PSYCH 318 FINAL EXAM

Emotions - What are 3 different ways of measuring emotions in infants, and what are the advantages and disadvantages of each type of measure?

- Researchers look at changes in facial expressions, physiology, and the contexts that elicit them - Sometimes these don't go together as clearly as in adults - We can't always know that the same expression means the same thing (need to look at the context too) In a context likely to elicit fear, do you see: -Physiological responses •E.g., increased heart rate -Behaviors appropriate to context •E.g., gaze aversion -Facial expressions Systems for coding facial expressions of emotion -highly detailed, anatomically based measurement systems for coding specific facial muscle movements in the face •FACS - Facial Ac,on Coding System (Ekman & Friesen, 1978) -- for adults •MAX - Discriminative Facial Movements Code-- for use with infants - 27 different components.

Social-Emotional Development in Toddlers - What is conscience? What are some of the earliest signs of conscience?

- an internal set of standards that guide behavior •Some signs present by age 2 -Refuse to violate rules -Seek to make reparations -Emotional response to mishaps -Concern for others

Attachment 2 - Heterotypic continuity

- continuity will not involve exactly the same behaviors at different ages; continuity will be evident in consistent patterns taking into account the developmental state of the child how display of sense of self-confidence or emotional regulation changes with age. such as independence in a 5 year old vs. 5 month.

Attachment 1 - How did ethology contribute the attachment theory?

-Both infants and mothers have built-in behaviors that form the basis of a strong relationship that is necessary if the infant is to survive. -Attachment is a system, involving both m. & b.

Emotions - What is the difference between a Functionalist and Structuralist view of emotions?

-Functionalist - emotions play an adaptive role -Structuralist - may components to emotions •Structuralist - focus on the underlying components of emotion, and on identifying emotions that children of different ages experience. -emotion elicitors -Emotion receptors (brain) -Emotion states - psychological and physical -Emotional expressions (e.g., facial, gestural, behavioral) -Emotional experience (subjective component) •Functionalist - emphasize the purpose and role of emotions in the organism's interactions with the environment -How do they regulate behavior? -What adaptive value do they have? S - interested in structure of emotions like what are the components of emotion. how do they work together. break emotions into different parts like facial expressions, physiological responses, reasons for emotions, contextual things related to emotions. F - more about meaning of emotion and reason for having emotion. associated with evolutionary theories. emotions have a purpose and they evolve. serve a purpose for individual. such as fear - threat to survival motivate to act to protect self.

Gender - What is some evidence that biological factors influence sex differences in behavior?

-No one believes that biology accounts for all gender differences; socialization is definitely involved -Evidence that some biological factors (e.g., prenatal hormones) might affect gendered behaviors -Biologically based predispositions probably interact with socialization in complex ways Found that eye contact in boys predicted by prenatal testosterone levels, suggesting partly biological effect Eye contact -Newborn female infants look longer at a face than at a mobile, males do not (Connellan, 1999) Progestin-exposed girls and boys -Exposed to higher than normal levels of androgens prenatally due to a drug mothers took in pregnancy -Both sexes showed higher levels of aggression than non-exposed siblings.

Gender - Give 2 reasons why gender consistency might be late to emerge.

1) Preoperational reasoning -Focus on appearances ('girls wear skirts') -Difficulty understanding transformations (and mentally reversing them) -Difficulty thinking about the same thing in 2 different ways 2) Lack of biological knowledge • Don't understand biological processes that affect sex/gender • Don't understand gender as having biological basis

Moral Intuitions - Summary of findings on infant moral intuitions

1st year of life -Infants distinguish prosocial from antisocial actions -Infants prefer prosocial actors to antisocial ones -Infants prefer similar others, on basis of trivial similarities Infants prefer individuals who help similar others, and individuals who harm dissimilar others 2nd year of life -Infants have some understanding of fairness -Resources should be divided equally

Temperament - Thomas & Chess 9 Dimensions

Activity Level Approach/Withdrawal Adaptability Quality of mood Attention & Persistence Distractibility Rhythmicity Intensity of reaction Threshold of responsiveness

Temperament - What do most researchers agree are components or characteristics of temperament?

Activity, attention, and approach avoidance and something to do with emotions. And how they combine them. Response to novelty.

Temperament - What is temperament?

Biological basis and not necessarily genetic basis. Stable across situations and can see in variety of contexts. Seems to last and is identifiable early and is sorta consistent across time. Can be influenced by environment and biology.

Attachment 2 - What is the sensitivity hypothesis?

