Psych 315 Exam 2

wording

" Pounding the nail" vs. "Looking for the nail" • Those who heard "pounding" are more likely to accept the sentence with the hammer as what they heard. • When they hear "pounding", they fill in a hammer that is not explicitly mentioned. ______________ of question affected participants' responses

hyperthymesia

"highly superior autobiographical recall" (HSAM); people identified with hypethymesia seem to remember every day of their lives, spanning many years Although they have advantage for remembering things about their own lives, their enhanced memory abilities appear to not extend to other sorts of content/mental tasks

remember/hippocampus

"remember/know" distinction- distinction between two experiences a person can have in recalling a past event. If you "_________________________" having encountered a stimulus before, then you usually can offer information about that encounter, including when, where, and how it occurred (source memory) If you merely "know" that you encountered a stimulus before, then you're likely to have a sense of familiarity with the stimulus but have no idea when or where it was last encountered (familiarity without source memory) In many tests participants are asked to make this distinction based on two choices they press one button to indicate "remember" if they actually recall an actual encounter with a particular item With the "remember" response, participants are indicating that they have a source memory for the item They press "know" if they don't recall the encounter but have a feeling the item must have been encountered earlier on the list With the "know" response, participants are indicating that they do not have a source memory for the item fMRI scans reveal that "remember" and "know" judgments take place in different brain areas "remember" --> heightened activity in the ____________________ Suggests this area is crucial for source memory "know"--> heightened activity in the anterior parahippocampus Suggests anterior parahippocampus is crucial for familiarity

suggested/created

1992 plane crash in Amsterdam; Cargo plane crashed into apartment building; 43 people killed. • 10 months afterward, subjects asked "Did you see the television film of the moment the plane hit the apartment building?" • 107 out of 193 subjects say yes. • There was no such film. • In a later study, many subjects even gave details about what they thought they had seen in the film. When it was _________________ that subjects might have seen this film, some of them ________________ a memory of it, complete with details

storage/fragile

4 fundamental differences between working memory and LTM: 1) Size of ____________ 2) Ease of entry 3) Ease of retrieval 4) Working memory dependent on current activity (more ______________), LTM is not

fluid intelligence

A Test of Relational Reasoning: Raven's Progressive Matrices Raven's Matrices is sometimes described as a measure of _____________ ___________________, or the ability to solve novel reasoning problems Once again, with the results of Raven's Progressive Matrices we find that heavy multitaskers make more errors than light multitaskers.

learning/interference

A second explanation about forgetting is that new learning somehow interferes with older learning Interference theory- according to this theory, the passage of time is not the direct cause of forgetting; instead, the passage of time creates the opportunity for new learning, and it is the new _________________ that disrupts the older memories Baddeley and Hitch (1977) Asked a rugby team to recall the names of the other teams they had played against during their season; not all players had made it to all games (injuries, illness, schedule conflicts) Rugby players were divided in terms of their retention intervals and intervening events: - 2 weeks vs 4 weeks: retention interval varied (2 weeks vs 4 weeks) # of intervening games held constant (2) - 3 games back vs 1 game back: retention interval held constant (1 month) # of intervening games varied (1 vs. 3) Results: Mere passage of time accounted for very little forgetting; it was the number of intervening events that mattered This is what would be expected if ___________________ was a major contributor in forgetting (rather than decay)

retention/retrieval

A third explanation about forgetting blames errors in retrieval Retrieval failure- the idea that the "forgotten memory" is still in long-term storage, but the person trying to retrieve the memory from storage simply cannot locate it Rests on the notion that retrieval from memory is not guaranteed, and retrieval is more likely if your perspective (context) at the time of retrieval matches your perspective (context) that was in place at the time of learning Perspective is likely to change as time goes by The greater the ____________________ interval, the more likely that your perspective has changed, and the greater likelihood of __________________ failure Retrieval failure is sometimes partial- Can recall some aspects of the desired content, but not all For example: TOT (tip of the tongue) Phenomenon- an often-observed effect in which people are unable to remember a particular word, even though they are certain that the word (typically identified via its definition) is in their vocabulary People in this state can often remember the starting letter for the word, and its number of syllables, and they can insist that the word is "on the tip of their tongue" All of these potential explanations are true to some extent

sensory memory

According to the Modal Model, when information first arrives, it is stored briefly in _____________ ___________- a form of memory that holds on to just-seen or just-heard input in a "raw" sensory form

spreading activation

Activation travels from node to node via associative links; as each node becomes activated and fires, it serves as a source for further activation Process known as _________________ __________________- a process through which activation travels from one node to another via associative links; as each node becomes activated, it serves as a source for further activation, spreading onward through the network

central executive

Advantages of working memory system: With mere storage being handled by the low-level helpers, the _______________ ___________________ is available for other, more demanding tasks

working memory

After surgery, patient H.M. was still able to recall events that took place before the surgery- so his amnesia was largely anterograde, not retrograde Severe case of amnesia- no way of putting new information into long term storage For many years, researchers thought the surgery had left him with no hippocampus; MRI scans revealed that the surgery did destroy the anterior portion of the hippocampus but not the posterior portion Could still hold conversations because there was no disruption in __________________ ___________________, but deficits became apparent if conversation was interrupted- could not remember earlier conversation had taken place if there was a delay

interference/reconstruction

All memories seem to depend on connections which promote retrieval These connections can also facilitate _______________________, because they blur the boundaries between memories Connections can fade with passage of time, producing memory gaps, and gaps are likely to be filled via _______________________ based on generic knowledge (schemata)

information-processing

An _______________-_________________ view of memory: Diagrams like this one depict the flow of information hypothesized by the modal model. The model captures many important truths but must be updated in important ways. Current theorizing, for example, emphasizes that short-term memory (now called "working memory") is not a place serving as a "loading dock" outside of long-term memory. Instead, working memory is best understood as an activity, in ways described in the chapter.

feature integration theory

An approach to object perception, developed by Treisman and Gelade, that proposes feature differences can be detected in parallel, without attention; different types of features must be combined using attention- importance of prior knowledge in accurate perception- illusory conjunctions- e.g., passing a person wearing a red shirt and a yellow hat and very quickly transform them into one wearing a yellow shirt and a red hat- attention is necessary to combine features from different dimensions- if features cannot be correctly "bound" by attention, then they may be combined incorrectly- experiment involving shapes (carrot, lake, tire) -- inhibited illusory conjunctions-normally, bottom-up processing is used for identifying novel objects; but, once we recall prior knowledge, top-down processing is used- illustrates the role of prior knowledge in accurate perception Feature differences (differences in color or orientation) can be detected in parallel, without attention. Features of different types can only be combined with attention If a search task requires finding a feature in conjunction, (such as color and orientation together) search will be serial

stabilized/established

Another experiment of long-term retention with school material Conway, Cohen, and Stanhope (1991, 1992)- Tested student recall for information in cognitive psychology course three years after they had taken it Some forgetting of names/specific concepts observed during first three years after the course After the third year, retention performance _____________________ so that students tested after 10 years remembered about the same amount as those tested after 3 years The speed with which memories fade based on the retention interval appears to be largely dependent on how well _____________________ the information was in the first place

operation span

Another measure of WM capacity: The Automated _________ ____________ Task (OSpan) In each trial, a series of mathematical calculations to be completed. - After each calculation, a letter is presented. - After a series of calculations, the sequence of letters must be recalled. - Perform between 3 and 7 calculations, remembering each letter. - After the last calculation, report the series of letters. Do Heavy Multitaskers have better Working Memory? - In some versions of the AX-Continuous Performance Task, heavy multitaskers make more errors than light multitaskers. - Heavy Multitaskers also perform more poorly on the OSpan Task than Light Multitaskers. - And Heavy Multitaskers also sometimes perform worse on N-Back tasks than Light Multitaskers. - Multiple studies showing lower working memory capacity in heavy multitaskers

phonological buffer

Articulatory rehearsal loop- one of the low-level assistants hypothesized as being a part of the working memory system This loop draws on subvocalized (covert) speech, which serves to create a record in the ________________ _____________- materials in this buffer then fade, but they can be refreshed by another cycle of covert speech

amnesia

Baddeley - proposed idea of an additional helper: an episodic buffer proposed as a mechanism that helps the central executive organize information into a chronological sequence Role of this component seen in patients with profound _________________- seem unable to put new information into long-term storage but can still recall the flow of narrative in a recently heard story; This short-term recall relies on the episodic buffer- an aspect left unaffected by amnesia

activation/summation

Being told that the "capital of South Dakota is a man's name" may make it easier to retrieve the information that the capital is Pierre ___________________ spreads from the "man's name" nodes at the same time as it spreads from the "South Dakota capital" nodes, therefore, the nodes for "Pierre" will now receive activation from two nodes simultaneously In this way, question-plus-hint accomplishes more than the question by itself Explanation of spreading activation rests on key assumption of __________________ of subthreshold activation

hippocampus/perirhinal

Brain Regions Supporting Working Memory and Long-Term Memory: 1) retrieval from long-term memory specifically activates the _____________________ 2) retrieval from working memory specifically activates the ______________ cortex We can confirm the distinction between working memory and long-term memory with fMRI scans. These scans suggest that memory for early items on a list depends on brain areas (in and around the hippocampus) that are associated with long-term memory; memory for items later in the list do not show this pattern

ambiguous

Bransford & Johnson (1972) manipulated participants understanding of material in order to understand the relationship between understanding and memory Participants that were given a title for a seemingly ____________________ passage were able to easily understand the passage and remember it after a delay whereas those that were not given a title could not Same effect is seen in tasks with ambiguous pictures

schematic

Breyer and Treyens office experiment Participants remembered books in the office because it fit their ________________ representation of an academic office Individuals false memory of seeing video footage of plane crash/Princess Diana car crash Would fit into their schema for events like this for there to have been vivid footage of the event, so they falsely remembered seeing it

