Psych 251 FINAL

DEEP STRUCTURE

"the shooting of the hunters was terrible" - could be 2 meanings ex. the shoot was bad or they got shot? - whereas the boy hit the ball or the ball was hit by the boy= only has one meaning

LEARNING DRIVEN BY REWARDS condition 2

(After several days of training) After repeated pairing of light with reward, animal learns to reach for lever as soon as light is presented. - light informs animal its gonna get reward so when reward comes its no longer surprising-> knew it was gonna come - Primary reward no longer elicits phasic dopamine response. - Now, onset of light causes a phasic burst of activity in dopamine neurons.

PROSPECT THEORY: Fourfold pattern of risk attitudes (graph)

- Low probability + high gain= risk seeking (5% of 100 or get 10$= take the 5%) - Low probability + Low loss= risk aversion (5% of loosing $100 or loosing $10= take the -$10) - High probability + high gain= risk aversion (95% chance of gaining $100 or getting $90= take the $90) - High probability + High loss= Risk seeking (95% of loosing $100 or loose $90= Take the 95%)

Controls on the IOWA GAMBLING TASK

- controls-> first picked A, B, C, D= exploring-> then started picking A, B but had big losses-> started just doing C+D - Orbital Frontal Patients overall picked A,B over C,D - kept going back to A,B despite losses - Controls skin response= sequence of stages-> first didnt know anything-> Not sure whats going on but A,B didnt seem great-> then could explain why not so great - Early pre punishment stage= Pick bad decks-> then pre hunch stage start picking more from good decks-> before they could even explain why - SCRS (skin conductance responses)= early no skin conductance response-> 2nd stage= increase-> larger for bad decks than good decks-> their brain already knows theres something wrong(pre-hunch stage)= emotional response-> increasing-> intuitive emotional part of brain picks up first then cog part picks up and makes better decisions earlier on

fMRI Diagram

- first initial dip= at first neurons are using up oxygen (dips)-> body corrects this with much larger increase of blood-> causing a peak cause it overcompensates - peak happens 5 seconds after stimulus flashed on screen - fMRI= slow signal-> takes 5 sec to respond but neurons are miliseconds - temporal resolution= where in time= MRI is bad but allows us to see where activity is happening

MENTAL LEXICON

- meanings of words - heiarchal idea - links between different objects-> semantic network - words we know are closer linked between same vs others - how closely a word is linked to other goes along ex. how often do words associate w/ chair-> table, sofa, rocking chair, cushion, table leg-> human leg

Universal sequence of language

- native speakers acheive fluency at early age - typical sequence of development - speech perception-> preceive our language/ recognize meaning before we can produce language-> specific ability to produce sounds happens later

Patients on the IOWA GAMBLING TASK

- no hunch stage - half didnt get to conceptual stage-> could explode why A,B are worse but kept picking even when knew why A,B= bad Why? - really deviate SCRs-> not much to begin w/ no distinction between decks-> when thinking about which deck to pick from didnt have anticipatory feeling "gut feeling"->feeling like bad descison

REFERENTIAL AMBIGUITY

- when we use words to refer back to other things before in the sentence - brain has to figure out what earlier thing it is referring ● When same word/phrase can refer to two different things within a sentence. Examples: ●John grabbed his lunch, sat on a rock, and ate IT. (the rock or his lunch?) ●Susan told Elizabeth that she had to write a paper. ●When a bright moon ends a dark day, a brighter one will follow. ●John loves his mother and Bill does too.

Grammatical, but meaningless

1. Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.

MITCHELL ET AL. (2008) First part

1. Search online text to find verbs near each noun Took celery (noun)-> what words are related? -> if know brain activity w/ words associated w/ celery-> then bring in participant and have them think about celery-> look at brain area used in fMRI - verbs associated w celery= eat, fills, eat - verbs associated w plane= fly, rode, lifted

SYNTAX & SEMANTICS ERP study - Syntactic processing

1. control 2. Syntactic violating(throw instead of throws) P=600-> see changes positive shift/ responses reflection syntactic + semantic changes but in diff parts of the brain N400= Wernickes area-> back behind ear posterior (semantic) N600= Syntactic much further forward anterior

Utility function graph

1. diminishing marginal utility: Utility function curves 2. Loss aversion: Utility function is steeper for losses than gains - relates to how we convert object utility to subjective utility - as objective value goes up subjective value doesnt go up - steeper curve on loss side than on gain side - loss is worse than equivalent gain