Caregivers sensitivity is responsible for the attachment quality. whether baby is insecure or secure. fully placing responsibility for relationship on caregiver or adult. not about child, temperament, or environment, all about caregiver. care the child has received is responsible for security of attachment. The sensitivity hypothesis: a history of experiencing sensitive, responsive care leads to a secure attachment Secure: • Have history of sensitive and responsive care • When direct attachment behaviors to caregiver, expect reliable response • Confident in sensitive and responsive availability of caregiver Insecure: •Comfort from caregiver not consistently available •When direct attachment behaviors to caregiver may expect indifferent, rejecting or inconsistent responses •Anxious •Possibly Angry Minimizing response = • Even when in mildly threatening situation, avoid expressing attachment behaviors • Avoid rejection • -> AVOIDANT Maximizing response = •Even when in non- threatening situation, frequently express attachment behaviors •Keep caregiver available • -> ANXIOUS-RESISTANT Hyp. 1 -- Caregiving history Avoidant attachment associated with history of caregiving that is rejecting or intrusive Resistant attachment associated with inconsistent or unavailable caregiving Hyp. 2 -- Temperament plays a role in child's response to insensitive care (Beslky & Rovine, 1987) Avoidant attachment associated with less fearful temperament Resistant attachment associated more fearful temperament whether child responds to this is based off their temperament. • ---> AVOIDANT • History of rejection? • Low of fearfulness? •--> ANXIOUS-RESISTANT •History of unavailable caregiver? •High on fearfulness? fearful are resistance pattern - clingy and distressed when mother goes. low on fear - don't respond when she leaves or seek comfort.

Emotions - What is dyadic synchrony?

Close matching in time of what each partner is doing. smiling at the baby and baby is smiling back at you and both doing it at the same time. if I do something will baby response in short period of time, is there that short linkage of timing of partners. minimizing and maximizing responses that adults can have to pull out more of one emotion than another. positive and discourage negative emotions. max - give baby big smile and they give you a big smile min - may match negative emotion of baby but not as strongly as the babies and switch them to positive emotion. • Minimizing imitation - parent imitates nega+ve expression briefly, then switches to posi+ve • Modulating imitation - parent maintains expression but tempers intensity • Maximizing imitation - parent exaggerates infants expression

Social-Emotional Development in Toddlers - What are committed and situational compliance? What contributes to committed compliance in toddlers?

Committed - compliant no matter what. Situational - I will obey your rules as long as I have to but as soon as I don't have to I don't care. I'll do it because I know you can make me. Will steal sisters toys if they know they won't get in trouble. •Committed compliance-whole hearted, willing, self-regulated compliance in which the child appears to be eagerly embracing the mothers agenda and her values •Situational compliance- ... child, although essentially cooperative, does not embrace mothers agenda wholeheartedly. Such compliance is shaky and seems contingent on sustained maternal control. Paths to conscience •What contributes to committed compliance? (Kochanska et al., 2001) -Mutually responsive orientation (MRO) •Close, positive relationship •Shared positive affect •Responsiveness •Pleasurable, harmonious interactions

Attachment 1 - Describe the 4 stages in the development of an attachment relationship

Discriminate social responsiveness (2-7 months) - Signs of discriminate responsiveness •Differential responsiveness Coincides with •Social smiling (6-8 weeks) •Face-to-face exchanges Focused Attachment (8-24 months) - Signs of focused attachment •Separation distress •Stranger anxiety •Secure base behavior •Social referencing Coincides with •Intentional communication, •Crawling, emergence of fear, anger, surprise Goal-corrected partnership (24 months +) - Signs of goal-corrected partnership •Mother as secure base for exploration •Negotiation Coincides with •Awareness of self •Awareness of standards •Self-regulation

Gender - What cognitive ability predicts an increase in choice of gender-stereotyped toys between 17 and 21 months?

Early labelers - When they know they're a girl or boy played more with gender typed toys. children who label gender earlier will show more stereotyped play Results • Increase in gender-typed toy play from 17 - 21 months predicted by: • Number of gender labels • Production of both "boy" and "girl"term-49 • Self-labeling Conclusions -Children who know more/talk more about gender are also more likely to play with gender stereotyped toys at 17 - 21 months -Gender differences quite small (accounting for about 5% of play time) -Gender differences only apparent for most highly stereotyped toys (dolls/trucks) Zosuls et al, (2009): children who label gender earlier will increase more in gender-stereotyped play

Temperament - According to the New York Longitudinal Study, what are the four temperament types?

Easy (40%) -Positive mood, moderate to low intensity of reaction, approached new situaIons readily Difficult (10%) -Negative mood, irregular, slow to adapt, withdrew from new situaIons, reacted with high intensity Slow to warm up (15%)-Slow to adapt, negative in mood, withdrew from new situaIons, reacted with low to moderate intensity, low activity Average (35%) - did not fit other profiles

Emotions - What are some changes in emotional life developing at around 3 months, 6 months and 12 months?