source confusion/familiarity

Brown, Deffenbacher, Sturgill (1977) Participants witnessed a staged crime and three days later were shown "mug shots" of individuals who had supposedly participated in the crime- but these mug shots did not actually present the real individuals that had committed the crime Then, participants were asked 4 or 5 days later to identify the individuals they thought were guilty The data show a pattern known as _____________ ______________- a memory error in which one misremembers where a bit of information was learned or where a particular stimulus was last encountered Participants realized the faces looked familiar (because of the lineup they had previously been shown) but could not attribute a source to the familiarity Therefore, they assumed the __________________- must be attributed to the initial crime The likelihood of this error was quite high, with 29% of participants (falsely) selecting from the lineup an individual that was not actually "guilty" and was only familiar because of the mug shots

subvocalization/rehearsal loop

By occupying resources that are typically used for _______________ using the concurrent articulation task, there is an added constraint compared to the original span test The original test measured combined capacities of the central executive and the loop- when people take this standard version of the test (as opposed to the more modern operation span task), they store some of the to-be-remembered items in the loop and some via the central executive However, with the concurrent articulation task the loop is not available for use, so capacity of working memory is being measured without the ___________________ _______________ Can predict that concurrent articulation should drastically limit memory span- This turns out to be correct, with concurrency decreasing the ordinary span of working memory by about 1/3 (from about 7 items to about 4 or 5 items) With visually presented items, concurrent articulation should eliminate sound-alike errors; saying "tah-tah-tah" blocks the use of the articulatory loop, and it is in this loop that sound-alike errors arise- This turns out to be correct, with concurrent articulation and visual presentation of the items, sound-alike errors are largely eliminated

third

Can we create larger-scale memory errors? Hyman, Husband, and Bilings (1995) Study college students were told investigators were trying to learn how different people remember the same experience Students given list of events (that they were told) had been reported by their parents; then asked to recall these events as best as they could so investigators could compare their recall with their parents Some of these events were real, some were completely made up Results College students were easily able to remember the genuine events (more than 80% recalled in initial interview, with none of the fake events being recalled) However, by the ___________ interview, 25% of participants were able to remember the made up scenario, and able to supply details of it even though it was entirely made up

hippocampus/episodic

Clive Wearing was a British musician with Viral Encephalitis had bilaterally damaged _______________ as well as frontal lobe damage often felt like he has just become conscious remembers his wife, but can no longer remember important aspects of his life can form no new _______________________ memories; and has little ability to acquire new semantic memories however, he retains his musical ability

episodic/semantic

Clive Wearing's episodic memory was massively disrupted, however, his memory for generic information, as well as his deep love for his wife, seem to be entirely intact Other patients show the opposite- disrupted semantic memory but preserved episodic knowledge Patient suffering damage to front portion of temporal lobes (from encephalitis)- Lost memory of many common words, important historical events, famous people, and fundamental traits of in/animate objects However, she could produce detailed and accurate recollections for important events in her life These cases provide the double dissociation that reveals there must be some distinction between _____________ and _____________ memory

confidence

Confidence Malleability: In one study, participants first tried to identify a culprit from a police lineup and then indicated on a scale (from 0 to 100) how confident they had been in that selection. Some participants received no feedback about their choice; others received feedback only after making their selection but before indicating their confidence level. The feedback could not have possibly influenced the accuracy (because the selection had already been made), but it dramatically increased ____________________

rehearsal loop

Confirmatory evidence of central executive system: When people are storing evidence in working memory, they often make "sound-alike" errors The problem isn't that input is misheard at the start; similar-sound alike confusions occur if the input is presented visually as well The cause lies in the fact that people are relying on their _________________ ______________ for this task which involves the "inner ear" mechanism that stores memory items as internal representations of sounds

intrusion

Connections help in serving as retrieval paths; but they can hurt because they sometimes make it difficult to see where the remembered episode stops and other, related knowledge begins As a result, connections encourage __________________ errors- errors in which other knowledge intrudes into the remembered event

retrieval paths/transplant

Connections serve as ______________________ ___________ Can also create problems- adding connections between memory episodes eventually starts to blur the boundaries of each episode Likely to lose track of what bits of information belonged to what episode; more vulnerable to "__________________ errors"- a bit of information encountered in one context is transplanted into another context

limited/easy

Contemporary theories also preserve some key ideas from the modal model: 1) Differences in working memory and long-term memory: Working memory ______________ in size; long-term memory is enormous in order to accommodate for storage of vast knowledge - Specific knowledge, general knowledge, episodic knowledge- knowledge about events, including events early in life as well as more recent experiences 2) Getting information into working memory is ______________; getting information into long-term memory often involves some work 3) Getting information out of working memory is easy; getting information out of long-term memory can be difficult and slow, and sometimes may fail completely 4) Contents of working memory are fragile; long-term memory is less fragile because it is not linked to current thoughts, but rather contains information that remains in storage whether it is being thought about right now or not

level of processing/deep

Craik and Tulving (1975)- Participants led to do incidental learning (did not know memory would be tested) 1) For some words shown, participants engaged in shallow processing- mode of thinking about material in which one pays attention to appearances and other superficial aspects of the material - Had to say whether the word was printed in CAPITAL letters or not 2) For other words, participants engaged in a moderate level of processing - Had to judge whether each word rhymed with a particular cue word 3) For other words, participants engaged in deep processing- a mode of thinking in which one pays attention to the meaning and implications of the material - Asked participants whether each word would fit into a particular sentence Results: Large effect of ________________ _____ ______________- an assessment of how "deeply newly learned materials are engaged; shallow processing involves thinking only about the material's superficial traits, whereas deep processing involves thinking about what the material means __________ processing is typically associated with a greater probability of remembering the now-processed information Deeper processing generally produces better recall

elaborate/deep

Craik and Tulving (1975)- Participants shown a word, then shown a sentence with one word missing- task was to decide whether the word they were shown initially would fit into the sentence After this, there was a surprise memory test, with participants asked to report all the words they had seen Additional element was that some of the sentences were simple, while others were more elaborate More ___________________ sentences produced a large benefit to memory _______________ and elaborate processing leads to better recall than deep processing on its own Richness of elaborate processing offers the potential for many connections, as it calls other thoughts to mind These connections, in turn, provide potential retrieval paths- paths that can, in effect, guide your thoughts toward the content to be remembered Simpler sentences evoke fewer connections, and so establish a narrower set of retrieval paths

implicit/explicit

Damage to Hippocampus and Amygdala Panel A shows results for a test probing implicit memory via a fear response; Panel B shows results for a test probing explicit memory. Patient SM046 had suffered damage to the amygdala and shows little evidence of _________________ memory (i.e., no fear response, indexed by the SCR) Patient WC1606 had suffered damage to the hippocampus and shows the opposite pattern: massively disrupted ________________ memory, but a normal fear response

Working Memory Capacity (WMC)

Definition of operation span differs depending on specific operation being used for example: reading span Reading span is measured by asking a participant to read a series of sentences aloud, then, immediately after reading the sentences, participant is asked to recall each sentence's final word If participant is able to do this with two sentences, they are then given the same task with three sentences.. Then four... etc. until they identify the limit to the performance Limit defines the person's ___________ _____________ __________- a measure of working memory derived from operation span tasks. task involves storing materials (the ending words) for later use in the recall test, while simultaneously working with other materials (full sentences) Performance on this task is likely to reflect the efficiency with which working memory will operate in more natural settings

recently/conscious

Different example of memory without awareness draws on word-stem completion- a task in which research participants are given the beginning of a word (e.g., "TOM") and must provide a word that starts with the letters provided In some versions of the task, only one solution is possible, so performance is measured by counting the number of words completed In other versions of the task, several solutions are possible for each stem, and performance is assessed by determining which responses fulfill some other criterion People are more likely to offer a specific word if they have encountered it _______________________, even if they have no ______________ recollection of encountering the word recently

priming/procedural

Do amnesic patients have normal implicit memory? 1) normal _______________ effects - lexical decision - word stem completion 2) normal _______________ learning - mirror reading - mirror tracing - e.g., Clive Wearing's retained ability to play piano

intention

Does the motivation to learn (intentional learning) influence performance? Hyde and Jenkins (1969)- Intentional/incidental learning experiment 1) participants in one condition heard a list of 24 words; task was to remember as many as they could - Task of intentional learning- learning that is deliberate due to the expectation that memory will be tested later 2) Participants in other condition heard same list of 24 words but did not know that their memory would be tested - Task of incidental learning- learning in the absence of any intention to learn, correspondingly, in the absence of any expectation for memory to later be tested During the presentation of words, one of these groups was asked to simply remember if each word contained the letter e Another one of these groups was asked to look at each word and report how many letters it contained Another group was asked to consider each word and rate how pleasant it seemed Later, all groups of participants were tested to see how many of the 24 words they could remember Incidental learning groups Performance was relatively poor for the groups that were told to "Find the e" and "count the letters" Performance was appreciably better for the "How pleasant?" group- This group had no intention to learn, but performed just as well as the intentional learning group Mere ________________ to learn does not add very much to performance- memory can be just as good without intention, provided that materials are approached in the right way

increases

Each "visit" to a memory refreshes it in the mind, helping to avoid forgetting it Testing effect- students have better long-term retention for materials they were tested on, compared to materials they were not tested on Testing yourself on material periodically ____________________ the likelihood it will be available for retrieval later on

narrowing/goals

Emotion doesn't just influence how well you remember; it also influence what you remember Seems to produce a "____________________ of attention" effect Helps guarantee the attended aspects will be established in memory, but also implies the rest of the event that is not part of the narrowed focus will be left out of aspects of memory What we focus on is determined by the specific emotion Different emotions lead you to set different _____________ Likely to pay attention to aspects of present scene that are directly related to goal (which is related to the emotion you feel)

neural connections/recall

Emotion helps with memory partially because of emotion's impact on memory consolidation Consolidation- the process through which memories are biologically "cemented in place;" acquiring some degree of permanence through the creation of new (or altered) ________________ ______________ When we acquire new knowledge, it is initially fragile and represented via a certain pattern of neural activation Various biological processes over the next few hours stabilize this memory into a more enduring form This consolidation occurs without conscious awareness If consolidation is interrupted, no memory is established and _________________ will be impossible

consolidation/arousal

Evidence suggests traumatic events are well remembered for many years Many people who have experienced trauma complain about having "too much" memory for the event Enhanced memory for traumatic events can be explained by _______________________- Promoted by conditions of bodily ______________________, typically present in traumatic events There are some cases where people have no memory of traumatic events

