psych 310 final
71. Use the three causal criteria to analyze an experiment's ability to support a causal claim.
1. Covariance. Do the results show that the causal variable is related to the effect variable? Are distinct levels of the independent variable associated with different levels of the dependent variable? 2. Temporal precedence. Does the study design ensure that the causal variable comes before the outcome variable in time? 3. Internal validity. Does the study design rule out alternative explanations for the results?
48. Explain ways to increase the construct validity of questions by preventing respondent shortcuts (such as yea-saying), biases (such as trying to look good), or simple inability to report.
1. acquiescence "yea-saying": use reverse worded items (may slow people down so they answer more carefully and actually read the statement) 2. fence sitting: use forced-choice question formats3. social desirability (trying to look good): to avoid this, a researcher might make the survey anonymous, ask people's friends to rate them, use computerized test such as the Implicit Associations Test
98. Explain the basic logic of three-way factorial designs.
-If there is a 3-way interaction, it means the 2-way interactions are different, depending on the level of a third IV. *Ex: breaking onset time & cell phone use. The interaction is affected by the level of traffic
99. Determine, from a graph, whether a study shows a three-way interaction.
-If there is a graph of 2 variables & then it shows a third variable change the effects given
32. Explain why many psychologists use animals in research, and describe the role of an institutional animal care and use committee (IACUC) and the Animal Welfare Act in protecting the welfare of animals in research.
-They use them because they can't use humans. -Instiution animal care and use committee -The IACUC must approve any animals research project before it can begin. It must contain at least three members : A veteran, a practicing scientist who is familar with the goals and producers of animal research, and a member of the community at large. -IACUC requires researchers to submit an extensive protocol that specifies ow animals will be used. -Animals Care Guidelines and the Three R's Replacement: researchers should find alternative to animals in research when necessary Refinement: researchers must modify experimental procedures and other aspects of animal care to minimize or eliminate animal distress Reduction: researchers should adopt experimental designs and procedures that require the fewest animal subjects possible
29. Describe what institutional review boards do and who serves on them.
-a committee responsible for interpreting ethical principles and ensuring the research using human participants is ethical-5 people from specific background. Scientist, academic interest outside science, community member
49. Describe how observational techniques for measurement differ from survey techniques.
-more frequency claims -richer/more accurate than polls -more direct -no bias from participants (confounds) Observational Techniques include more frequency claims, richer info/more accurate than polls, more direct, and no bias from participants (confounds)In surveys, participants self report data and researchers analyze that data later
30. Describe what deception is, and explain when deception is considered permissible in a study.
-researcher witheld some details of the study from participants - actively lied to them -sometimes deceptions is needed for a study to be successful -must be debriefed
64. Explain why experiments are superior to multiple-regression designs for controlling for third variables.
1) problems if predictors are correlated 2) need large sample size 3) doesn't address temporal precedence 4) can't control for variables you didn't measure
83. Identify effect size d and statistical significance, and explain what they mean for an experiment.
A statistically significant result suggests covariance exists between the variables in the population from which the sample was drawn. d- this measure represents how far apart two experimental groups are on the dependent variable. It indicates not only the distance between the means, but also how much the scores within the groups overlap. The standardized effect size, d, takes into account both the difference between means and the spread of scores within each group (the standard deviation). When d is larger, it usually means the independent variable caused the dependent variable to change for more of the participants in the study. When d is smaller, it usually means the scores of participants in the two experimental groups overlap more
94. Describe interactions using terms such as "it depends" or "especially for."
Another way to describe interactions involves key phrases. Some interactions, like the crossover interaction between memory and expertise, can be described using the phrase "it depends" as in: "The memory capacity of children depends on their level of expertise."
80. Interrogate the construct validity of a manipulated variable in an experiment, and explain the role of manipulation checks and theory testing in establishing construct validity.
Ask how well the researchers manipulated (or operationalized) them. Manipulation check: an extra dependent variable that researchers can insert into an experiment to them that their experimental manipulation worked. Likely to be used when the intention is to make participants think or feel certain ways. Example: Researchers were interested in investigating whether humor would improve students memory of a college lecture. Students were randomly assigned to listen too a serious lecture or one punctuated by humorous examples. To ensure that they actually found the humorous lecture than the serious one, students rated the lecture on how "funny" and "light" it was. These items were in addition to the key dependent variable, which was their memory for the material. As expected the students in the humorous lecture condition rated the speaker as funnier ad lighter than the students in the serious lecture condition. The researchers concluded that the manipulation worked as expected
73. Describe random assignment and explain its role in establishing internal validity.
Assigning participants at random to different levels of the independent variable- by flipping a coin, rolling a die, or using a random number generator- controls; for all sorts of potential selection effects.
57. Distinguish an association claim, which requires that a study meet only one of the three rules for causation (covariance), from a causal claim, which requires that the study also establish temporal precedence and internal validity.
Association is a relationship between two variables from interaction and dependence. Causation is when one variable is the cause of the other all 3 criteria.