Frustration • Emerges around 3-4 months, as infants begin to have expectations about ability to accomplish their goals. Now they have a new emotions when they are blocked from success. 3 - 4 months • Frustration - failure to execute well established motor pattern (e.g., get toy to mouth) • Delight - in social interaction, recognition of face • Wariness/Sadness - e.g., to still face • Cognitive underpinnings-Recognition of familiar stimuli-Anticipation of outcomes 6-9 months • Anger - placing toy out of reach, restraint from achieving goals, shots • Fear - of strangers, of objects discrepant from expectations • Joy - immediate positive response to caregiver, games like peekaboo, etc. -Cognitive & other underpinnings - Recall memory - comparing stimuli to mental representations of familiar ones - Means-end understanding- increasing separation of means and ends - Mobility - crawling, as infant gain ability to encounter danger, becomes more fearful 6 - 7 months - increase in fear to unfamiliar, unexpected •Stranger anxiety - fear of strangers •Separation protest - protesting separation from caregiver 12 months • Angry mood - prolonged angry response to blockage of goals • Anxiety - in anticipation of negative event - separation anxiety • Elation - in response to visual incongruities, in anticipation of events, to events infant is involved in producing • Cognitive and other underpinnings -Increasing ability to anticipate the future and recall the past -Focus on mastery

Gender - What is the difference between gender identity, gender stability and gender consistency?

Gender consistency - not distracted by wearing opposite sex clothes. can resist the gender they're dressed as and know what they are. Gender stability - they know they are gonna be a girl or boy forever. develop around 4 or 5 years. Gender identity - identifies gender of dolls and of self (Mean age = 47 months) Gender stability - knows that has always been boy or girl (Mean age = 53 months) Gender consistency - knows that in spite of superficial changes, will remain a boy or girl (Mean age = 55 months)

Gender - When do children first show awareness of some gender stereotypes? When do they have gender identity?

Gender identity - 19 mos. Starting around 24 months, children develop a "Conceptual Self" - start to develop knowledge about themselves • Gender one of the first attributes learned • Gender identity • Gender stability • Gender consistency - in spite of appearance change, gender remains consistent - late to develop, around 4 years -Children have some knowledge of gender-specific activities quite early (24 - 31 months) • Girls seem to acquire this knowledge earlier • Increase in gender-typed toy play from 17 - 21 months

Moral Intuitions - Describe how researchers showed that infants expect resources to be equally distributed. At what age did they show this? What affects this expectation?

Giraffes getting toys. 2 types of tasks for assessing understanding of fairness First party tasks - child is directly involved in the sharing event; self interest is involved Third party tasks - child is an observer of situa-ons where resources are divided between other people. First party tasks 3 - 4 years - children respond to unequal divisions of resources only when they themselves are disadvantaged 5 - 6 years - children respond to unequal divisions of resources even if they are the beneficiaries Third party tasks 3-4 years - children show preference for equal division of resources Affects this expectation: had to go against self interest and determine if unfair.

Gender - Who get gender concept earlier?

Girl slightly earlier.

Moral Intuitions - Describe a study showing that infants may sometimes prefer harming to helping someone different from themselves

Hamlin, Mahajan, Liberman & Wynn (2013) Participants 9-month-olds 14-month-olds Procedure Phase 1: determine infant's food preference Phase 2: 2 rabbit puppets indicate their own food preferences Phase 3: infants were assigned to: -Similar target condition (protagonist puppet is similar) -Different target (protagonist puppet is different) -infants view additional puppet show with alternating events involving target rabbit puppet and 2 dog puppets Helper event: target drops ball, helper returns ball Harmer event: target drops ball, harmer runs away with it Both 9 and 14-month- olds preferred the helper if the target was similar to them BUT Both groups preferred the harmer if the target was dissimilar to them!

Moral Intuitions - Describe how researchers showed that infants prefer helpers to harmers.