better/encoding

Experiment by Barbara Tversky on recall and recognition- participants shown series of pictures Half told to expect recall test; other half told to expect recognition test At end, half of each group given recall text, and half given recognition test Recognition performance was _____________ than recall overall Performance is better when participants took the test they initially expected (e.g., told to expect recall test and got recall test vs. told to expect recall test and got recognition test) Subjects can tailor their __________________ for the specific type of test

direct

Explicit --> conscious and deliberate; revealed through ______________ tests - Episodic memory (memory for specific events) - Semantic memory (more general knowledge not tied to any time or place)

direct

Explicit memories- memories revealed by direct memory testing and usually accompanied by the conviction that one is, in fact, remembering- drawing on some sort of knowledge (perhaps knowledge about a specific prior episode, or perhaps a more general knowledge) Revealed by __________________-memory testing- a form of memory testing in which people are asked explicitly to remember some previous event Recall and standard recognition testing are both forms of direct memory testing

familiarity/interpret

False Fame Experiment (Jacoby, Kelley, Brown, and Jasechko 1989)- Participants presented with a list of names to read out loud as a "pronunciation task" without awareness of a later memory test In second step of procedure, participants were shown a new list of names and were asked to rate each person on the list according to how famous they were List comprised of: 1) some very famous people 2) some real but not-so-famous people 3) some fake names that researchers made up Some of these names appeared on the initial list of names that participants had seen; Some were new names 2 groups of participants : 1) "famous" list presented immediately after "pronunciation" list - Familiarity of "famous" names can be attributed to the fact it was seen on list presented immediately prior - Can identify why a certain name seems familiar - Have both source memory and familiarity for the name 2) 24-hour delay between presentation of lists - May not recall that feeling of ___________________ is due to presentation of earlier list because there is such a long delay in between e.g., "this name sounds familiar, but I do not know why (no source memory) so therefore, it must belong to a famous person" Results: When lists are presented with 24-hour delay, participants are likely to rate the made-up names as being famous Feeling that the name "rings a bell" but unable to identify the source of why this name rings a bell --> leads to the rationalization that it must be because the person Is famous Implicit memories may leave people with only a broad sense that a stimulus is somehow "distinctive" (rings a bell); what happens after this depends on how they ___________________ this feeling of familiarity

processing fluency/distinct

Familiarity is best thought of as a conclusion that you draw rather than a feeling triggered by a stimulus Findings indicate that a stimulus will feel familiar whenever the following list of requirements is met: 1) Stimulus has been encountered before 2) Because of the prior encounter and the "practice" it initiated, the processing of the stimulus is now faster and more efficient- there is an increase in _________________ _______________ 3) Increased processing fluency is detected, leading to the appraisal of the stimulus as __________________ or special (realizing it "rings a bell") 4) Try to identify why the stimulus feels special or "rings a bell"- causing you to reach a particular conclusion- typically, the appraisal that the stimulus feel distinct/special because it has been encountered before in a prior episode None of these steps occur in conscious awareness; All that is experienced consciously is the end product of all the steps --> the stimulus feels familiar

Heavy Multitaskers (HMM)

Filtering Out distractors task -Attend to red bars: Is there a change between 1st and 2nd presentation? -Ignore blue distractors -Some trials have more distractors; some have fewer ______________ ____________ Perform less well at detecting changes when there are many distractors. -As more distractors are added, light multitaskers are successfully filtering out distractors -As more distractors are added, heavy multitaskers have reduced performance, indicating that they are not able to filter out blue bars as effectively

emotional

Flashbulb memories- memories of extraordinary clarity, typically for highly ________________________ events, retained despite the passage of many years Brown and Kulik (1973)- introduced term after assassination of JFK Found that many participants were able to remember the day of the assassination with much detail However, many people still make errors in flashbulb memories, despite thinking they "I'll never forget that day" Hist et al. (2009) Interviewed people after attack on World Trade Center about how they first heard about it, who gave them the news, and what they were doing at the time Individuals interviewed a year later More than a third (37%) provided a substantially different account from their initial account of the event and were strongly confident in this false recollection (4.4 on a scale from 1 to 5) Individuals interviewed three years later; This time, 43% provided substantially different accounts

digit-span task

For many years, working memory was measured with the ____________-__________ ________- task where participants hear a series of digits read to them (e.g., 8, 3, 4) and must immediately repeat them back. If they do so successfully, they're given a slightly longer list (3, 1, 2, 8 ,5), and so on. The procedure continues until the participant starts to make errors- something that usually happens when the list contains 7 or 8 items.

context/encoding

Godden & Baddeley (1975)- _______________-dependent (state-dependent) learning experiment- asked scuba divers to learn different materials 2 groups 1) Learned material while sitting on dry land 2) Learned material while underwater, via a special communication set Within each group, half the divers were then tested while above water, and half were tested below We can expect that divers that learn the material while underwater will remember the material best if they're again underwater at the time of the test- enabling the use of earlier established connections We can also expect the divers that learned the material on land to do best at remembering the material when again on land demonstrates pattern of ___________________ specificity- People are better at remembering information when they are asked to retrieve it in the same context that they initially learned it in

more

Gorman & Green Findings: mindfulness intervention reduced negative attentional effects associated with heavy media multitasking results consistent with the claim that heavy multitaskers have ________________ difficulty with attentional filtering

reference

Having some sort of involvement in an event turns out to have a large effect on memory Information that is relevant to the self is better remembered than information that is not self-relevant "self-_______________ effect"- advantage in remembering adjectives that you think apply to you, better memory for names of places you've been to than those you haven't, etc.

working memory/light

Heavy vs. Light Multitaskers 1) In many experiments comparing cognitive performance between heavy and light multitaskers, there are no significant differences. 2) However, when there are differences in most tasks, the light multitaskers usually perform better than the heavy multitaskers. - Multiple tasks requiring working memory capacity - Relational reasoning - Filtering of distractors (no effect in many experiments) 3) People who choose to multitask often perform less well at basic cognitive skills, including __________ _____________, which is necessary for multitasking. How do we explain this? - One possible explanation: Light multitaskers are more likely to keep their attention focused on their current goal. Heavy multitaskers may have more difficulty staying on task - ____________ multitaskers may stay on task because they filter out distractors more. - Heavy multitaskers may choose to attend to multiple stimuli at once because they find it harder to filter out stimuli

organization

How do people go about making memory connections? Psychologist George Katona argues that the key lies in ____________________ The processes of memorization and organization are inseparable You memorize well when you discover order in the material; organization of material facilitates memory connections

20-30

How far can chunking capacities be extended? Chase and Ericsson (1982) Studied an individual that could think of number sequences as finishing times for races 4 digits would become one chunk of information In this way he could remember _____-_____ digits Chunks can then be turned into even larger chunks

types of sensory memory

Iconic memory for visual inputs: iconic memory is subject to masking: -Forward masking: Mask stimulus interferes with perception of stimulus that follows it -Backward masking: Mask stimulus interferes with perception of stimulus preceding it Echoic memory for auditory inputs

higher

If operation span is a valid measure of WMC, then someone with a higher operation span has a larger working memory capacity. If this is true, someone with a ___________ span should have an advantage in tasks that use working memory a lot- tasks that require multiple ideas being kept active simultaneously People with a larger span (e.g., a greater working WMC) should do better in tasks that require the coordination of different pieces of information

indirect

Implicit --> unconscious and automatic; revealed by indirect tests - Procedural memory (knowing how to do things i.e., memory for skills) - Priming (changes in perception and belief caused by previous experience) - Perceptual learning (recalibration of perceptual systems as a result of experience) - Classical conditioning (learning about associations among stimuli

credibility/familiar

Implicit Memory and the Illusion of Truth Experiment (Begg, Anas, & Farinacci, 1992)- participants heard a series of statements and had to judge how interesting each was "The average person in Switzerland eats about 25 pounds of cheese a year" (false) "Henry Ford forgot to put a reverse gear in his first automobile" (true) After hearing these sentences, participants were given more sentences but this time had to judge their credibility on a scale from certainly true to certainly false Some of the sentences in the "truth test" were repeats from the earlier presentation (judgment of interest task) Wanted to assess how credibility rating was influenced by sentence familiarity Results: Sentences that were heard previously (in first presentation task) were more likely to be accepted as true Familiarity increased ___________________ This effect was found even when participants were first warned not to believe the sentences in the first list Statements plainly identified as false when they were first heard created the so-called Illusion of truth- these statements were subsequently judged to be more credible than sentences never heard before An effect of implicit memory- claims that are __________________ end up seeming more plausible

indirect

Implicit memories- memories revealed by indirect memory testing and usually manifested as a priming effect in which current performance is guided or facilitated by previous experiences; often accompanied by no conscious realization that one is, in fact, being influenced by specific past experiences Revealed by ___________________ memory testing- a form of memory testing in which research participants are not told that their memories are being tested- instead, they're tested in such a way that previous experiences can influence current behavior e.g., word-stem completion tasks, lexical-decision tasks, tachistoscopic recognition

iconic memory experiment

In a classic experiment (Sperling, 1960), participants viewed a grid like this one for just 50 ms. If asked to report all of the letters, participants could report just three or four of them. In a second condition, participants saw the grid and then immediately afterward heard a cue signaling which row they had to report. No matter which row they were asked about, participants could recall most of the row's letters. It seems, therefore, that participants could remember the entire display (in iconic memory) for a brief time, and could "read off" the contents of any row when appropriately cued. The limitation in the report-all condition, then, came from the fact that iconic memory faded away before the participants could report on all of it.