53. Analyze a correlational study, in which at least one variable is categorical, by looking at a bar graph and computing the difference between the two means.
Basically you calculate the means and use a t test to see if the group difference in the means (group averages) is statistically signifigant.
75. Describe how the procedures for independent-groups and within-groups experiments are different. Explain the pros and cons of each type of design.
Both of these studies used an Independent-groups design: different groups of participants are placed into different levels of the independent variable. Also called a between-subjects design or between-groups design. In the notetaking and pasta bowl studies, there were different participants at each level of the independent variable. In the notetaking study, some participants took notes on laptops and others took noes in longhand. In the pasta bowl study, some participants were in the large-bowl condition and others were in the medium-bowl condition. In a within-groups design: there is only one group of participants, and each person is presented with all levels of the independent variable. Also called a within-subjects design. For example, Mueller and Oppenheimer might have run their study as a within-groups design if they had asked each participant to take notes twice- once using a laptop and another time handwritten.
45. Describe the different ways questions can be worded:
open-ended, forced-choice, and using rating scales. open-ended: allows participants to answer in any sort of way forced-choice: only have two options rating scale: based on what they feel towards the subject of the question
17. Describe a variable both as a conceptual variable and as an operational definition.
Conceptual variable when researchers and journalist discuss theories or write about research they use conceptual- level language. abstract concepts such as "shyness" or "intelligence". also sometimes called a construct and need to be defined at the theoretical level. Operational definition is used to test hypotheses with empirical research. to operationalize means to turn a concept of interest into a measured or manipulated variable .(p.57-58)
78. Describe counterbalancing, and explain its role in the internal validity of a within-groups design.
Counterbalancing: present the levels of the independent variable to participants in different sequences. With counterbalancing, any order effects should cancel each other out when all the data are collected. Order effects: when exposure to one level of the independent variable influences responses to the next level
72. Explain why control variables can help an experimenter eliminate design confounds.
Design confound: an expirementor's mistake in designing the independent variable; it is a second variable that happens to vary systemically along with the intended independent variable and therefore is an alternative explanation for the results. Control variables: Allow researchers to separate one potential cause from another and his eliminate alternative explanations for results. Control variables are therefore important for establishing internal validity. When are experiment has a design confound, its has poor internal validity and cannot support a causal claim. Because the van Kleef did not have any apparent design confounds, its internal validity is sound. The researchers carefully though about confounds in advance and turned the, into control variables instead. The researchers took steps to help them justify making a causal claim.
84. Review three threats to internal validity: design confounds, selection effects, and order effects.
Design confound: an expirementor's mistake in designing the independent variable; it is a second variable that happens to vary systemically along with the intended independent variable and therefore is an alternative explanation for the results. Selection effects: When the kinds of participants in one level of the independent variable are systematically different from those in the other. They can also happen when the experimenters let participants choose (select) which group they want to be in. A selection effects may result if the experimenters assign one type of person (e.g., all the women, or all who sign up early in the semester) to one condition, and another type of person (e.g., all the men, or all those who want until later in the semester) to another condition. Order effects: when exposure to one level of the independent variable influences responses to the next level. Practice effects: a long sequence might lead participants to get better att the task, or to get tired or bored in the end. Carryover effects: some form of contamination carries over from one condition two the next. Example, image sipping orange juice right after brushing your teeth; the first taste contaminates your experience of the second one.
13. Read empirical journal articles with a purpose.
Do not read every word of every article form beginning to end. instead ask two question 1) what is the argument? 2) what is the evidence to support the argument ? the answer to the first step is to read the abstract, which provides and overview of the study. after reading ht abstract skip to the end of the intro to find the primary goals and hypotheses of the study. in an empirical article the evidence is contained in the method and results sections (p.46)
12. List the forms that research-based information can take: empirical journal articles, review journal articles, books, and chapters in edited books.
Empirical journal articles report, for the first time, the results of an (empirical) research study. Empirical articles contain details about the study's method, the statistical tests used, and the results of the study. Review journal articles provide a summary of all the published studies that have been done in one research area. A review article by Anderson and his colleagues (2010), for example, summarizes 130 studies on the effects of playing violent video games on the aggressive behavior of children. Sometimes a review article uses a quantitative technique called meta-analysis, which combines the results of many studies and gives a number that summarizes the magnitude, or the effect size, of a relationship. In the Anderson review (2010), the authors computed the average effect size across all the studies. This technique is valued by psychol- ogists because it weighs each study proportion- ately and does not allow cherry-picking particular studies.Before being published in a journal, both empirical articles and review articles must be peer-reviewed (see Chapter 1). Both types are con- sidered the most prestigious forms of publication because they have been rigorously peer-reviewed. An edited book is a collection of chapters on a common topic; each chapter is written by a differ- ent contributor. psychologists do not write many full-length scientific books for an audience of other psychologists. Those books that have been published are most likely to be found in academic libraries.