MITCHELL ET AL. (2008) Second Part

2. Identify brain areas whose activation is associated with different verbs: "think about the word eat" - looked at cortex while thinking about words - "eat"= activation of gustatory (taste) cortex - "run"= activation of temporal lobe-> area involved in motion - meaning is distributed throughout cortex eat= also activates areas of motion when eating

Ungrammatical and meaningless

2.*Furiously sleep ideas green colorless

Grammatical and meaningful

3. Colorful green ants crawl furiously.

MITCHELL ET AL. (2008) Step 3

3. Predict activation for nouns from verbs: - eat is gonna have a lot of activation when think of celery - fly probs wont - participants thought about fly, eat, ect-> looked at their predictions and related

MITCHELL ET AL. (2008) Step 4

4. Test predictions for nouns - did it as computer guessing game-> gave program all verbs and then asked what nouns were they thinking about - algorithm could read out what they were thinking just by brain activation - have had computer guess what people were thinking about by brain activation

Language

A systematic means of communicating information by the use of conventionalized sounds, gestures, marks, or signals having understood meanings. The function of human language is to influence people's behavior by changing what they know, think, believe, or desire.

MEANING IN THE BRAIN

Are relationships between concepts basic neural building blocks of meaning? Mitchell et al. (2008) 1. Find verbs that co-occur with nouns based on text analysis 2. Determine brain activation for each verb 3. Predict activation for nouns as summation of activation for related verbs 4. Test predictions...

MITCHELL ET AL. (2008) Conclusion

Are the relationships between concepts the basic neural building blocks of meaning? Conclusions ● Concepts are represented by highly distributed patterns of activation across the brain ● Perceptual and motor brain areas involved in representing meaning ● The association between concepts (as measured by co-occurrence of words) can be used to predict brain activation for those concepts - confirmed that concept are distributed across the brain - includes perceptual and motor abilities - relationship between meaning of words= more similar brain activity if words are related

PROSPECT THEORY

BEHAVIORAL ECONOMICS Descriptive approach: How do people decide? Prospect Theory (Kahneman & Tversky, 1979) ● Daniel Kahneman: Only cognitive psychologist to win the Nobel Prize (2002, in Economics) ● People do not make decisions based on expected values, probabilities, and absolute outcomes. ● People make decisions based on subjective utility, decision weights, and relative outcomes.

LEARNING DRIVEN BY REWARDS Conclusion

Conclusions: ● Activity of midbrain dopamine neurons is related to reward ● But dopamine neurons do more than simply report occurrence of reward ● They code deviations(variations) from predictions about time and magnitude(intensity) of reward - when surprised reward then fire - when know about to get reward fire when CS happens - when expect reward but dont get it-> worse than expected= neurons decrease firing-> negative reward prediction error/ revise behavior - Reward Prediction Error (RPE) = Actual Reward - Expected Reward RPE > 0, Better than expected RPE = 0, As expected RPE < 0, Worse than expected

LEARNING DRIVEN BY REWARDS Condition 1

Condition 1: (Before learning) - Monkey must touch lever after appearance of light to receive drops of juice. - Dopamine neurons are activated after the delivery of reward. - When reward= neuron fires more - monkey doesnt know how task works-> then gets reward-> then neurons fire-> after repeated training animal knows its gonna get reward-> now spike of dopamine when light comes on but no dopamine when reward

LEARNING DRIVEN BY REWARDS Condition 3

Condition 3: (Reward is not delivered) If monkey doesn't receive reward at expected time - Light flashes-> no reward! - Dopamine neurons decrease firing, for a short period of time, so activity is lower than baseline.

BROCA'S APHASIA example

Due to damage to Broca's area - can almost get some meaning from it but struggle to make grammatical sentences - trouble producing grammatical fluent language ● Patient asked to describe his problem: ● Well I had trouble with...oh, almost everything that happened from ...eh, eh...golly..., word I can remember, you know, is ah...when I had the ...ah biggest...a....that I had trouble with, you know....that I had trouble with ● Patient asked to describe his job: ● Lower Falls. . .Maine. . .Paper. Four hundred tons a day! And ah. . .sulfur machines, and ah. . .wood. . .Two weeks and eight hours. Eight hours. . .no! Twelve hours, fifte-en hours. .. Workin. . .workin. .. Workin! Yes, and ah. . .sulfur and. . .Ah wood. Ah. . .handlin! And ah sick, four years ago.