free recall

In a classic test of memory, participants listen to a series of 30 words (1 word/sec) and are then asked to repeat back as many words as they can; Task is known as ___________ ____________- a method used for testing what research participants remember; participants are given a broad cue ("What happened yesterday?" or "What words were on the list?") and then try to name the relevant items, in any order they choose; It is the flexibility in order that makes this recall "free"

beliefs/expectations

Is memory more accurate when the questions come after a shorter delay? Brewer and Treyens (1981)- Participants asked to wait briefly in experimenter's office prior to start of procedure after 35 sec., they were taken out of the office and told there was actually no experimental procedure Instead, they were being questioned about their memory for the room they were sitting in Descriptions of the office were powerfully influenced by their prior _________________ Almost 1/3 of participants reported seeing books in the office (because it was an academic office and that seemed fitting) although there actually were no books Their recall was governed by their _________________________, not by reality

indirect/direct

It would be misleading to say that brain damage ruins someone's ability to create new memories Brain damage is likely to disrupt some kinds of learning but not others- depends on how newly learned material will be accessed E.g., someone who suffers hippocampal damage will probably appear normal on an ___________________ memory test (still have implicit memory), but seem amnesic on a _________________ memory test (no explicit memory) and the opposite will be true for someone with a damaged amygdala

questioning

Loftus & Palmer (1974) - The impact of leading questions: showed participants a series of pictures depicting an automobile collision Participants later asked questions about the pictures, but questions were phrased in different ways: 1) "How fast were the cars going when they hit each other?" - Estimated speed to be about 34 mph 2) "How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?" - Estimated speed to be about 41 mph One week later, participants asked if they has seen broken glass in pictures Participants in "hit" group tended to correctly remember there had been NO broken glass Participants in "smashed" group tended to often make the memory error that they had seen broken glass A change in one word in initial _________________ can have a significant effect on the likelihood of memory error

hippocampus/LTM/PFC (prefrontal cortex)

Maintenance rehearsal seems ineffective at promoting memory for example: studies of brain activity during learning- studying moment-by-moment brain activity of participants while reading a list of words Participants were able to remember some of the words later, but not all; investigators compared brain activity during words that were presented and remembered and those that were forgotten Greater levels of brain activity (especially in ___________ and PFC) were reliably associated with greater probabilities of retention later on Higher levels of activity in ________ areas leads to better memory Brain activity in left inferior ________________ and the left medial temporal lobe was greater when words that will later be correctly recalled were being encoded

retrieval failure/repression

Memories that do appear to be lost for a while may just be the result of _____________________ __________________ Some recovered memories may end up being false memories Many "recovered" memories only emerge with the assistance of some professional whose leading questions may shape clients' memories in ways that align with expectations The idea of ____________________ as a self-protective mechanism for "hiding" traumatic memories is highly controversial

consistent/stablility

Memory errors about the self are possible too because they consist of a combination of genuine recall and some amount of schema-based reconstruction Most adults believe their personality is relatively _____________________ over time This idea of consistency is part of their Self-schema- the set of interwoven beliefs and memories that constitute people's knowledge about themselves; people's self-schemas tend to be biased towards consistency and positivity When it comes time to remember something about the past, people rely to some extent on this belief of consistency, often causing them to reconstruct their account in a biased way Maximizes the _________________ of their own lives As a result of this illusion of consistency, people often misremember past attitudes and past romantic relationships, distorting the past in a way that reflects the present more than it really was

remember/understand

Memory for events, or pictures, or complex bodies of knowledge is enormously dependent on ability to organize the material ton be remembered Best organization of complex materials is largely dependent on understanding You __________________ best what you _________________ best students that earned higher grades in courses also tended to remember the material from those courses better too

long term

Memory over the very ____________- ____________: When people were tested for how well they remembered the names and faces of their high school classmates, their memory was remarkably long-lasting. In the name matching task, participants were given a group of names and had to choose the right one. In a picture-cuing task, participants had to come up with the names on their own. In both tasks, the data show a sharp drop-off after 47 years, but it is unclear whether this reflects an erosion of memory or a more general drop-off in performance caused by the normal process of aging.

reminiscence bump

Memory patterns associated with age Recall very little from early childhood years _____________________ ________________- tendency for people to have clear and detailed memories of late adolescence and early adulthood Last years of high school/college tend to be most memorable

modality/density

Memory storage is "_________________ specific" What you saw is stored in areas devoted to visual processing What you heard is stored in areas devoted to auditory processing Within network of memory storage, there are no boundaries keeping elements of memory from one episode separate from other episodes ________________ of connections is higher within episodes than between episodes; helps keep them separate

memorizer/meaning

Mere exposure to items without any thought processes result in poor recall of the items Draws attention to main role of the __________________- What was the person doing the event to-be-remembered? Crucial considerations for predicting success of memory: 1) Thinking about the _____________________ 2)Understanding the meaning

semantic printing/related

Meyer & Schvaneveldt lexical-decision study of implicit memory Presented participants with pairs of letter strings and participants had to respond "yes" if both strings were words and "no" otherwise Also, if both strings were words, sometimes the words were semantically related in an obvious way (e.g., nurse, doctor) and sometimes they weren't (e.g., cake, shoe) Wanted to test how these discrepancies in semantic presentation influenced performance The hypothesis Is that if two words presented are semantically similar (e.g., bread, butter) the response time will be faster because when one of these related words is "looked up" in memory (bread), it will not take much activation to activate the other node (butter) since they are related Prediction that trials with related words will produce __________________ __________________- a process in which activation of an idea in memory causes activation to spread to other ideas related to the first in meaning If the two words in the pair are related in meaning (semantically similar), the lexical-decision responses will be faster Results: Participants' responses were faster by almost 100 ms if the stimulus words were __________________

relationship/interaction

Mnemonic strategies are techniques designed to improve memory accuracy and to make learning easier; in general, mnemonic strategies seek to help memory by imposing an organization on the materials to be learned Provide some way of organizing the to-be-remembered material E.g., ROY G BIV Use of mental imagery, relying on "mental pictures" to link the to-be-remembered items to one another Mental images must show to-be-remembered items in some sort of _________________ or ______________________

understanding/retrieve

Mnemonic use involves a trade-off Doesn't matter much if you don't care that much about the material, but the trade-off is troubling if you're trying to memorize material that is meaningful In trying to memorize meaningful material it is best to make an effort to make multiple connections- useful in two ways: 1) They foster ___________________ of the material to be remembered, allowing for richer and deeper learning 2) They help __________________ this material later

organization

Mnemonics work because they impose an _______________________ on the materials you're trying to memorize; consistently and powerfully, organizing improves recall

working memory

Modal model captures some important truths, but needs to be updated in a few ways: 1) Idea of "sensory memory" plays much smaller role in modern theories, so modern discussions of perception often do not mention this kind of memory 2) Modern proposals refer to short-term memory as _________________ ___________________- the storage system in which information is held while that information is being "worked on." - All indications are that working memory is a system, not a single entity, and that information is held here via active processes, not via some form of passive storage - In contrast, Long-term memory (LTM)- the storage system in which we hold all of our knowledge, beliefs, and memories; Contains memories that are not currently activated (not being "worked on"); those that are activated are represented in working memory 3) Suggestions that working memory is a storage place or "loading dock" outside of the long-term memory "warehouse" are incorrect- Contemporary theorists don't think of working memory as a "place" but more of a status; when we say that ideas are in "working memory" we simply mean that these ideas are currently activated and being worked on by a specific set of operations

fragile

Modern conception of working memory (as adapted from modal model) theorizes that working memory is still _____________; Newly arriving material is constantly displacing older information

operation

Modern research measures memory capacity in terms of _____________ span- a measure of working memory when it is "working" This measure is predictive of performance in many other tasks, presumably because these tasks all rely on working memory This measure is also the modern replacement for the (less useful) measure obtained from the digit-span task

mental activities

Modern theorists argue that working memory is not a place at all, but is instead the name for a certain set of ______________ _____________. Consistent with this modern view, there's no specific location within the brain that serves as working memory. Instead, working memory is associated with a wide range of brain sites, as shown here

familiar/attribution

More likely to decide a stimulus feels ________________ if surrounding circumstances support that conclusion E.g., when asked the question "which of these words were on the list you saw earlier?" the question itself gives the cue that fluency is likely attributable to a previous encounter illusion of familiarity may be produced when the processing of a completely novel stimulus feels more fluent than expected Processing of stimulus is unexpectedly fluent --> seek _____________________ for this fluency --> fooled into thinking stimulus is familiar because it was so easy to process This illusion of familiarity is powerful evidence that sense of familiarity relies on steps listed above

associations/threshold

Nodes are said to become activated when they receive a strong enough input signal; once a node is activated it can activate other nodes Input spreads across nodes through ________________________ Nodes receive activation from their neighbors, and as more and more activation arrives at a particular node, the activation level for that node increases Eventually, this activation reaches the node's response ____________________________ and the node fires Once a node fires, it itself is a source of activation, activating neighboring nodes

more

One Working Memory Task: The AX-Continuous Performance Task Series of single letters, one after another - Attend only to red letters; ignore white - Respond NO to each letter until you detect A followed by X Do heavy multitaskers have better working memory? - In some versions of the AX-Continuous Performance Task, heavy multitaskers make __________ errors than light multitaskers.

retention/decay

One of the best predictors of forgetting is the passage of time, measured as a _________________ interval- the amount of time that elapses between the initial learning and the subsequent retrieval As this interval grows, you're likely to forget more and more of the earlier event One explanation for this pattern comes from the _______________ theory of forgetting- the hypothesis that with the passage of time, memories may fade or erode

heavy/light

Ophir, Nass, and Wagner (2009)- Filtering Out Distractors Study 4 tasks: 1) filter task 2) impulsivity task 3) Flanker Task 4) Task Switching For all four tasks, ______________ multitaskers performed worse than __________________ multitaskers

confident

Participants in a study where they witnessed a (simulated) crime were later asked to identify culprit from group of pictures Some were given feedback : "Good, you identified the suspect" Others were given no feedback Feedback could not have influenced the accuracy of the identification, because it was received only after the identification Did have a large impact on how ________________ participants said they'd been when making their selection With confidence inflated but accuracy unchanged, the linkage between accuracy and confidence was essentially eliminated