7. Describe why experience usually has no comparison group and usually has confounds.
Experience has no comparison group because when asked the critical question compared to what? there is no comparison. comparison groups are important because centuries ago doctors would drain patients of their blood to cure their illness and those who died died because the patient was too sick to recover. there was no comparison group it was only based off of the doctors personal experience, which we now know is horribly inaccurate. it has confounds (confusions) when you think one thing caused an outcome but in fact other things changed, too, so you're confused about what the cause really was
18. Indicate how many variables frequency, association, and causal claims typically involve.
Frequency claims describe a particular rate or degree of a single variable. Association claims argues that one level of a variable is likely to be associated with a particular level of another variable. variables that are associated are said to correlate meaning if one changes so does the other Casual claims argues that one of the variables is responsible for changing the other. uses two variables (p.63-64)
85. Identify the following nine threats to internal validity: history, maturation, regression, attrition, testing, instrumentation, observer bias, demand characteristics, and placebo effects.
History threats: result from a "historical" or external factor that systematically affects most members or the treatment group at the same time as the treatment itself, making it unclear whether the change is caused by the treatment received. To be a history threat, the external factor must affect most people in the group in the same direction (systematically), not just a few people (unsystematically). A comparison group can help control for history threats. In the Go Green study, the students would need to measure the kilowatt usage in another, comparable dormitory during the same 2 months, but not give the student's in the second dorm the Go Green campaign materials. If both groups decreased their electricity usage about the same over time, the decrease probably resulted from the change of seasons, not from the Go Green campaign. However, if the treatment group decreased its usage more than the comparison group did, you can rule out the history threat. Maturation: a change in behavior that emerges more or less spontaneously over time. People adapt to changed environments; children get better at walking and walking; plants grow taller- but not because of any outside intervention. It just happens. Regression: a statistical concept called regression to the mean. When a group average (mean) is unusually extreme at time 1, the next time that group is measured (time 2), it is likely to be less extreme- closer to its typical or average performance. The change would not occur because of the treatment, butt simply because of the regression to the mean, so in this case there would be an internal validity threat. Attrition: In studies that have a pretest and protest, attrition is a reduction in participant numbers that occurs when people drop out before the end. Attrition can happen when a pretest and posttest are administered on separate days and some participants are not available on the second day. An attrition threat becomes a problem for internal validity when attrition is systematic; that is, when only a certain kind of participant drops out. Testing: refers to a change in the participants as a result of taking a test (dependent measure) more than once. People might have become more practiced at taking the test, leading two improved scores, or they may become fatigued or bored, which could leave to worse scores over time. Instrumentation: occurs when a measuring instrument changes over time. In observational research, the people who are coding behaviors are he measuring instruments, and over a period of time, they might change their standards for judging behavior by becoming more strict or more lenient. Observer bias: occurs when researchers' expectations influence their interpretation of the results. Demand characteristics: a problem when participants guess what the study is supposed to be about and change their behavior in the expected direction.Placebo effects: occurs when people receive a treatment and really improve- but only because the recipients believe they are receiving a valid treatment.
100. Interpret key words that indicate factorial-design language in a journal article.
If they use a 2x2 design, 2x2x2 design, etc. Indicates the # of IVs in the study, as well as how many levels there were-In the Results section may use the term "significant" and have the notation of "p< .05" with an asterisk to indicate that a main effect or interaction is statistically significant.
93. Describe an interaction as a "difference in differences."
In a factorial design with two independent variables, the first two results obtained are the main effects for each independent variable. The third result os the interaction effect. Whereas the main effects are simple differences, the interaction effect is the difference in differences.
79. Interrogate the construct validity of the measured variable in an experiment.
In an expirement researchers operationalize two constructs: IV and DV. When you interrogate the construct validity on an expirement you should ask about the construct validity of these variables. How well they are measured and manipulated.
60. Interpret different possible outcomes in cross-lag correlations, and make a causal inference suggested by each pattern.
In cross lag correlations we investigate how people change over time. 1- there is no correlation between the two sets variables. 2- there is correlation between only one set of the variaqbles. 3- There correlation between both sets of variables.
81. Interrogate two aspects of external validity for an experiment (generalization to other populations and to other settings).
In interrogating external validity in the context of causal claims you ask whether the causal relationship can generalize to other people, places, and times. You should ask how the experimenters recruited their participants. External validity also applies to the types of situations too which an experiment might generalize. For example the van Kleef study used pasta, but other researchers in the same lab found that late serving containers also cause people too consume more soup, popcorn, and snack chips.
91. Explain two reasons to conduct a factorial study. Factorial design: one in which there are two or more independent variables (also referred to as factors).