SYNTAX & SEMANTICS ERP study - semantic processing

ERP study of semantic processing: N400 ERP= often used for language - ppl reading-> presented sequences 1. normal 2. semantic abnormally = N400 (spred butter w socks) 3. Visually "shoes" stands out to make sure #2 the meaning was usual N400= Reflected processes of meaning wernickes N600= Syntactic much further forward brocas

SURFACE STRUCTURE

EX. the boy hit the ball or the ball was hit by the boy - on surface the words are different but in your mind you have a proposition - when say "boy hit ball" or "ball was hit by the boy you" focus the attention on who hit the ball/ what your emphasizing is different (what you want your listener to focus on either the boy or the ball)

SOURCES OF INFORMATION

Genes - Information learned on timescale of evolution Past experience - Information learned on timescale of a human life Internal state - Information learned on timescale of current episode Environmental context - Information learned now Proximal stimulus - The stimulus itself our brain is gonna use everything available to understand

IOWA GAMBLING TASK

Goal: Win as much money as possible - Had to pick one card of 4 the #= how much money they would win-> start out knowing how much money they need to make as much money as possible - 2 decks= Bad= A,B - good decks= C,D - bad= flip card-> win 100 but also loose a lot-> about half the time 150-350 - on average you end up expected value of bad= -25 - C+D= loose 50% to 10% but losses are less on average= expected value of +25 - win more on A,B but losses down out those winnings - C+D= win less but loose less= better

HANDEDNESS & LANGUAGE LATERALIZATION

Handedness: ● Right-handed: 70-90% ● Left-handed: 10% ● Cross-dominant/Mixed-handed: ~20% Language lateralization: ● Right-handed: 95% left-hemisphere dominant, 5% right-hemisphere dominant ● Left-handed: 70% left-hemisphere dominant, 15% right-hemisphere dominant, 15% bilateral

RESTAURANT EXAMPLE

Imagine you decide to eat at a new restaurant... No experience with menu, so you just try something: ● The food is good ● The food is bad For each of the cases above: ● Are you likely to go back to the restaurant? ● Next time you go to the restaurant: ●You have learned. ●Your expectations have changed. - outcome/reward (good food) or negative outcome (bad food) modifies our behaviour - next time you go you'll have lower expectations - we learn from consequences/ our actions - good restaurant but get bad food randomly do you go back? adjust behavior ● Are you surprised? ● Do you go back to the restaurant again? ● We make predictions and compare the real outcome with the predicted outcome. - Are you suprised?= "violation of an expectation" - Do you go back again?= "adjustment of a behavior" - We make predictions and compare the real outcome w the predicted outcome= "actual" outcome vs. "expected" outcome

Language Importance

Importance: ● Language is the basis for society. It allows us to interact with each other in a way that goes beyond our immediate surroundings. - important to communicate about what is not immediately infront of you ie. something not even there

LEXICAL & SYNTACTIC AMBIGUITY

Lexical but not syntactic ambiguity: ● She noticed the PORT. (1 phrase structure, 2 word meanings) ● Syntactic but not lexical ambiguity: ● I saw the man with the binoculars. (2 phrase structures, 1 word meaning) ● Syntactic and lexical ambiguity: ● We saw her duck. (2 phrase structures, 2 word meanings)

INTERACTIVE LANGUAGE NETWORK

Localization & distribution of processing: ● Broca's area (syntax & planning for production) ● Wernicke's area (word perception & semantics) ● Sensory cortices (e.g. auditory cortices for speech) ● Motor cortices (e.g. motor cortex for speech) ● Association cortices (semantics) Bottom-up & top-down influences Recurrent & interactive processing - language is a complex set of processes-> hearing/ reading words involves auditory/ visual cortex - meaning= highly distributed to different parts of the cortex

DOPAMINE PATHWAYS IN HUMAN BRAIN

Midbrain dopamine neurons project to basal ganglia, prefrontal cortex, and many other areas! - critical training signal - worse than expected= wanna modify so that doesnt happen - when food=good wanna modify so it happens again - reinforcement learning methods used in computation

MCGURK EFFECT

Misinterpretation due to conflicting stimuli - your understanding of speech hearing influenced by context it happens-> just hear audio hear pa-> see someone saying Ga-> perception of what you hear is Da - visual context influencing auditory speech

REWARDS AND THE BRAIN

Old idea about dopamine and rewards: Midbrain dopamine system signals pleasure/reward. BUT midbrain dopamine system does not simply signal reward: What does dopamine signal? And how was this shown? - not correct - related to reward but more subtle

REINFORCEMENT LEARNING

On average, people do not behave in a way economists would prescribe - How do we learn what choices to make? - What brain systems mediate this learning?