Korsakoff's

Patients who suffer from _____________________ syndrome experience similar symptoms to patient H.M.: Completely unable to remember events of their own lives, but still experience "unconscious memories"- memories they don't know they have Revealed when patients are tested indirectly

hippocampus/amygdala

Patients with damage to the _____________________ appear to still have good implicit memory, but no explicit memory Patients with damage to the ___________________ appear to still have good explicit memory, but no implicit memory

positive/correct

People also often tend to have a __________________ view of how they've acted in past situations Bahrick, Hall, and Berger (1996)- Asked college students to recall high school grades as accurately as they could When students forgot a good grade, their self-serving reconstruction led them to the _________________ belief that the grade must have been a good one - 89% of A's were correctly remembered When the students forgot a poor grade, their self-serving reconstruction led them to the incorrect belief that the grade must have been okay - Only 29% of D's were correctly recalled

familiarity

People are often better at remembering "that" something is familiar than they are at remembering "why" something is familiar; Explains why its possible to have sense of ________________ without source memory and also why its possible to be correct in judging familiarity but mistaken in judging source

certainty/confidence

People rely heavily on expressions of certainty and confidence when evaluating accuracy of memories People tend to trust memories that are expressed with confidence These patterns are seen in evaluating the truthfulness of one's own memories, and the truthfulness of someone else's memories Evidence suggests that a person's degree of ___________________________ is an uneven indicator of whether a memory is trustworthy However, there are circumstances where certainty and accuracy are highly correlated, but there are many exceptions to this pattern If we try to categorize memories as incorrect or correct based on someone's level of _____________________, we'll often get it wrong

advantage/SAT

People with a greater WMC do have an _______________- in many settings: tests of reasoning, reading comprehension, standardized academic tests, tasks that require multitasking, etc. Many implications of these results: 1) Correlations between WMC and performance provide indications about when it's helpful to have a larger working memory, which in turn helps us understand when and how working memory is used 2) Link between WMC and measures of intellectual performance provide an intriguing hint about what we're actually measuring with tests like the ____________ that seek to measure intelligence 3) Various correlations observed with the more active measure of working memory (operation span) but not from the more traditional (and more static) span measure

Capgras/hippocampal

Proof that source memory is truly distinct from familiarity 1) they are completely independent- It is possible for an event to be familiar without and source memory and vice versa Familiarity without source memory- E.g., sometimes recognizing actors as familiar in movies, but not being able to recall where you've seen that actor before In cases like this, you can't "place" the memory; cannot identify the episode in which the familiar thing was last encountered Source memory without familiarity (more uncommon)-E.g., _________________ Syndrome patients may have accurate memories of the people in their lives and even when they were last encountered, but are still unable to recognize them as familiar without an affective appraisal 2)"remember/know" distinction 3) familiarity/source memory distinguishable through learning - Rhinal cortex activation during learning --> associated with familiarity of stimulus later on -_______________________ region activation during learning--> associated with source memory for stimulus later on

source memory

Recall occurs when presented with a retrieval cue that broadly identifies the information you seek, and then need to come up with the information on your own Requires memory search because you are required to come up with the sought-after item on your own Depends heavily on memory connections E.g., "What was the name of that restaurant?" "What was the name of your fifth grade teacher?" Recall generally requires _________________ ________________

recency

Recency portion of the curve comes from working memory, while the rest of the items come from LTM By this logic, manipulations of working memory should affect recall of recency items but not items earlier in the list By modifying standard free recall procedure (delaying recall by asking participants to perform some other task before recall), participants should no longer be able to remember items at the end of the list (recency effect) because the task has disrupted these items in working memory, but should still be able to remember items at the beginning of the list (primacy effect) because this task (interpolated activity) will not interfere with words in LTM Results show that an activity interpolated, or inserted, between the list and recall essentially eliminates the ____________ effect, but it has no influence elsewhere in the list However, merely delaying recall after the list's end, with no interpolated activity, has no impact because there are no new materials coming into working memory

familiarity

Recognition- occurs when information is presented to you and you must decide whether it is the sought-after information Often depends on a sense of ____________________ (rather than memory connections) E.g., "is this the man who robbed you?", multiple choice tests Recognition can be triggered by either familiarity or source memory

subvocalization/phonological buffer

Rehearsal loop is launched through _______________- covert speech in which one goes through the motions of speaking, or perhaps forms a detailed motor plan for speech movements, but without making any sound This production by the "inner voice" produces a representation of the target information in the _________________ ________________- a passive storage system used for holding a representation (essentially an internal "echo") of recently heard or self-produced sounds In other words, it creates an auditory image in the inner ear; subvocalization sustains the information

serial position

Resulting pattern of primacy/recency effects is a U-shaped curve that describes relation between positions within the series- or _______________ ________________- a data pattern summarizing the relationship between some performance measure (often, likelihood of recall) and the order in which the test materials were presented (i.e., where the materials were located within the series) In memory studies, the serial-position curve tends to be U-shaped, with people being able to recall the first-presented items (the primacy effect) and also the last-presented items (the recency effect)

recall

Schema- knowledge describing what is typical or frequent in a particular situation E.g., a "kitchen schema" would stipulate that a stove and refrigerator are likely to be present, whereas a coffeemaker may or may not be present, and a piano is not likely to be present Schema help us in many ways - Tell us what is typical in a given situation, and help understand how to fit novel situations into a broader framework - Help when it comes time to ____________ a particular event Schemata used to fill in gaps in recollection; knowledge is supplemented with plausible reconstructions of events based on schematic knowledge

regularize/understand

Schemata provide us with the tendency to __________________ the past Bartlett (1932)- Presented participants with story taken from folklore of Native Americans In recalling the story later, participants seemed to remember the gist of it, but pattern of errors made was quite systematic Aspects of the story that were unfamiliar to British participants were often changed into aspects that were more familiar to participants Participants memories "cleaned up" the story in a way that better fit their schematic representations Participants memory errors derived from their efforts to ___________________ the story

typical

Schematic knowledge may also lead to memory errors Types of errors produced by schemata are quite predictable Schemata usually fill gaps in knowledge with what is _________________ or "normal" of given situation As a result, any reliance on schemata will make the world seem more "normal" than it really is and will make the past seem more "regular" than it actually was

suggestibility/imagery/recall

Shaw & Porter (2015)- Used broad mix of techniques to encourage false memories 1) _______________ - Interviewer repeatedly asked participants to recall an event that (supposedly) they had learned about from the participants' parents 2) False evidence - Assured participants she had detailed information about the (fake) event, and applied social pressure - Used comments like "most people are able to retrieve lost memories if they think hard enough" 3) Reinforcement/punishment - Also offered smile/nod of reassurance whenever participant showed signs of remembering the false events, and signs of disapproval/disappointment when the participant could not remember 4) ___________________ - Encouraged participants to use guided imagery (known to foster false memories) Able to convince many participants that just a few years earlier, they had committed a crime that involved police contact In many cases, their ____________________ for these events was vivid and rich with detail Participants were ultimately misled to believe they had committed a felony a few years earlier, even though it had never actually occurred

Practice and Automaticity

Shiffrin and Schneider (1977) showed that practice could eliminate the interference in some search tasks - Consistent Mapping: target-set and distractor-set are not alike (i.e. numbers and letters) - Varied Mapping: target-set and distractor-set are the same Each cognitive task draws on a collection of cognitive resources When two tasks require the same resources, they interfere with one another - Ex. Visual Acuity, Mental Energy, Response Selection

Korsakoff's

Similar cases of anterograde amnesia are seen in alcoholic patients- the problem is in nutritional deficits (because most alcoholics are only fulfilling their dietary needs through the consumption of alcohol) especially a deficiency in Vitamin B1 (thiamine) Thus, alcoholics are likely to develop ____________________ syndrome- a clinical syndrome characterized primarily by dense anterograde amnesia Caused by damage to specific brain regions, and is often precipitated by thiamine deficiencies New information seems to be lost forever

conscious

Some researchers argue that painful memories may be "repressed" from conscious awareness and exist in long-term storage until they are "recovered" and made ____________________ again Others are skeptical about this proposal Painful events seem to be typically well remembered- contradicts ideas of repression Some abuse memories thought of as "recovered" may have actually been remembered all along Memories may have appeared to be lost because the person refused to ever discuss them, but "recovery" simply reflects when the person is finally willing to discuss them

verbal/women/men

Some studies suggest an advantage for women in remembering ________________ materials, and other studies suggesting an advantage for men in remembering spatial arrangement _____________ are more likely than men to remember what people were wearing in a scenario ________________ are more likely to remember people's body shapes

wording

Studies about planting false memories demonstrate the Misinformation effect- a term referring to memory errors that result from misinformation received after an event was experienced What sorts of memory errors can be planted through the misinformation effect? Procedures have altered how people, events, objects, etc. are remembered- can be as easy as the _________________ used in questioning

repetition priming

Studies demonstrating priming of implicit memory Show participants a list of words and test them in two ways: 1) A test directly assessing memory ("Which of these words were on the list from earlier?") 2) An indirect test of memory relying on lexical decisions ("Which of these letter strings form real words?") Two tests yield different results: 1) Direct memory test results- With sufficient delay, the direct memory test is likely to show that participants have completely forgotten the words from the earlier-presented list; recognition performance is essentially random 2) Indirect memory test results- Lexical-decision results showed that participants still remembered the words, and so they show a strong priming effect Effects of _______________ _____________ demonstrate memory without awareness (implicit memory) Specific past experience (viewing the list of words) influences participants unconsciously "memory without awareness"

misinformation

Studies where participants are given overt misinformation about an event - Told a false eyewitness recall of an event, and asked if their account matches the account they were told - Participants tended to "pick up" false leads from other accounts of event In studies where participants are forced to give misinformation (E.g., given two options about what they may have seen, but neither is an accurate representation of what was actually presented) In all studies of leading participants to give ________________ about an event that was previously seen, a substantial number of participants (more than 1/3 in some studies) end up incorporating false suggestions into their memory of the original event

persuade/trustworthy

Studies where researchers have provided participants with "evidence" in support of false memory Procedure where researchers obtained a real childhood snapshot of participants, and photoshopped it into a false context (hot-air balloon ride) Many participants were led to a vivid recollection of the hot-aired balloon ride, even though it never occurred Another study using an unaltered photo of participants' second grade class This evidence was evidently enough to _______________ participants that researchers really did have information about their childhood Therefore, participants believe researchers when they "reminded" participants about an episode of childhood misbehavior Almost 80% were able to "recall" the event in detail, even though it never happened Photographic evidence can encourage memory errors Makes researchers seem more ______________