In the most common factorial design, researchers cross the two independent variables; that is, they study each possible combination of the independent variables. Strayer and Drews created a factorial design to test whether rather effect of driving while talking on a cell phone depended on the drivers age. They used two independent variables (cell phone use and driver age), creating a condition representing each possible combination of the two. To cross the two independent variables, they essentially overlaid one independent variable on top of another. This overlay process created four unique conditions, or cells: younger drivers using cell phones, younger drivers not using cell phones, older drivers using cell phones, and older drivers not using cell phones. There are two independent variables (two factors)- cell phone use and age- and each one has two levels (driving while using a cell phone or not; younger or older driver). This particular design is called a 2x2 (two by two). Factorial design, meaning that two levels of one independent variable are crossed with two levels of another ikdepmen variable. Since 2x2=4, there are four cells in this design. -One reason researchers conduct studies with factorial designs is to test whether an independent variable effects different kinds of people, or people in different situations, in the same way. -When researchers test an independent variable in more than one group at once, they are tasing whether the effect generalizes. -The process of using a factorial design to test limits is sometimes called testing for moderators. -Can test theories. The goal of most experiments in psychological science is to test hypotheses derived from theories. Indeed, many theories make statements about how variables interact with one another. The best way to study how variables interact is atto combine them in a factorial design and measure whether the results are consistent with the theory.
69. Distinguish measured from manipulated variables in a study.
Manipulated variables: controlled, such as when the researchers assign participants to a particular level (value) of the variable. Measured variables: take the form of records of behavior or attitudes, such as self-reports, behavioral observations, or physiological measures.
90. Describe three causes of within-group variance—measurement error, individual differences, and situation noise—and indicate how each might be reduced.
Measurement error: a human or instrument factor that can inflate or deflate a person's true score on the dependent variable.Solution: use reliable, precise tools. When researchers use measurement tools that have excellent reliability (internal, inter-rated, and test-retest), they can reduce measurement error. When such tools also have good construct validity, there will be a lower error rate as well. More precise and accurate measurements have less error. Solution 2: measure more instances. One solution to measuring badly is to take more measurements. When a tool potentially causes a great deal of random error, the researcher can cancel out many errors simply by including more people in the sample. The error cancel each other out. Individual differences: They can be a problem in independent-groups designs. Solution 1: add more participants. The more people you measure, the less impact any single person will have on the group's average. Adding more participants reduces the influence of individual differences within groups, thereby enhancing the study's ability to detect differences between groups. Solution 2: Change the design. One way to accommodate individual differences is to use a within-groups design instead of an independent-grourps design. Within-groups designs control for irrelevant individual differences, and they require fewer participants than independent-groups designs. Situation noise: external distractions Solution: carefully controlling the surroundings of an experiment. Articulate how a factorial design works.
61. Explain how multiple-regression designs are conducted.
Need to measure your independent and dependent, but all several others (participant characteristics)
87. Articulate the reasons that a study might result in null effects: not enough variance between groups, too much variance within groups, or a true null effect.
Null effect: a result without the expected content: that is, the proposed result is absent.Weak manipulation: When you interrogate a null result, then, it's important to ask how the researchers operationalized the independent variable. In other words, you have to ask about construct validity. The researcher might have obtained a very different pattern of results if he had given $0.00, $5.00, and $150.00 to the three groups. The educational psychologist might have found reading games improve scores if done daily for 3 months rather than just a week. Insensitive measures: Sometimes a study finds a null result because the researchers have not used an operationalization of the dependent variable with enough sensitivity. It would be like asking a friend who hates spicy food to taste your two bowls of salsa; he's simply call both of them "way too spicy." When it comes to dependent measures, it's smart to use ones that have detailed, quantitative increments- not just having two or three levels. Ceiling effect: all the scores are squeezed together at the high end. In a floor effect, all the scores cluster at the low end. Reverse confound: A study might be designed in such a way that a design confound actually counteracts, or reverses, some true effect of an independent variable. In the money and happiness study, for example, perhaps the students who reserved the most money happened to be given the money by a grumpy experimenter, whole those who received the least money were exposed to a more cheerful person; this confound would have worked aghast any true effect of money on mood. -If, after interrogating these possible obscuring factors, you find that the experiment was conducted in ways that maximized its power and yet still yielded a non significant result, you can probably conclude the independent variable truly does not affect the dependent variable.
19. Describe positive, negative, and zero associations.
Positive association is when high goes with high and low goes with low or positive correlation Negative association high goes with low and low goes with high zero associations is no association between variables (p.62)
76. Identify posttest-only and pretest/posttest designs, and explain when researchers might use each one.
Posttest-only design: participants are randomly assigned to independent variable groups and are tested on the dependent variable once. Pretest/posttest design: participants are randomly assigned to at least two different groups and are tested on the key dependent variable twice- once before and once after exposure to the independent variable. -Researches might use a pretest/posttest design if they want to study improvement over time, or to be extra sure that two groups were equivalent at the start- as long as the trees does not make the participants change their more spontaneous behavior.
50. Explain ways to improve the construct validity of observations by reducing observer bias, observer effects, and target reactivity.
Preventing observer bias and observer effects 1. Codebooks: precise statements of how the variables are operationalized 2. Using multiple observers does not eliminate anyone's biases, but if two observers of the same event agree on what happened, the researchers can be more confident 3. Masked design/blind design: in which observers are unaware of the purpose of the study and the conditions to which participants have been assigned Reactivity: a change in behavior when study participants know another person is watching 1. unobtrusive observations: make yourself less noticeable (blend in) 2. wait it out: participants used to their presence before beginning observation 3. measure behavior: Instead of observing behavior directly, researchers measure the traces a particular behavior leaves behind
37. Describe the difference between the validity and the reliability of a measure.
Reliability = consistency Validity = Measuring what you intend Something can be reliable and not be valid, but validity implies at least some degree of reliability.