SUBJECTIVE UTILITY

People transform objective value into subjective(personal) utility(use) ● Utility = usefulness or desirability of an outcome ● Diminishing marginal utility ● Subjective utility increases more slowly than objective value, especially at large values ● $10 is subjectively worth twice as much as $5, but $10,000,000 is not subjectively worth twice as much as $5,000,000. - as object value goes up subject value increases slowly - 10,000000 and 5,000000 are both a lot of money doesnt matter which one you get-> getting more doesnt increase the value - subjectively things dont keep going up and up like objects ● Individual differences: Bill Gates versus me ● Individual differences in sensitivity to loss

HIERARCHICAL ORGANIZATION OF LANGUAGE (smallest to biggest)

Phoneme-> Morpheme-> Word-> Phrase -> Sentence

Expected Value (EV)

Prescriptive approach: How should people decide? ● Average outcome if a scenario is repeated many times ● Calculated using probabilities and values of possible outcomes - pick highest expected value and youll do as well on average as possible Example: a gamble ●75% chance of winning $200, ●25% chance of winning $0. ●EV = (.75 × $200) + (.25 × $0) = $150

LEARNING DRIVEN BY REWARDS Schultz, Dayan, & Montague (1997)

Single unit recordings from monkey's midbrain dopamine neurons in ventral tegmental area - neurons synapse all over the brain/ classic study recorded from middle neurons in brain

LEFT VERSUS RIGHT HEMISPHERE (study)

Split brain studies left hemisphere can name objects, right hemisphere cannot - in most people left hem= more important for language - studied split brain patient severing corpus callosum - normal person-> looking straight-> box in left visual field then goes to right visual cortex-> then to left visual cortex-> Then brocas area to talk about it - patient-> looking straight-> box in left visual field-> reaches right visual feild but doesnt go to left so they cant see it or talk about it - Patient-> looking staight-> box to right side-> reaches left cortex first rather then having to go to right-> thus can see it and talk about it - so if in right visual feild-> goes to left cortex can see and talk about it

MORPHEMES/WORDS: Past tense acquisition stages 1-3

Stage 1: - Small number of mostly irregular verbs: came, got, gave, looked, needed, took, went Stage 2: - Learns "-ed" rule: roll -> rolled, smile -> smiled - Regularization: rop -> ropped - Overregularization: give -> gived - verbs used to say correctly now say incorrect Stage 3: add irregular verbs back in - Corrects overregularization: give -> gave - U shaped learning curve

SURFACE AND DEEP STRUCTURE

Surface structure ● Phrase structure that applies to order in which words are actually spoken Deep structure ● Fundamental, underlying phrase structure that conveys meaning - meaning you actually intended

EMOTION & DECISION MAKING

Traditionally thought cognition and emotion as 2 different categories - cognition= rational - emotion= impulsive (old view) ● What role does emotion play in decision making? ● What brain areas mediate this role?

GARDEN PATH SENTENCES

We parse a sentence "online" as we read: The horse raced past the barn fell. The horse (that was) raced past the barn fell. The ball thrown past the barn fell. The ball rolled past the barn fell. Same sentence structure but different past experiences - brain tries to perceive it as we see it - brain starts guessing what word is gonna be as you heart it syllable by syllable - could have same sentence structure but we have different past experience with different words and how it has been used in the past - current context w/ certain organization= brain thinks its gonna have same meaning or context as first idea ex. Fruit flies like a banana. (Fruit flies)NP (like)VP (a banana)NP. Time flies like an arrow. (Time)NP (flies)VP (like an arrow)NP. Time flies like an arrow; fruit flies like a banana. (Time) (flies) (like an arrow); (fruit) (flies) (like a banana). - First half exerts contextual influence on second half

RETURN TO RESTAURANT EXAMPLE

You try restaurant for first time: ● What is RPE in each condition? (good, bad) ● What kind of dopamine activity would you expect? You successfully try restaurant a few more times: ● What happens to RPE? ● Dopamine activity? - each time you go get food= no reward prediction error(Actual Reward - Expected Reward)-> neurons stay at baseline prediction error After 4 great visits, food is just OK the 5th time you go to restaurant: ● RPE? ● Dopamine? - if food is just ok then reality= worse than expected-> prediction error= negative signal

MORPHEMES

a meaningful morphological unit of a language that cannot be further divided (e.g., in, come, -ing, forming incoming ). ● Smallest unit that signals meaning ● Combinations of phonemes ● Prefixes(a word, letter, or number placed before another), suffixes(morpheme added at the end of a word to form a derivative, ex. ing), roots, or entire words ● Many thousands per language ● Language specific rules for how to combine morphemes (morphology) ● Plural in English, e.g. cat -> cats ● Plural in Latvian, e.g. kaķis -> kaķi - ex. stronger-> er - 1000's in each language - the word "unhappy" consists of the prefix "un-" [which means "not"] combined with the root (stem) word "happy"; the word "unhappy" means "not happy." A suffix is a group of letters placed after the root of a word.