understanding/recall/intrusion

Study by Owens, Bower, and Black (1979)-Participants that read prologue before reading short story were able to recall more of the actual story Prologue provided a meaningful context for the rest of the story which helped with ________________________ understanding promotes _____________________ Participants that read the prologue also made four times as many _________________ errors Led participants to include elements in their recall that were not mentioned The context led participants to infer many other elements about the story that were not mentioned

summation

Subthreshold activations- activation levels below the response threshold; activation is assumed to accumulate, so that subthreshold inputs may add together in a process of _________________ and bring the node to threshold Additionally, if a node has been activated recently, it is said to have been "warmed up" and requires less input to reach threshold

familiarity/implicit

Swiss psychologist Edouard Claparede (1911)- encountered young woman suffering from Korsakoff's syndrome and reached out to shake her hand, with pin positioned in his palm so that when they shook hands she would feel a pinprick The next day, he went back and tried to repeat the same thing (assuming she would have no memory of the pin prick); she pulled away at the last second and said "sometimes pins are hidden in people's hands" She had no memory of their previous introduction, but she remembered something about the painful pinprick How can we explain this pattern in patients with Korsakoff's syndrome? Early experiment- researchers presented patients with a deck of cards; each had a question and some possible answers in multiple choice format Each card showed to patient with Korsakoff's- if they guessed the wrong answer, the experimenter told them the right answer ; hen card was replaced in the deck, guaranteeing it would come up again soon When the card did come up again, the patients were likely to get it right this second time around BUT had no recollection of learning it- could not explain why the answer was correct Attributed knowing the right answer to some other source (________________ without source memory) This reveals important fact about Korsakoff's patients: They seem to have no explicit memory in recalling episodes they have previously experienced, but through indirect testing we can see they do still have ____________________ memory

recognition/explicit/implicit

Tachistoscopic reading task, Jacoby (1983) 3 conditions- had to read second word 1) No context condition (XXXX, Dark) 2) Context condition (hot, cold) 3) Generate condition (Low, ????) After this learning phase, half the subjects receive a standard recognition test. Performance is as you would expect. ______________________ increases with level of processing. The other half of the subjects receive no recognition task. Simply asked to read words that appear on screen. Not asked to remember anything. Presentation very brief. Results show repetition priming. Pattern in opposite direction from the explicit memory test. Recognition Test - Worst performance when word seen by itself. - Best performance when word not seen and must be generated. Tachistoscopic Reading Test - Best performance when word seen by itself - Worst performance when word not seen The recognition test and the tachistoscopic reading test seem to be showing us two different things: 1) Recognition test- _______________ memory, strengthened by deeper processing 2) Tachistoscopic Reading Task- Word processed more quickly if seen recently; No instructions to remember; Depends on mere exposure, not deep processing; Shows _________________ memory

gist

The Case Of John Dean • In the Watergate scandal, Dean testified extensively about many conversations he had had with President Nixon. • Later, it was revealed that many of those conversations had been recorded. • Dean was correct about the ___________ of the conversations, but often incorrect about what was said when Dean's case is unusual, because it is one of the few instances in which a person's memory for many conversations could be accurately tested years later. There are also many relevant experiments on this aspect of memory.

engage/understanding

The Craik and Tulving (1975) study confirmed the results of the Jenkins and Hyde (1969) study that intention to learn adds little to abilities for for recall; what seems to matter most is how people approach and ___________ with the material _________________ material improves recall; deeper understanding establishes more connections in memory

Concurrent Articulation

The Effect of _______________ _______________ on Span: In the Control Condition, participants were given a normal digit-span test. In the Suppression condition, participants were required to do concurrent articulation while taking the test. Concurrent articulation is easy, but it blocks the use of the articulatory loop and consistently decreases memory span, from roughly seven items to five or so. And, plainly, this use of the articulatory loop is not an occasional strategy; instead, it can be found in a wide range of countries and languages.

DRM

The Effects of the __________ Paradigm because of the theme uniting the list, participants can remember almost 90% of the words they encountered. However, they're just as likely to "recall" the list's theme word- even though it was not presented people remember the gist of the list and generalize to new words that match the list

leading questions

The Impact of _________________ _________________ Witnesses who were asked how fast the cars were going when they "hit" each other reported (on average) a speed of 34 mph. Other witnesses, asked how fast the cars were going when they "smashed" into each other, gave estimates that were 20% higher (41 mph). When all participants were later asked whether they'd seen broken glass at the scene, participants who'd been asked the "smashed" question were more likely to say yes- even though there was no broken glass

shallow/deep/engagement

The impact of deeper processing: ________________ processing leads to poor memory; ______________ processing (paying attention to meaning) leads to much better memory what matters seems to be the level of _____________________; the specific intention to learn (because participants know their memory will be tested later on)

context reinstatement

The results of context-dependent learning can be gained through _________________ ____________________- recreating the thoughts and feelings of a learning episode even if you're in a very different place at the time of recall What matter for memory retrieval is the mental context

schematic

The same connections that serve as retrieval paths allow for easier retrieval of information _______________________ knowledge also guides supplementing information that help develop accurate inferences about gaps in memory However, some connections can undermine memory accuracy, and some memories we rely on may be wrong and misleading

rehearsed/attentional

The source of the primacy effect is explained by the fact that earlier presented items do not have to compete for attention, so more time and rehearsal are devoted to them than any others; Earlier words have a greater chance of being transferred into LTM because they are ___________ more, and therefore a greater chance of being recalled after a delay the first few items on a list are privileged in the sense that they are rehearsed more than items later on the list 1st word --> 100% of attention 2nd word --> 50% of attention 3rd word --> 33% of attention the later that a word arrives, the less ______________ resources that are devoted to it

working memory

The source of the recency effect is explained by the function of ________________ ______________- The list's last few words are still in working memory when the list ends because nothing new arrives to replace them, and the contents in working memory are easy to retrieve

hippocampus/amygdala

There are also patients who show the reverse- intact explicit memory without implicit memory Study comparing patient with intact amygdala/impaired hippocampus vs. patient with impaired amygdala/intact hippocampus Patients exposed to series of trials in which particular stimulus (blue light) was reliably followed by a loud boat horn, while other stimuli (green, yellow, or red lights) were not followed by a horn T hen, patients were exposed to the blue light on its own, and their bodily arousal was measured Evaluated on (1) fright reaction to blue light stimulus (2) if they could correctly answer "which color was followed by the horn?" Results: 1) Patients with damage to ________________ Had fear reaction to the blue light (assessed via skin conductance response; measure of bodily arousal) (implicit memory) Could not correctly answer which color light was followed by the horn (no explicit memory) 2) Patients with damage to _________________ Did not have fear reaction to the blue light (no implicit memory) Could correctly answer which color light was followed by the horn (explicit memory)

replaces/social

There are some flashbulb memories that seem to be remembered with complete accuracy Why are some remembered with complete accuracy and others aren't? 1) How often someone discusses the event & Who the event is being discussed with - Telling account of event to audience may promote polishing of story to make it more interesting, so it changes every time it is told until this polished version ____________________ the original memory 2) ________________ aspects of remembering - People may alter accounts of important events to make themselves seem more interesting/socially desirable - If someone else that was present at the event is part of these conversations, they may be susceptible to cowitness contamination- internalizing falsified bits of information into their own accounts

retrieval cues/accuracy

There are some procedures that seem to diminish forgetting Cognitive interview- Designed to help police in investigations and is aimed at maximizing the quantity and accuracy of information obtained from eyewitness to crimes Several important elements: 1) Effort towards context reinstatement- steps that put the witness back into the mindset they were in at the time of the crime 2) Diverse set of ________________ _____________- idea that with more cues provided, the greater chance of finding one that triggers the target memory Quite successful method both in laboratory and in criminal investigations; produces more complete recollection without compromising __________________ Adds to argument that much of what we "forget" is due to retrieval failure and may be undone by providing more support for retrieval

sensitive/changes/distinctive

To explain other implicit memory effects, we must assume that people are __________________ to the degree of processing fluency People have a broad sense of when they have perceived easily vs. when they have perceived by expending more effort Can tell when a sequence of thoughts was particularly fluent vs. labored E.g., when we can feel that a stimulus "rings a bell"- it feels special in some way Feeling of specialness is due to the detection of fluency; fluency is created by practice Stimuli feel special not just because of fluency, but because of detected _______________ in fluency People also seem to notice discrepancies between how easy (or hard) it was to carry out some mental step and how this level of difficulty differs from what they expected A stimulus is registered as _________________ ("rings a bell") when people detect a change or a discrepancy between experience and expectations

recall/familiarity

Typically no Source memory- recollection of the source of current knowledge, in recognition Source memory is a type of __________________ There is a strong sense of ___________________ which is attributed to earlier encounters and may make us feel a sense of recognition

presence/attention

Ward et al.'s conclusion: The mere ______________ of a smartphone distracts attentional resources away from cognitive tasks associated with working memory and fluid intelligence We each have a limited amount of ________________, which can be allocated to different cognitive tasks. Tasks that require working memory and fluid intelligence require this attentional resource. Even when it is not being used and cannot receive messages, the presence of a smartphone takes up some of the attentional resources, leaving less for other tasks.

lower/conscious

Ward et al.: Measuring cellphone distraction Can the mere presence of a smartphone interfere with cognitive functions? What Cognitive Operations were measured (from the Journal of the Association for Consumer Research)? Two different tasks: 1) OSpan task (Working memory) 2) Raven's Progressive Matrices (Fluid Intelligence) Three subject Groups: 1) Place your phone on your desk, face down 2) Keep your phone in your bag or pocket 3)Leave your phone outside the room - All phones were silenced: no ring, no vibration. - Subjects know that there will be no incoming messages. Results: Measured both working memory capacity and fluid intelligence (based on two different tasks) Both measures show __________ performance when the phone is visible on the desk than when it is in the other room Were subjects aware that the presence of the phone was affecting their performance? "How often were you thinking about your cellphone?" Used scale from 1 (not at all) to 7 (constantly) Modal response was "not at all" 80% of participants responded "not at all" The effect seems to occur without subjects' awareness Phone location did not affect the reports of _______________ thoughts about cellphone

attention

We Don't Remember Things we Don't Pay _________________ To: To promote public safety, many buildings have fire extinguishers and automatic defibrillators positioned in obvious and easily accessible locations. But in a moment of need, will people in the building remember where this safety equipment is located? Will they even remember that the safety equipment is conveniently available? Research suggests they may not. Occupants of the building have passed by the safety equipment again and again- but have had no reason to notice the equipment. As a result, they're unlikely to remember where the equipment is located.