77. Explain the difference between concurrent-measures and repeated-measures designs.
Repeated-measures design: a type of within-groups design in which participants are measured on a dependent variable more than once, after exposure to each level of the independent variable. Concurrent-measures designs: participants are exposed to all the levels of an independent variable a roughly the same time, and a single attitudinal or behavioral preference is the dependent variable.
21. Apply the three criteria used to evaluate a causal claim:
covariance, temporal precedence, and internal validity. Co-variance-is the first criterion a study must satisfy in order to establish a casual claim Temporal precedence-means that it comes first in time, before the other variables Internal Validity- or third variable criterion means that a study should be able to eliminate alternative explanations explanations for the association.(p.72 & 65)
82. Explain why experimenters usually prioritize internal validity over external validity when it is difficult to achieve both.
Researchers usually prioritize experimental control- that is, internal validity. To get a clean, confound-free manipulation, they may have to conduct their study in an artificial environment like a university laboratory. Such locations may not represent situations in the real world. Although it's possible to achieve both internal and external validity in a single study, doing so can be difficult. Therefore, many experimenters decide to sacrifice real-world representativeness for internal validity.
43. Describe how scatterplots, r, and known groups can be used to evaluate predictive, concurrent, convergent, and discriminant validity.
Scatter plots: useful for assessing agreement between two administrations of the same measurement good for re-test and interrater reliably first step to determined reliably correlation coefficient(r): signal a number to say how close the dots are on a scatter plot drawn throughout them
5. Give examples of ways that researchers dig deeper by doing more than just one study on a research question.
Scientist might start with a simple study such as effect of comfort on attachment and from there ask a series of questions that leads them to a second or third study each time going deeper and deeper into and testing a variety of cognitive tasks. their curiosity leads them down deeper rabbit holes. (p.15)
47. Explain how question order can change the meaning (and validity) of a question.
The earlier questions can change the way respondents understand and answer later questions. Ex. A question on a parenting survey such as "How often do your children play?" would have different meanings if the previous questions had been about sports versus music versus daily activities.The best way to control for the effect of question order is to prepare different versions of a survey, with the questions in different sequences.
25. Explain informed consent and the protection of vulnerable groups (applying the principle of respect for persons).
The informed consent: each person learns about the research project, knows the risks and benefits, and decides whether to participate. the protection for vulnerable groups included children, developmental disabilities, and prisoners. (p.96)
97. Given a factorial notation (e.g., 2×2), identify the number of independent variables, the number of levels of each variable, the number of cells in the design, and the number of main effects and interactions that will be relevant.
The notation for factorial designs follow a simple pattern. Factorials are notated in the form "_x_." The quantity of number indicated the number of independent variables (a two by three design is represented with 2 numbers, 2 and 3). The value of each of the numbers indicated how many levels there are for each independent variable (2 levels for one and 3 levels for the other). When you multiply the two numbers, you get the total number of cells in the design. -In a factorial design, researchers test each independent variable to look for a main effect- the overall effect of one independent variable on the dependent variable, averaging over the levels of the petter independent variable. In other words, a main effect is a simple difference. In a factorial design with two independent variables, there are two main effects.
58. Explain how longitudinal designs are conducted.
They are repeated observations of the same variable over periods of time
42. Identify criterion, convergent, and discriminant validity.
criterion: does it correlate with key behaviors? convergent: scores obtained from one procedure are positively correlated with scores score obtained from another procedure that is already accepted. discriminant: measures of consumers that theoretically should be related to each other are, in fact, observed not to be related to each other.
68. Articulate the difference between mediators, third variables, and moderating variables.
Third variables: the proposed third variable is external to the two variable in the original bivariate correlation; it might even be seen as an accident- a problematic "lurking variable" that potentially distracts from the relationship in interest. Mediator: internal to the causal variable and often of direct interest to the researchers, rather than a nuisance. In the deep talk example, the researchers believe stronger social ties is the important aspect, or outcome, of deep talk that is responsible for increasing well-being. When researchers test for mediating variables, they ask: Why are these two variables linked? When they test for moderating variables. they ask: Are these two variables linked the same way for everyone, or in every situation? Mediators ask: Why? Moderators ask: Who is most vulnerable? For whom is the association strongest? Mediating variable comes in the middle of the other two variables. Moderators can inform external validity.
74. Describe matching, explain its role in establishing internal validity, and explain situations in which matching may be preferred to random assignment.
To create matched groups from a sample of 30, the researchers would first measure the participants in a particular variable that might matter to the dependent variable. Student ability, operationalized by GPA, for instance, might matter in a study of note taking. They would next match participants up in pairs, starting with the two having the highest GPAs, and within that matched set, randomly assign one of them to each of the two note taking conditions. They would then take the pair with the next-highest GPAs and within that set again assign randomly to the two groups. They would continue this process until they reach the participants with the lowest GPAs and assign them at random too.This method ensures that the groups are equal on some important variable, such as GPA, before the manipulation of the independent variable.