INTERACTIVE LANGUAGE NETWORK brocas purple, wenickes green

brocas purple, wenickes green - language is much more complex than just two areas - depends on an interactive network - reaccurent w top down bottom up

FMRI

functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Measures changes in magnetization, using electromagnetic - Neural activity -> Increased blood flow -> Change in magnetic field -> fMRI BOLD signal Used to be called radiation and nuclear magnetic resonance/ nuclear meaning effects on nucleus of atom not radiation - arent able to measure neural activity so instead measure changes in magnetic proportion of tissues - oxygenated vs deoxygenated hemoglobin= different magnetic feilds - how meaning is represented in the brain - shows internal structure of body in a non invasive way - can look at process ex. show image-> neurons in occipital lobe fire using the oxygen in blood for processes-> body pumps more blood to this active part of the brain-> measure change in blood oxygenation= bold

Executive Function

having the power to put plans, actions, or laws into effect - effects big plans like an operating system in a comp-> never use it directly but allows you to switch from different cognitive processes or on a comp then diff apps-> not a direct process but coordinates - have long term plans and can act in a way to get those plans can overcome whats directly infront of us - keeps track of our goals and guides us to achieve them

Four square explained

when your gonna gain not very much and theres a low probability you could gain a lot then youll be risky if your gonna loose a little but theres also a low probability you could loose none or more then your not risky if your gonna get a lot and theres a high chance you could even get a bit more or none at all then not risky (risk averse) if you have a lot to loose ($90) or you have the option to maybe loose none with a high probability but if you dont then you loose a little bit more then you originally would have you will be risk seeking

GRAMMAR/SYNTAX, How do we learn grammar? Chompsky= Universal grammar

● "Poverty of the stimulus": children are not exposed to enough examples to learn grammar without a "head start"-> children learn language fast and arent exposed to enough examples ● We have a hard-wired "language acquisition device" ● All languages follow same general rules, with different parameter settings ● Learning a language requires learning parameter settings (e.g. SOV versus SVO order in sentences)

SENTENCES

● A set of words/phrases that (in principle) tells a complete thought - shortest unit to express a complete thought - infinite number of sentences - combine sentences to form a paragraph ● Can express a statement, question, exclamation, request, command, or suggestion ● Almost limitless number ● Sentences can be combined to form larger linguistic units (e.g. paragraphs)

Advantages for using expected value:

● Clear prescription for "correct" choices ● Leads people, on average, to maximize monetary gains given what they know about the world ● Keeps people's decisions internally consistent

POWER OF HUMAN LANGUAGE

● Communicates information quickly/ immediate ● Facilitates an interactive social network-> gotten longer cus of fb and twitter ● Stores knowledge outside individuals ex. write it down and give it to someone ● Allows wisdom to accrue over generations ● Refers to any time or place, real or imaginary, things that arent present-> most animals communicate about whats there now ● Enables creative expression due to generativity and compositionality-> create ability to construct sentences

EMOTION & DECISION MAKING Bechara (1994)

● Compared control participants and patients with damage to orbital frontal cortex Orbital frontal patients (behind eyes) ● Perform normally on IQ tests ● Perform normally on tests of cognitive control ● Seem to make poor decisions in life... - make poor decisions and risks

IOWA GAMBLING TASK & OFC PATIENTS

● Compared control participants and patients with damage to orbital frontal cortex ● 100 deck choices per participant ● Asked participants what they thought about the decks ● Recorded deck choices ● Measured skin conductance responses (SCRs) at the time of decision making - SCRs= are a measure of anxiety at the time of picking ex."Sweaty palms"

Results of Iowa Gambling Task (Bechara et al., 1994)

● Conceptual knowledge alone did not lead to good decision making ● Predictions of expected emotions were necessary for good decision making ● Expected emotions came before conceptual understanding ● Patients with damage to orbital frontal cortex could not generate expected emotions ● Patients overemphasized immediate reward over long-term outcomes (temporal discounting) wanted immediate payoff couldnt look at bigger picture - wasnt that couldnt feel emotion, when had big loss there was a normal skin conductance but in decision making you need anticipatory emotional before/ to use past experience to inform new decisions-> why we avoid making past mistakes/ have feeling/memory of how bad it felt= could not generate expected emotions and thus couldnt gain a conceptual understanding of why C,D were better

MORPHEMES/WORDS: Challenges in learning words

● Detecting words in stream of speech ● Figuring out rules for combining morphemes to make words ● Figuring out what words mean - have to learn where word boundaries are/ gaps/ when hear another language were not used to then cant hear word boundaries - Words are not separate in speech, for example: what do you mean? is not what.......... do you mean? - need to learn how to conjugate words (vary according to voice, mood, tense, number, and person.)