connections/meaning

What facilitates memory retrieval? Largely depends on memory connections- one memory triggers another, and another, creating a chain reaction until target information is retrieved Establishing these _____________________ is a large part of what happens during learning Deep processing (attention to __________________) promotes memory because it involves thinking about relationships between information

enhance/directly/interferes

What factors produce the mixed pattern of recollection for traumatic memories? Memory-promoting effects of arousal may be offset by complex memory effects of stress Cascade of biological reactions produced by stress help organisms to cope with stressful events How does mix of stress reactions influence memory? Stress experienced at time of event seems to ________________ memory for materials __________________ relevant to the source of stress but undermines memory for other aspects of the event Stress experienced during memory retrieval _______________ with memory, especially if target material is emotionally charged During stressful laboratory scenario where soldiers were undergoing survival training, they were unable to pick interrogator out of lineup even after speaking with them for 40 minutes and experiencing a relatively short retention interval - Soldiers who experienced moderate stress interrogation picked wrong person 38% of the time - Soldiers who experienced high stress interrogation picked wrong person 56% of the time with live lineup, and 68% of the time with photographic lineup

amygdala/attention

What factors promote memory consolidation? 1) Sleeping 2) Emotion- Emotional events trigger responses in the _________________, which in turn increases hippocampal activity (crucial brain region for establishing memories in LTM) - Emotional events are likely to be more important, meaning more attention will be devoted to the event as it unfolds - More ___________________ = more thoughtful processing - Also more likely to mull over emotional events in the period of time following their occurrence- also giving them an advantage in memory

framework

What other individual memories do they have? Relevant memories help to make meaningful connections with material Previous knowledge helps remember new knowledge Experts on topics already have a rich _______________________ that the new materials can be woven into; but if someone enters a novel situation with little relevant background then they have no framework and nothing to connect it to

familiarity/processing fluency

When a stimulus feels special (because of a change in fluency, or a discrepancy between the fluency expected and the fluency experienced) you often want to know why it feels special; thus- the vague feeling of specialness (triggered by fluency) can trigger an attribution process E.g., "Why did that stimulus stand out?" In many instances, the specialness is correctly identified as a sense of _____________________, and attributed to the correct source Attribution is often easy to make because you have the necessary source memory, and this guides you in understanding why a given stimulus "rings a bell" In other cases, you make an inference on why something feels special guided by the context Sometimes, people misinterpret their own ___________________ _________________, falling prey to certain errors and illusions E.g., source confusion, illusion of truth

supplements/imagine

When are false memories more easily planted? Errors in memory are more likely to be made if the post-event information given ____________________ what the person already remembers (rather than contradicting it) It appears easier to "add to" a memory than to "replace" it If participants are urged to _________________ how the suggested event unfolded rather than just hearing about it Both subtle procedures (with slightly leading questions) and blatant procedures (demanding that person make up misinformation) seem to be effective at planting false memories

DRM procedure

When participants are given a list of words all associated with the word "sleep" and then asked to recall the words on the list, they are likely to recall "sleep" as one of the words they heard on the list When asked how confident they are in this recall, they are just as confident in their false memory of the word sleep as they are in their correct memory for genuine list words ___________ __________________ - a commonly used experimental procedure named after its originators (Deese, Roediger, and McDermott) for eliciting and studying memory errors In this procedure, a person sees or hears a list of words that are all related to a single theme, however, the word that names the theme is not itself included; however, people are still very likely to later remember that the theme word was on the originally presented list The mechanisms leading to this flawed recall are so automatic that they cannot be inhibited

articulatory loop

When research participants are doing a verbal memory task (and using the _______________ ______________), activation increases in areas ordinarily used for language production and perception. A very different pattern is shown when participants are doing a task requiring memory for spatial position. Notice then that the "inner voice" and "inner ear" aren't casual metaphors; instead, they involve mechanisms that are ordinarily used for overt speech and actual hearing.

inflated/repetition/errors

When someone is asked to report on an event over and over, their report will be the same so the accuracy of their report is unchanging However, the more they repeat it, the easier and more fluent the recall becomes, and this ease of recall seems to make people more confident in their account Again, accuracy is unchanged, but confidence is ______________ With each__________________, there is a gradual erosion of the correspondence between accuracy and confidence Confidence is not a reliable means of separating accurate means from inaccurate ones Additionally, memory ________________ can be just as vivid and emotional as accurate ones Memory errors may often be undetectable

acquisition

When you initially meet someone and "forget" their name moments later, it is in fact not forgetting at all, but a failure in __________________________ Brief exposure to name with little attention paid results in never learning the name in the first place, so it is not even in memory to be retrieved

interwoven/replaces

Why does memory interference occur? Newly arriving information gets ________________ with older information, producing the risk of confusion about which bits are old and which bits are new Additionally, newly learned information ____________________ old learned information

accuracy

Why is memory confidence not found to be associated with memory accuracy? People's confidence in a memory is often influenced by factors that have no impact on memory _________________ When these factors are present, confidence can shift (upward or downward) with no change in the accuracy level Any connection between confidence and accuracy can be strained or even shattered

the impact of interpolated activity on the recency effect

With immediate recall (the dashed line in the figure), or if recall is delayed by 30 seconds with no activity during the delay (the black line), a strong recency effect is detected. In contrast, if participants spend 30 seconds on some other activity between hearing the list and the subsequent memory test (the dotted line), the recency effect is eliminated. This interpolated activity has no impact on the pre-recency portion of the curve (i.e., the portion of the curve other than the last few positions)

central executive/articulatory

Working memory is a system composed of a series of components Working memory system- a system of mental resources used for holding information in an easily accessible form. The ________________ _____________ is at the heart of this system, and the executive then relies on a number of low-level assistants including the visuospatial buffer and the ________________ rehearsal loop Central executive is needed for the "work" in working memory; helps make responses, plan decisions Settings in which ideas need to be kept in mind require the use of other systems (articulatory rehearsal loop and visuospatial buffer)

task

________ Switching Subjects perform one task on some trials, and a different task on other trials. They must watch for a signal indicating which task to perform on each trial. Many subjects have difficulty switching from task to task. Here the comparisons between heavy and light multitaskers give mixed results. Sometimes the heavy multitaskers perform better, and sometimes they perform worse. (no clear advantage/disadvantage)

longer/correct

______________ retention intervals are typically associated with a greater amount of forgetting However, sometimes memories from long ago turn out to be entirely accurate Bahrick, Bahrick, and Wittlinger (1975)- Group of high school graduates shown photos of people from their graduating class along with a list of names; had to match names with corresponding photos Performance was approximately 90% ________________ if tested 3 months after graduation, the same for 7 years, and the same for 14 years

forgetting

_______________ curve: The figure shows retention after various intervals since learning. The data shown here are from classic work by Hermann Ebbinghaus, so the pattern is often referred to as an "Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve." The actual speed of forgetting (i.e., how "steep" the "drop-off" is) depends on how well learned the material was at the start. Across most situations though, the pattern is the same- with the forgetting being rapid at first and then slowing down. Mathematically, this pattern is best described by an equation framed in terms of "exponential decay."

lexical decision

________________-____________ task is a test in which participants are shown strings of letters, and must indicate, as quickly as possible, whether or not each string of letters is a word in English Proposed that people perform this task by "looking up" these strings in their "mental dictionary" The participants speed of response in this task is an index of how quickly they can locate words in memory

Operation span

_________________ __________ can be measured in several different ways. In one procedure, participants must announce whether each of these "equations" is true or false and then recall the word appended to each question. If participants can do this with two equations, we ask them to do three; if they can do that, we ask them to try four. By finding out how far they can go, we measure their working memory capacity

elaborative (relational) rehearsal/source memory

a form of mental processing in which one thinks about the relations, or connections, among ideas- the connections created (or strengthened) in this way will later guide memory search Involves thinking about what items mean and how they're related to one another and to things you already know Vastly superior to maintenance rehearsal for establishing information in memory ______________ _______________ is more likely to result from elaborative rehearsal than from maintenance rehearsal

concurrent articulation task

a requirement that a research participant speak or mime speech while doing some other task. For example, the participant is told to say "Tah-Tah-Tah" over and over, or "one, two, three, one, two, three" These procedures occupy the muscles and control mechanisms needed for speech, so they prevent the person from using these resources for subvocalization

maintenance rehearsal/familiarity

a rote, mechanical process in which items are continually cycled through working memory, merely by being repeated over and over People focus on to-be-remembered items themselves, with little thought about what the items mean or how they relate to one another In many settings, maintenance rehearsal provides no long-term benefits Thinking about something in a purely mindless and mechanical way means the item will not be established in long-term memory; repeated exposures do not automatically lead to good recall often sufficient to produce _________________ later on Long-lasting memories are not created merely by repeated exposures to the items to be remembered E.g., many adults cannot remember which way Lincoln's head is facing on the penny even after seeing it many times because we only remember what we pay attention to and think about

peg-word system

a type of mnemonic strategy using words or locations as "pegs" on which to "hang" the materials to be remembered; these systems begin with a well-organized structure

activation/input

activation of a node from two sources A participant is asked, "What is the capital of South Dakota?" This activates the South Dakota nodes, and activation spreads from there to all of the associated nodes. However, it's possible that the connection between South Dakota and Pierre is weak, so Pierre may not receive enough ________________ to reach threshold. Things will go differently though, if the participant is also given the hint "South Dakota's capital is also a man's name." Now, the Pierres node will receive activation from two sources: the South Dakota nodes and the Man's Name node. With this double __________________, it's more likely that the Pierre node will reach threshold. This is why the hint ("man's name") makes the memory search easier

heavy/filtering

additional manipulation of filtering out distractors study: In one session, each task was preceded by 10 minutes of web-surfing (Gorman & Green) In another session, each task was preceded by 10 minutes of meditation (breath-counting exercise) Press a key each time you exhale After 9 breath, switch to a different key Why breath counting? It is a form of "mindfulness meditation", which has been shown to increase attention focus in some tasks In every task, the breathing exercise improved the performance of the ________________ multitaskers (lower scores mean better performances) The results are consistent with the claim that heavy multitaskers have more difficulty with attentional _________________ They also suggest that there may be ways to improve attentional filtering The strength of the interference depends partly on the subject's relationship with the smartphone

higher/activity

brain activity during learning: 1) learn a series of words, and, during learning, record the neural response to each word 2) test memory for words 3) based on what happened at step 2, go back and examine the data from step 1, looking separately at what happened during learning for words that were later remembers, and what happened during learning for words that were later forgotten Participants in this study were given a series of words to memorize, and their brain activity was recorded during this initial presentation. These brain scans were then divided into two subtypes: those showing brain activity during the encoding of words that were remembered in the subsequent test, and those showing activity during encoding of words that were forgotten in the test. As the figure shows, activity levels during encoding were __________ for the later-remembered words than they were for the later-forgotten words. This finding confirms that whether a word is forgotten or not depends on participants' mental ________________ when they encountered the word in the first place.