15. Identify variables and distinguish a variable from its levels (or values).
Variables are the core unit of psychological research that implies something that varies, so it must have at least two levels or values. a headline states "shy people are better at reading facial expressions" has two variables: shyness (whose levels are "more shy" and "less shy") and the ability to read facial expressions (whose levels are "more skilled" and "less skilled"). in contrast a research on fathers, gender would not be a variable cuz it only has one level: every father is a male
54. Interrogate the construct validity of an association claim, asking whether the measurement of each variable was reliable and valid.
When interrogating statistical validity you want to know how well do the data support the conclusion, what factors that have affected the scatterplot correlation coefficient. Ask about the effect size and the statistical significance of the relationship, any subgroups or outliers that might have affected overall findings and whether a zero relationship might be curvilinear.
96. Identify interaction effects two ways: in a table and in a graph.
While its possible to compute interactions from a table, it is sometimes easier to notice them on a graph. When results from a factorial design are plotted as a line graph and the lines are not parallel, there may be an interaction, something you would confirm with a significant test. If the lines are parallel, there probably is no interaction. Notice that lines font have to cross to indicate an interaction; they simple have to be non-parallel.
56. Interrogate the external validity of an association claim by asking to whom the association can generalize.
With external validity you need to know how well you can generalize to other people. So, the size of the sample does not matter as such as the way the sample was selected from population .
67. Identify a mediation hypothesis and sketch a diagram of the hypothesized relationship. Describe the steps for testing a mediation hypothesis.
add the mediator into the study and test all (don't need to just study one specific aspect) 1. Test for relationship c. 2. Test for relationship a. 3. Test for relationship b.4. Run a regression test both as predictor variables to see if relationship c goes away.5. Causal variable is measured(manipulated) first in the study followed by mediating variable, followed by proposed outcome variable.
11. Find research-based information in PsycINFO and other sources.
advantages: show you all articles written by a single author or keyword, tells you if source is peer reviewed, shows other articles that have cited each target article...so find you more papers just like it.
3. Identify examples of basic and applied research, and describe the interactions between the two kinds of research.
basic research is not intended to address a specific, practical problem. it is intended to enhance the general body of knowledge. it can be used to find a broad answer. Some examples might be the capacity of human memory, what motivates people or makes them feel happy or sad. applied research is done with a practical problem in mind, researchers hope that their findings can be directly applied to the solution of that problem in a real world context. such as treatments for disorders. teaching certain subects like math ect. or evaluaitons of performance. they both inspire each other and overlap. Applied research (p.14) is done with a practical problem in mind; the researchers hope their findings will be directly applied to the solution that problem in real world context. (test the efficacy of a treatment for depression in a sample of trauma survivors). Basic research is not intended to address a certain problem; the goal is to enhance the general body of knowledge.(the motivations of a depressed person) the knowledge they generate may be applied to real world issues later on. solid basic research is an important basis for later, applied studies.
9. Be cautious about accepting the conclusions of authority figures (especially conclusions not based on research).
before taking the advice of authorities ask yourself about the source of their ideas. did the authority systematically and objectively compare different conditions, as a researcher would do? (p.37)
59. Identify three types of correlations in a longitudinal correlational design:
cross-sectional correlations, autocorrelations, and cross-lag correlations.
20. Identify verbs that signal causal claims versus association claims.
casual claims use verbs such as cause, enhance, and curb Association claims use verbs such as link, associate, correlate, predict, tie to, and being at risk for (p.65)
36. Classify measurement scales as categorical or quantitative; further classify quantitative variables as ratio, interval, and ordinal.
categorical: ordinal or normal scales (nominal variables) quantitate measured numerically. ordinal: reflects only magnitude but does not include equal intervals or absolute zero. interval: has magnitude and equal intervals but not an absolute zero. Ratio: has magnitude, equal intervals and absolute zero.
39. Review scatterplots, focusing on how scatterplots show the direction and strength of a relationship.
closer together= stronger the relationship further apart= weaker the relationship
34. Recognize the difference between a conceptual variable and its operationalization.
conceptual: the researchers definition of the variable in a question at a theoretical level. operationalization: researchers specific decision about how to measure or manipulate the conceptual variable
33. Define three forms of research misconduct, explaining why each is considered a breach of professional ethics and a violation of the empirical method.
data fabrication: occurs when, instead of recording what really happened in a study (or sometimes instead of running a study at all), researchers invent data that fit their hypotheses., data falsification: occurs when researchers influence a study's results, perhaps by selectively deleting observations from a data set or by influencing their research subjects to act in the hypothesized way., plagiarism: representing the ideas or words of others as one's own.