Problems with using expected value:

● Difficult to apply for non-monetary decisions ● Doesn't explain actual choices by actual people!

RIGHT HEMISPHERE & LANGUAGE: Aprosodia

● Difficulty processing prosody(the patterns of rhythm and sound) ● Productive aprosodia: - Mono tone, "robotic" speech lacking emotional tone - Associated with damage to right hemisphere Broca's equivalent ● Receptive aprosodia: - Difficulty detecting and understanding emotional tone in speech - Associated with damage to right hemisphere Wernicke's equivalent - non dominant sides of both areas are still involved in language but subtle

WERNICKE'S APHASIA example

● Due to damage to Wernicke's area ● Speech sample from patient: ● Boy, I'm sweating, I'm awful nervous, you know, once in a while I get caught up, I can't get caught up, I can't mention the tarripoi, a month ago, quite a little, I've done a lot well, I impose a lot, while, on the other hand, you know, what I mean, I have to run around, look it over, trebbin and all that sort of stuff. Oh sure, go ahead, any old think you want. If I could I would. Oh, I'm taking the word the wrong wat to say, all of the barbers here whenever they stop you it's going around and around, if you know what I mean, that is tying and tying for repucer, repuceration, well, we were trying the best that we could while another time it was with the beds over there the same thing.

PHRASE STRUCTURE

● Each word is assigned a role ● Generative grammar: Rules specify what orders and combinations these roles can occur in ● Example rules: ● Sentence -> Noun Phrase + Verb Phrase ● NP -> (Article- point out nouns ex. the) Noun ● Verb(descrubes an action ex. hear) Phrase -> Verb Noun Phrase - taking a sentence-> analyzing it in terms of words + grammar - according to rules of generative grammar the way we can generate a sentence and know it is grammatical

AMBIGUITY LANGUAGE

● Examples of language with multiple interpretations ● Like illusions for perception, ambiguity can provide insight into cognitive processing of language ● Newspaper headlines ●Miners Refuse to Work After Death ●Panda Mating Fails; Veterinarian Takes Over ●Teacher Strikes Idle Kids ●Enraged Cow Injures Farmer With Axe ●Stolen Painting Found By Tree

SPEECH PRODUCTION/ depends on which parts of brain

● Fundamentally a motor act dependent on hierarchical planning-> moving muscles of vocal apparatus - can be thought of as an action w/ heirachale Depends on: - speech production= pre-frontal areas - Special to language= Broca's area - In left hemisphere only (in most individuals)

SPEECH COMPREHENSION= Wernickes area

● Fundamentally a perceptual process-> reading involves seeing but also perception ● Depends on the ventral "what" stream= ventral temporal lobe ● Wernicke's area ● In left hemisphere only (in most individuals) - back of temporal parietal occipital junctions/ left hemisphere

BROCA'S APHASIA/ red brain diagram

● Greatest difficulty with verbs, articles, pronouns (I, you) ● No verb(action) inflection ● Responses make sense but are ungrammatical ● Poor at judging grammaticality ● Difficulty reading and producing function words (a, and, for, ...) ● Problems with understanding and using syntax (to create well formed sentences) - better at understanding speech - deficit of planning + production of language - problem= sequences of words into fluent sentences - Red part on brain diagram= overlapping of all patients studied-> all had problems there - can make sense of what saying but awful grammar - words that link or describe= trouble - problem is more w/ syntax than semantics - understand individual words but trouble understanding who hit who ex. molly hit cheyenne= unsure who hit who

Semantics

● How meaning is derived from morphemes, words, phrases, and sentences - given a grammatical sentence how do we extract meaning

Language problem

● How to efficiently and expressively communicate information

GRAMMAR/SYNTAX, How do we learn grammar? Statistical pattern recognition

● In fact, children are able to learn grammar solely from examples ● General machinery in brain for detecting patterns is sufficient to learn rules of language as we actually practice them - derive rules from examples we hear - how much is hard wired in - exposed to wider variety of language than previously thought

RIGHT HEMISPHERE & LANGUAGE: Prosody

● Intonation, tone, stress, and rhythm ● Used for emotional state, form (statement, question, or command), irony or sarcasm, emphasis, contrast, and focus

