male" or female and begin to organize their world along gender lines. then they develop gender schemas cognitive structures that guide the processing of gender-relevant information.
Self socialization
2 forms of economic discrimination 1. Differential access to jobs Women are less likely to hold positions with decision-making authority. 2. Differential treatment on the job Women still earn lower salaries for the same jobs.
Sexism and economic discrimination
Peterson and Hyde - men are slightly more likely to: - engage in sexual activity - have more sexual partners - have more permissive attitudes about sex men are more likely to engage in causal sex, use more pornography, and masturbate more - women are socialized to feel more guilt and shame in response to sex
Sexual attitudes and behavior
the acquisition of the norms and roles expected of people in a particular society
Socialization
men and women are similar on most psychological variables when there are differences, they are small exaggerated differences create costs in the workplace and in relationships
The gender similarities hypothesis
an unseen barrier that prevents most women and ethnic minorities from advancing to top-level professions may stem from the tendency for women to risk negative evaluation when she acts in ways that counter gender stereotypes
The glass ceiling
Quid pro quo harassment - expectation to give in to sexual demands in exchange for employment, raises, promotions, etc Hostile environment harassment - exposure to sexist or sexually oriented comments, cartoons, posters, etc
Two categories of sexual harassment in the workplace
refers to the coexistence of both masculine and feminine personality traits in a single person" - Bem androgynous individuals experience less restrictive constraints on their behavior and can function more flexibly. androgynous individuals experience less restrictive constraints on their behavior and can function more flexibly.
alternatives to traditional gender roles - Androgyny
is a person's identification with the qualities regarded as masculine or feminine." but not many want to conform to traditional gender roles -- experienced strain relationship satisfaction is lower in heterosexual couples with traditional gender role identities
alternatives to traditional gender roles - gender role identity
cerebral hemispheres are the right and left halves of the cerebrum, which is convoluted outer layer of the brain - the left hemisphere is more active in verbal and math processes, right is specialized in visual spatial skills and other nonverbal processes
brain organization
no gender differences in overall intelligence BUT there are subtle differences in specific cognitive abilities
cognitives abilities
meta analyses show there are no longer gender differences in general math performance or achievement exceptions - males are more positive towards maths - males start to outperform girls in complex math problem in HS - males outperform females at the high end of distribution researchers suggest that it is due to the differences in socialization - boys take more math courses, which stress porblem solving
cognitives abilities - math abilities
girls speaking sooner, have larger vocabularies and better reading scores boys - fairly better on verbal analogies 3-4x more likely to shutter 5-10x more likely to suffer from dyslexia
cognitives abilities - verbal
greatest gender difference - ability to perceive and mentally manipulate shapes and figures males consistently outperform females in the ability to perform mental rotation of a figure in 3 D
cognitives abilities -Spatial abilities
Women are more likely to express emotion, but women and men experience emotions equally - but when women have more power at work and in a relationships, they tend to interrupt more interruption is totally depends on the status the one who interrupts - more power
communication
Women are more likely to express emotion, but women and men experience emotions equally Women are more likely to express emotion, but women and men experience emotions equally
emotional expression
an orientation toward emotion and relationships - feminine traits
expressiveness
are cultural expectations about what is appropriate behavior for each gender
gender roles
culturally defined expectations about appropriate behaviour for males and females
gender roles
aka gender nonconformity Transgender individuals are those whose sense of gender identity differs from their biological sex at birth; they often reject gender labels gender fluidity is the notion that gender is an unstable continuum and can vary over time.
gender variance
hormones - chemical substances released into the bloodstream by the endocrine glands
hormonal influences
Hormones can exert powerful influences on the brain before birth. For example, female fetuses exposed to androgens (male hormones) in utero are born with masculine traits, including mental abilities and choice of toys and play behavior.
hormonal influences in prenatal gender differentiation
relational aggression = behaviors that hurt another's feelings (e.g., using the "silent treatment") indirect aggressions - behaviors that do not involve confronting the target directly (e.g., spreading rumors).
how females show their aggression
reinforcement and punishment gender roles are shaped by consequences Parents, teachers, peers, and others reinforce "gender-appropriate" behavior parents, and fathers in particular are much less tolerant of gender-inappropriate behavior, especially in their sons.
processes in gender role socialization
alcoholism and substance abuse disorders are more common in men Women are more likely to suffer from depression and anxiety. Females show higher rates of eating disorders linked to body image - consists of one's attitudes, beliefs and feelings about one's body - traditionally, pressure to be ultra thin has affected white and asian american females - trend is spreading to other ethnic groups and body insecurities are affecting males as well
psychological disorders
between 4-6, children tend to separate into same gender groups Play takes different forms for boys and girls boys and girls are critical of peer who violate traditional gender norms
roles of peers
unwelcome conduct on the basis of gender
sexual harassment
a person's preference for sexual partners of the other gender (heterosexual_, the same gender (homosexual), or both genders (bisexual)
sexual orientation
Both women who are seen as more vulnerable and women who are seen as stronger are more often targets of harassment. Women who have experienced interpersonal violence or gone against gender-role expectations are more likely to be harassed Minority women are more likely to be harassed than white women or men.
targets of harassment