62. Define dependent variables and predictor variables in the context of multiple-regression data.
dependent/criterion: the variable you're most interested in understanding or predicting predictor: the rest of the variables measured
44. Give examples of how question wording can change the results of a survey or poll.
double-barreled questions: two questions in one Ex: "do you think frozen foods are both healthy AND convenient?, question order: Order of questions promotes certain responses which is why priming is important the earlier questions can change the way respondents understand and answer the later questions affecting the validity and meaning of question, double negatives: a question or statement that contains two negatives, which can cause confusion, thereby reducing the construct validity of a survey or poll ex: "you don't disagree with the fact that people should never do this
86. Explain how comparison groups, double-blind studies, and other design choices can help researchers avoid many of these threats to internal validity.
double-blind: controls for observer bias and demand characteristics b/c nobody can make assumptions masked design: controls for observer bias and DC (observers don't know which level part. are in and part. don't know the reason they are assigned to a group) double-blind placebo: controls for placebo effect too.. (neither the people treating the patients not the patients know if they are in the real study group) comparison groups: needed to show a real difference, not confound
6. Describe the differences between empirical journals and popular journalism; describe the goals of each format and give examples of ways that journalists can write better stories about scientific news.
empirical journals are written by professionals for professionals and are peer reviewed popular journalism is written by professional writers for the masses and are not necessarily subject matter experts and generally summarize to the point of almost being inaccurate if they think it will attract readers. not present data out of context, consult with the producer of the research. Empirical journals envolve evidence based facts that has gone through rigorous peer review process to make sure its accountable, while popular journalism includes the kinds of news and commentary most of us read or hear on televisions, magazines, and newspapers. empirical journals are found in scientific journal (p.15-16) (p.39)
65. Explain the value of pattern and parsimony in research.
examination of a variety of correlational studies that all point in the same causal direction, idea that science is cumulative
41. Identify face and content validity.
face: how well a measure looks like it measures what it says its measuring, content: A measurement device ability to be generalized to the entire content of what is being measured
52. Understand how the correlation coefficient, r, represents strength and direction of a relationship between two quantitative variables.
if its positive or negative shows direction greater = greater strengthunless curvilinear then it doesn't explain it
24. Name and define the three ethical principles of the Belmont Report.
in late 1920s early 1930s 35% of black men were living in the south infected with syphilis.treatment involved infusion of toxic metals that even fatal side effects. the tuskegee institute began a study on 600 black men, 400 of which were infected. early in the project infected men were followed until each one died to obtain valuable data on how the disease progressed untreated. this last 40 years and they conducted painful spinal tap on every single one the patients to follow progress. 1st ethical principle violation was how the men were treated. 2nd was how the men were harmed 3rd. researchers targeted a disadvantaged social group (p.91-92)
23. Appreciate that few studies can achieve all four kinds of validity at once, so researchers must prioritize some validities over others.
in the course of planning and conducting a study, scientist weigh the pros and cons of research choices and decide which validities are most important (p.77-78)
88. Describe at least two ways that a study might show inadequate variance between groups, and indicate how researchers can identify such problems.
increase power.. not strong (smaller group) bigger sample size leads to bigger power
8. Describe at least five ways intuition is biased.
intuition is biased by faulty thinking by Excepting a conclusion just because it makes sense. we tend to believe good stories even ones that are false. intuition is biased by motivation because we are motivated to think what we want to think. when looking at evidence we may only seek out the information we like because we don't want to let go of our beliefs. (p.31-33)
27. Explain how researchers would apply the principle of justice in selecting research participants.
it means that tresearches might first ensure that the participants involved in the study are representatives of the kinds of people who would also benefit from its results. (p.97)
46. Explain how to increase the construct validity of questions by wording them carefully and by avoiding leading questions, double-barreled questions, and double negatives.
leading question: word questions neutrally or word question differently and look at the results to see if wording affects peoples responses and if different then report results separate for each wording of question double-barreled question: ask each question separately instead of placing in the same sentence double-negative: should be avoided at all costs; ask both ways to test for internal consistency
16. Discriminate between measured and manipulated variables.
measured variable is one whose levels are simply observed and recorded. variables such as height, IQ, and blood pressure are measured using scales, rulers, or devices. Manipulated variable is a variable a researcher controls, usually by assigning participants to the different levels of that variable. Ex. a researcher might give some participants 10 mg of medication, other participants 20mg, and still others 30mg. some variables cannot be manipulated such as gender cuz researcher can't assign people male or female (p.56)
66. Consider why journalists might prefer to report single studies rather than parsimonious patterns of data.
more validity when taken from a single study-- new information gets attention
92. Review studies with one independent variable, which show a simple "difference."
pg 312 - Spaghetti box and serving size given experiment. One IV and one DV. No matter what the product, when same amount is in a large container, people use more of the product than when it is in the small container
22. Identify examples in which writers' and researchers' claims are not justified by the studies they are describing.
popular press may publish stories that makes claims but are not based on research such as headlines like "I feel i've overcomeADHD" or "stress ball factory worker attacks boss" such headlines do not report the results of the research. they may report a persons solution to a problem or experts advice but say nothing about frequency of the problem or what research has shown to work. (p.66)
63. Identify and interpret data from a multiple-regression table and explain, in a sentence, what each coefficient means.