Loss aversion

● Losses loom larger than gains ● Losing $20 feels worse than winning $20 feels good - loss of money feels worse than a gain feels better - when on the loose side ex. loose 1000 or 80% chance of loosing 2000= people will choose the gamble

EFFECTS OF CONTEXT & PAST EXPERIENCE: INTERACTIVE ACTIVATION THEORY

● Model of letter & word perception ● Integrates bottom-up and top-down processes - trying to perceive single letter our knowledge about how to spell/ words we already know influence us

Problems with relying on phrase structure alone

● One phrase structure, two meanings: -The shooting of the hunters was terrible. ● Two phrase structures, one meaning: - The boy hit the ball - The ball was hit by the boy

PHRASES

● Organized grouping of one or more words ● Play a particular role in grammatical structure of a sentence ● Almost limitless number ● Language specific rules for combining (syntax) ● E.g. "Joseph ate the apple." in English (SVO) ● E.g. "Yusif almani yedi." in Azerbaijani (SOV) - rules differ - combined to form sentences

REFERENCE DEPENDENCE: Framing Effect

● People make decisions based on gains and losses relative to a point of reference, not based on absolute outcomes. ● Changing the way a question is asked to create a different point of reference leads to different valuations and thus different choices - make decisions relative to a reference point - influenced by point of reference - change how you phrase - People tend to avoid risk when a positive frame is presented but seek risks when a negative frame is presented. (loosing feels worse than winning)

DECISION WEIGHT

● People transform objective probability into subjective decision weights ● Small probabilities (but greater than 0%) are overweighted - 1% feels like much more than 0% - when small probability we over weigh it - 51% feels about the same as 50% ● Large probabilities (but less than 100%) are underweighted - 99% feels like a lot less than 100% - 50% feels about the same as 51% - overweigh small probabilities and underweight large ones

Executive Function Problem, importance, challenge

● Problem: What are we trying to achieve, and how should we go about achieving it? ● Importance: To free us from the tyranny of the present, and act with regard to the future. ● Challenge: What to focus on, and when to switch? - effects how all operations behave (perception, action, attention, ect) - higher level system that helps us guide our long term goals

DECISION MAKING: Problem, importance, challenge

● Problem: What to choose out of all the options available to us? ● Importance: Our choices define who we are and how we interact with the world. ● Challenge: What are the options? What are the outcomes and how likely are they? What do we value? - infinite number of choses and we need to choose 1

WERNICKE'S APHASIA again

● Problems translating auditory input into phonological(sound structure, of words) forms that can then access semantics (the meaning of a word, phrase, sentence) ● Problems with language comprehension ● Problems with understanding and using semantics - problem comprehending/ perceiving the meaning of words - can fluently and grammatically produce words though

Morphology

● Rules for combining morphemes into words

Syntax

● Rules for combining words into phrases into sentences - the arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences in a language

Transformational grammar

● Rules that transform among surface structures having same deep structure - set of rules to convert sentences between structural representations - involves the use of defined operations called transformations to produce new sentences from existing ones

Words

● Smallest stand-alone units of meaning ● Combinations of one or more morphemes - strange+ er+s= strangers - can have a word alone (unlike a morpheme) ● 10-hundred thousand per language ● Language specific rules for combining (syntax) ● E.g. "happy child" in English ● E.g. "niño feliz" in Spanish (child happy)

PHONEMES

● Smallest unit of perceived speech ● Different phonemes in different languages - range from 10-150 phonemes - each language has rules about how phonemes are combined ex. in english-> pritos seems like more of a word than fpitose ● /l/ versus /r/ in English but not Japanese ● Tonal differences, e.g. Chinese ● Click sounds, e.g. Xhosa in South Africa ● 10 to 150 per language ● Language specific rules for combining (phonology) ● "pritos" okay, "fpitos" not okay ● "tlitos" not okay (but "tl" is okay in Tlingit language) - any of the perceptually distinct units of sound in a specified language that distinguish one word from another, for example p, b, d, and t in the English words pad, pat, bad, and bat

PHONEMES for children (snowflake graph)

● Smallest units of speech ● Actual sounds: phones ● Perceived sounds: phonemes Categorical speech perception ● Multiple phones are heard as same phoneme ● Evident by 6 months of age - "Perceptual magnet" effect= Categorical speech perception in 6 month old infants graph - play speech sound-> hear phonemes in categorical way - each different sound= different phoneme - which set of phonemes go together in a particular category - graph= each dot is a phoneme sound presented in 2 frequencys - centered around prototypical E sound in english - play same sound to 6 month old wont pay attention as much-> play diff sound see how they treat it as same or new sound - pick up essential sounds in native language= reasons why its hard to pick up a new language later in adulthood