working/implicit

damage to the hippocampus and related brain structures impairs the ability to form new long-term explicit memories ________________ memory and ______________ memory continue to function after hippocampal damage.

elaborate

deep and elaborate encoding: deep processing (paying attention to meaning) promotes memory, but isn't the only factor that has this benefit. More _______________ processing (e.g., thinking about the word in the context of a complex sentence, rich with relationships) also has a powerful effect on memory.

chunks/chunking

digit span task implies that working memory capacity is 7 plus-or-minus 2 items; items can be better thought of as _____________; informal terminology implies this is not a set quantity of information span test is good indicator of how flexibly people can "chunk" input E.g., in letter span test, people can form "chunks" of letters that form syllables, then each of these syllables is its own "chunk" The individual differences in working memory capacities are due to variations in ______________ strategies, not the capacity of working memory itself

congruent

early experiment on encoding specificity principle: Target words read in one of two contexts: In each context, the sentence led the participant to think about the word in a certain way, and it was this thought that was encoded into memory 1) E.g., piano "lifted" implying it was heavy 2) "tuned" implying musical instrument Difference in memory content became evident when participants were later asked to recall the target words Participants in "lifted" group were likely to recall target word (piano) when they received the cue "something heavy" Participants in the "tuned" group were more likely to recall target word when the cue "something with a nice sound" was given cue was only effective if it was ____________ with what was stored in memory

physical/psychological

effects of context-dependent learning are true even if learning and testing takes place in different rooms- with rooms varying in appearance, sounds and scent in the version of the procedure where the rooms switched, participants were told just before testing to think about the room in which they had learned and because of this, they performed just as well as participants who were tested in the same room that learning took place in It is not the ________________ context that matters, it is the _______________________ context

primed/repetition priming

evidence of implicit memory (memory without awareness) Studies where participants are asked to read through a list of words without knowledge of memory being tested later on hen, they are given a lexical-decision task where they are shown a series of letter strings, and for each, must indicate with buttons whether the string is a word or not Some of the letter strings presented in the lexical-decision task are the same as words seen in the list in the first part of the experiment This enables researchers to question whether the first exposure somehow ______________________ the participants for the second encounter Lexical decisions are found to be quicker if the person has recently seen the letter string (in the initial list of words) demonstrating a pattern of _________________ ______________________ This pattern is shown even when participants have no recollection of encountering the stimulus word previously

hippocampus

fMRI scans suggest that memory for early items depend on areas different than for those of late items Early items associated with areas of long-term memory (areas in and around ______________________)

interference

forgetting from interfering events Members of a rugby team were asked to recall the names of teams they had played against. Overall, the broad pattern of data shows that memory performance was powerfully influenced by the number of games that intervened between the game to be recalled and the attempt to remember. This pattern fits with an ___________________ view of forgetting.

primacy/recency

in tasks of free recall, people usually remember about 12-15 words, with some noticeable patterns Highly likely to remember the first few words on the list: ______________ effect- an often-observed advantage in remembering the early-presented materials within a sequence of materials; This advantage is generally attributed to the fact that a person can focus their full attention on items at the beginning of the sequence because in the beginning, they are not trying to divide attention between these items and other items in the series Highly likely to remember the last few words on the list: ____________ effect- the tendency to remember materials that occur late in a series If the series was just presented, the recency effect can be attributed to the fact that the late-arriving items are still in working memory (because nothing else has arrived after these items to bump them out of working memory

LTM/size

manipulating __________ should affect all performance except for recency (because recency is dependent on working memory) If presentation of the list is slowed, participants will have more time to spend on each item, increasing the likelihood of transfer into more permanent storage Slowed presentation should not have an effect on working-memory performance because it is limited by __________, not by ease of entry or ease of access Research results confirm these theories: slowing list presentation improves retention of all the pre-recency items but does not improve the recency effect

peg words

mnemonics can be enormously effective. In this study, students who had relied on ____________ ________________ or interactive imagery vastly outperformed students who'd used other memorizing strategies such as isolated images and verbal rehearsal

visuospatial buffer (sketchpad)

one of the low-level assistants used as part of the working memory system This buffer plays an important role in storing visual or spatial representations, including visual images

hand

other helpers in working memory can be documented in certain subgroups of people: for example: deaf people do not have an "inner voice" or "inner ear" to rely on Rely instead on an "inner _______________" (covert sign language) rather than an "inner voice" (covert speech) Make "hand-shape errors" in working memory instead of sound-alike errors

HM/working

patient ___________ provides evidence for the separation of short-term and long-term memory systems had severe anterograde amnesia after surgery, and also weak retrograde amnesia could not form new, explicit long-term memories; __________________ memory was unaffected findings suggest that the hippocampus is crucial for recording new, explicit memories, but is not where all old memories are stored

free recall

primacy and recency effects in ______________ ______________: Research participants heard a list of common words presented at a rate of one word per second. Immediately after hearing the list, participants were asked to write down as many of the words on the list as they could recall. The results show that position in the series strongly affected recall- participants had better recall for words at the beginning of the list (the primacy effect) and for words at the end of the list (the recency effect), compared to words in the middle of the list, thus generating a U-shaped curve.

modal model

proposal of information acquisition by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)- a nickname for a specific conception of the "architecture" of memory. In this model, working memory serves both as the storage site for material now being contemplated and as the "loading dock" for long-term memory Information can reach working memory through the processes of perception, or it can be drawn from long-term memory; Once in working memory, material can be further processed or can simply be recycled for subsequent use This model prompted a large quantity of valuable research, but it has now been largely set aside, with modern theorizing offering a very different conception of working memory

pros/cons of modal model

pros: Explains primacy Explains recency Explains why interference tasks interferes with recency but not primacy Explains how rehearsal improves memory cons: Does not explain everything- For instance, it does not explain why recency appears in long-term recall experiments (E.g., listing presidents of the US- The long term recency effect)

working

rate of list presentation and the serial-position effect: Presenting the to-be-remembered materials at a slower rate improves pre-recency performance but has no effect on recency because recency is only related to items in ______________ memory. The slow presentation rate in this case was 9 seconds per item; the faster rate was 3 seconds per item

overlap

remembering "re-creates" an earlier experience: The text argues that what goes into your memory is a record of the material you've encountered and also a record of the connections you established during learning. On this basis, it makes sense that the brain areas activated when you're remembering a target _________________ considerably with the brain areas that were activated when you first encountered the target

before/after

retrograde amnesia disrupts memory for experiences ___________ the injury, accident, or disease that triggered the amnesia anterograde amnesia disrupts memory for experiences _______________ the injury, accident, or disease that triggered the amnesia some patients experience both retro- and anterograde amnesia

medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC)

self-referencing and the brain You are likely to remember words that refer to you, in comparison to words in other categories. Participants were asked to judge adjectives in three conditions: answering questions like 1) "Does this word describe the president?" (words in relation to another person) 2) "Is this word printed in capital letters?" (words in relation to its printed format) 3) "Does this word describe you?" (words in relation to self) Data from the fMRI recordings show a distinct pattern of processing when words were "self-referential." Specifically, self-referential processing is associated with activity in the _________________ ______________ _____________. This additional processing is part of the reason why self-referential words are better remembered.

subthreshold

semantic priming: Participants were given a lexical-decision task involving pairs of words. In some pairs, the words were semantically related (and so the first word in the pair primed the second); in other pairs, the words were unrelated (and so there was no priming). Responses to the second word were reliably faster if the word had been primed- providing clear evidence of the important of ___________________ activation

fluency

the chain of events leading to the sense of familiarity: In the top line, perceiving leads to _____________, and if the person attributes the fluency to some specific prior event, the stimulus will "feel familiar" The bottom line, however, indicates fluency can be created in other ways: by presenting the stimulus more clearly or for a longer exposure. Once this fluency is detected, though, it can lead to steps identical to those in the top row. In this way, an "illusion of familiarity" can be created.

retrieval

the design of a context-dependent learning experiment: Half of the participants learned the test material while underwater, half learned while on land. Then, within each group, half were tested while underwater; half were tested on land. We expect a ______________ advantage if the learning and test circumstances match. Therefore, we expect better performance in the underwater/underwater condition and the on land/on land condition.

processing fluency

the speed and ease with which the pathway will carry activation We can see these effects in lexical-decision tasks E.g., you are shown a list of words including the word "bubble"; then in the lexical-decision task, you are faster identifying words like "bubble" that had been presented in the earlier list "bubble" detectors have already been warmed up by initial presentation, so its pathway is more fluent by the second presentation in the lexical-decision task

context/encoding specificity

the tendency, when memorizing, to place in memory both the materials to be learned and some amount of their context. As a result, these materials will be recognized as familiar, later on, only if the materials appear again in a similar context If material is relearned again later in a different context, you are not likely to We learn things as a whole- not as parts of a whole, it is difficult to distinguish these parts when trying to remember something; Perceivers learn things in terms of the broader, integrated __________________ of the experience According to the ______________ ______________ principle, being reminded of the learning context helps retrieval because the context is encoded along with the learned material