read across, look at beta and significance to see if there is a relationship between that predictor variable and the criterion, and if it's significant
26. Explain how researchers might evaluate the risks and benefits of a study (applying the principle of beneficence).
researcher need to carefully assess the risks and benefits of the research they plan to conduct. they must also consider other who might benefit or be harmed. will a community gain something of value forth knowledge this research is producing? will there be costs to a community if this research is not conducted? (p.96)
10. Explain the advantages of research over intuition and experience.
researchers get to see every side of possibilites vs your own experience is you only see one possible condition. research is better evidence bc consistent results from several studies means that scientists can be confident in the study than experience or intuition (using our hunches about what seems "natural", or attempting to look at things "logically")
35. List three ways psychologists typically operationalize variables:
self-report, observational, and physiological. self-report: recording people answers to verbal questions about themselves in a questionnaire or interview. Observational: recording observable behaviors or physical traces of behaviors. Physiological: recording biological data such as brain activity, hormone levels or heart rate
40. Apply the correlation coefficient, r, as a way to describe the direction and strength of a relationship. (In this chapter, r is relevant as a common statistic to describe reliability and validity.)
slope direction: direction of the relationship (neg,pos) strength: how close the dots are to the line tells you the strength and direction of relationship
89. Explain why large within-group variance can obscure a between-group difference.
so many differences, can't focus on what is important (need a more sensitive measure)
38. Identify three types of reliability (test-retest, interrater, and internal), and explain when each type is relevant.
test-retest: same test on two occasions to measure consistency. interrater: degree to which two or more independent observers agree in their ratings of another organisms behavior, internal: how consistently a method measures within itself ex: memory test, all words should be of equal difficulty.
31. Describe the debriefing process and the goals of debriefing.
the researcher describe the nature of the deception and explain why it was necessary -the goal is for participants to know what they participated in and the results of their study
4. Describe the role of the peer-review process in science.
the submission goes to the editor of the publication who sends it out to three or four experts in the field who comment on the merits and flaws of the study when the peer review process works correctly minor flaws in research are addresses and resubmitted and research with major flaws does not get published. An editor sends the article to 3-4 experts on the subject to have them tell the editor of its virtues and flaws ultimately making sure the article is notative and well study. after publication, other scientists can cite an article and do further research who find flaws in the research and can publish letters, commentaries, or competing studies. (p.16)
2. Explain how theories and data interact to form empirical inquiry.
theories pose research questions, which leads to research design, which forms hypothesis, collect analyze data which feeds back into the cycle. Empiricists do not base conclusions on intuition, casual observation form own experience, or what people say. it uses evidence from senses (hearing, touch, smell, etc.) or from instruments (thermometers, photos, timers, questionnaires). theories and data interact through a series of steps to test a theory such as a series of questions guided by your theory, then testing these questions with what could be the variant for the source of the problem.
28. Recognize the points in the APA's Ethical Standard 8 (the standard that most closely applies to research in psychology).
these guidelines governs the three most common roles of a psychologist: research scientist, educators, and practitioners. the 5 ethical Principles are Beneficence, Justice, Respect, Integrity, and fidelity The 10 Ethical Standards are 1.) resolving ethical issues 2.)competence 3.) human relations 4.)Privacy and confidentiality 5.) advertising and other public statements 6.) record keeping and fees 7.) Education and training 8.) research and publications 9.) Assessment 10.)Therapy (p.99) 1. institution review boards 2. informed consent3. Decepto 4.debriefing5.research misconduct 6. animal research
1. Articulate how the roles of consumers and producers of psychological research are similar and how they differ.
they are similar in that they share a curiosity about behavior, emotion or cognition. They are both actually consumers because when producers are planning new research, they must study previous research done by others. They differ because the main goal of a producers is to conduct new research and create new knowledge and the main focus of the consumer is to take in this knowledge. It is important for a consumer to know about research methods so that they can evaluate research in order to assess it's value They are similar in the way they both educate people wether you're the one doing the research or if you're the one reading about it. they differ by the producer being the one who works in laboratories that codes behaviors, graph outcomes, and writes a report. The consumer is the one who reads these reports to gain further knowledge on the subject being study. Being a smart consumer is important for those considering a career in social work, human resources, a teacher, sales representative, or an entrepreneur.
14. Evaluate popular sources of psychological research in trade books, wikis, and magazines.
trade books can show how psychology applies to your everyday life. Check the back of the book for footnotes to see references documenting the research studies. Wikis can provide quick easy-to-read facts about almost any topic. they are demographic encyclopedias anyone can create a new entry. Popular press such as magazines, tv news programs, radio news station, blogs play an important role in telling the public about exciting findings in psychology. they tell you about new research area or an interesting study. (p.49)
95. Estimate marginal means in a factorial design, to look at main effects.
use marginal mean to find main effect. If the sample sizes are unequal, the marginal means will be computed using the weighted average, counting the large sample more.