WISCONSIN CARD SORTING TASK (WCST)

● Sort current card into deck 1, 2, 3, or 4, diff in color shape and number - take current card and decide what deck it belongs to-> not told how your supposed to sort it just guess and it will tell u if correct or incorrect ● Figure out sorting rule (color, shape, or number) from feedback ● Continue sorting ● After a while, once participant figures out rule without any indication, rule changes... - control= not to hard - participants that had executive control problems=

BROCA'S APHASIA Features

● Speech is labored, slow & nonfluent with awkward articulation - no intonation= rise and fall of voice while talking - slow non fluent production ● Phonemic errors, e.g. pelsil for pencil ● Written output shows same errors as speech ● Better fluency for memorized phrases: "how are you?" can do fluent ● Singing may be more fluent than speech/ highly trained pre programmed ● Comprehension is relatively spared ● Problems with language planning and production/ new language (not a motor problem!)

WERNICKE'S APHASIA

● Speech is phonetically & grammatically normal but meaningless ● Generally fluent, unlabored, well articulated but doesnt make sense ● Normal intonation= rise and fall of voice while talking (prosody) ● Words used inappropriately, nonsense words, "word salad" ● Meaning expressed in roundabout way (circumlocution) ● Comprehension is severely impaired - problem taking sounds they hear and converting it to something they understand

People make decisions based on individual:

● Subjective utilities Diminishing marginal utility & loss aversion ● Decision weights Underweight large probabilities & overweight small probabilities ex. overweight 0%-1%, underweigh 99%-100% Relative outcomes ● Reference dependence, gain & loss framing

Language Challenge

● The power of language lies in the seemingly conflicting needs for it to be shared between people and yet capable of expressing novel ideas. - on one hand for it to be powerful you need to be able to express all you anticipated but someone else also needs to be able to figure out what you mean

DECISION MAKING timescale, importance, topic

● Vast range of decisions Timescale ● Milliseconds: Batter swinging at a pitch ● Days: Choosing a University to attend Importance ● Minor: Salt & Vinegar or BBQ potato chips ● Major: Marriage Topic ● Navigation(ex. which route to take), Sustenance, Relationships, Time management, Money...

fMRI Pros vs cons

● Very good spatial resolution (millimeters) ● Ok temporal resolution (seconds) ● Non-invasive ● Low risk ● Very high magnetic field (1 to 5 Tesla) ● Risks include flying unsecured metallic objects, shifting internal metallic objects

GENERATIVITY OF LANGUAGE Noam Chomsky

● We (including children) combine words in novel ways to express novel ideas ● Thus language learning cannot be based solely on imitation, association, and reinforcement ● We must learn a set of rules (grammar) that can be applied in a generative way ● Language must be determined by an inborn biological program - argued even children can express ideas in novel ways/ generate sentences they have never heard - showed why behaviourism wasnt language because we dont just repeat what we hear= inborn biological process (still up for debate) - have a set of rules we use to generate sentences - to what extent are the rules of language hard wired into our brain and what are learned

LEXICAL(word) AMBIGUITY(obscurity)

● When a word has two different meanings Examples: ● He was bothered by the cold. ● Drunk gets nine months in violin case. ● She noticed the port. ● Rose rose to put rose roes on her rows of roses. ● Rose [a person] rose [stood] to put rose [pink colored] roes [fish eggs as fertilizer] on her rows of roses [flower]. ● Buffalo buffalo Buffalo buffalo buffalo buffalo Buffalo buffalo. ● Bison from Buffalo, NY, whom bison from Buffalo, NY bully, bully bison from Buffalo, NY. - a single word spoken-> multiple meanings same grammatical stucture but two interpretations - multi meanings words can have

SYNTACTIC(arrangement of words) AMBIGUITY

● When same words can be grouped together into more than one phrase structure. ● Example: They are cooking apples. ●I saw the gorilla in my pajamas. (How it got in my pajamas, I'll never know.) ●Police help dog bite victim. ●I saw the man with the binoculars. ●We saw her duck. ●The chicken is ready to eat - two possible phrase structures - given sequence of words could be interpreted as multiple different phrase structures - two different ways to come up w structure that could explain sequence of words - what gets grouped together in the sentence

COMPONENTS OF EXECUTIVE FUNCTION: Working memory maintenance:

● Working memory maintenance: Which rules have I already tried?