Hamlin, Wynn & Bloom (2007) Expt. 1 (Reaching) 6 months: 12/12 chose helper 10 months: 14/16 chose helper They controlled for pre-exis-ng preferences (triangle was helper on half; square was helper on half)They controlled for experimenter influence (E. was blind to condi-on) What else should they control for? Expt. 2 (Control for perceptual features) -Do infants simply prefer pushing up to pushing down (low level perceptual features)? -Removed eyes from ball-Infants saw smooth mo-on (push up/push down) 6-month-olds: 4/12 prefer pusher up10-month-olds: 6/12 prefer pusher up No systema-c preference Conclusion: It is not the basic perceptual features of push up vs. down that drives infants preference in Expt. 1 -Expt. 2 - Do 3-month-olds like helpers, dislike hinderers, or both? Helping/Neutral trials saw helping events alterna-ng with neutral events where shape bypassed the circle, and just went up the hill OR Hindering/Neutral trials saw hindering events, alterna-ng with neutral event where shape bypassed the circle, and just went down the hill. Conclusions: -Infants preferred Neutral to hindering shapes • Infants had no preference for helpers over neutral shapes Infants distinguish prosocial from antisocial actions as early as 3 months and prefer prosocial to antisocial actors! -This is surprising because a lot of sophisticated concepts are involved intentions (invisible mental states) interaction of 2 actor's intentions (helping/hindering) -It seems unlikely this could have been learned in 3 months -Perhaps infants are born with an innate sense of some basic moral principles.

Moral Intuitions - Describe some ways young children prefer others who are similar to themselves

In group bias - the tendency to favor individuals in our own group over others outside our group Toddlers & Preschoolers • shortly after establishing gender identity, toddlers slightly prefer same-gender playmates • 3-year-olds more likely to interact with novel toys if observe same- gender peer interact with them (Shuis et al., 2010) • 12-month-olds prefer to take food from a stranger who speaks own language (Shuis et al., 2009) • 5-year-olds more likely to choose as a friend a child who speaks with the same accent (Kinzler et al., 2009)

Attachment 2 - What is an internal working model?

Internal working model - a cognitive representation of a relationship that influences future relationships. • Through experiences in first relationships, child forms internal working model of relationships -Implicit expectations about self and others • Internal working models are carried forward and influence subsequent adaptation important because its the first one and lay down model for other relationships. baby learns both sides of relationship - rejection - baby learns my attempts are rejected and learn to reject other people. this will last maybe forever and will at least be with you a little for the rest of your life. •But what else could account for positive relationships with caregivers in infancy predicting later positive outcomes? -Continuity in caregiving overtime and can also act this way to other children. -Continuity in environment -Continuity in child factors like temperament -Early experiences establish skills that are used to build subsequent skills reason you see different attachment classifications is because different caregiving but what was the support or evidence? - grouped moms in different groups where one got training and one did not. huge difference, group without training very high rate of insecure attachment. with training - secure attachment.

Social-Emotional Development in Toddlers - What are some ways that parents help children develop a conscience?

Interpretation -For fearful children, forceful discipline arouses them so much they cannot take in the parents messages - gentle discipline is better -For fearless children, conscience may be instilled more by positive desire to please parent, which is facilitated by positive parent- child relationship •Story completion-Completing stories with moral themes •Score themes such as apologizing, feeling empathy, feeling worried about wrongdoing, confessing to wrongdoing. •Individual differences in early development of conscience depend on: -A) characteristics of child -B) parenting practices

Emotions - How does maternal depression affect infants' interactions with their mothers? & How does maternal depression affect and infants' development long term?

Less interactions with the baby - look less and give less emotions, less touching, less talking. 2 types of depressed moms - moms who do less overall, moms who are invasive. Disengaged - withdrawn, flat affect Intrusive - express anger, irritation, rough handling Interactions between depressed moms and their infants compared to non-depressed moms Maternal behaviors Look less Less emotion Less positive emotion More anger Fewer play behaviors Less touch More intense touch Less infant-directed speech (lacks exaggerated intonation) Infant behaviors Less attention Fewer contented expressions More fussy Lower activity levels More sad expressions More angry expressions Fewer interest expressions • 50- 80% of mothers experience postpartum blues (mild symptoms in 1st 10 days after birth) • 8-15% experience postpartum depression (Major depressive episode in 1st year) • 30-50% of mothers depressed in low income samples •Infants of Disengaged mothers -Look away more -Protest more •Infants of Intrusive mothers -Look away more -Play with objects less Baby will assume other partners will be like mom • Infants maintain their "depressed style" of interacting with unfamiliar non-depressed adults (Hart et al., 1998; Jones et al, 1997 and others) • However, when interacting with a familiar, non-depressed caregiver, their interactions do not show "depressed style" Need another partner to learn other ways of interacting. •Interactions with caregivers -Shape the amount emotions are expressed -Help infants regulate emotions and develop sense of self (Tronick) -Infants of depressed moms show depressed interactive style, and long-term outcomes on development

Attachment 2 - Chris Fraley - Internal Working Model

Let's test this with statistical modeling Using the NICHD data set (same one we talked about in childcare) Lots of data! Results and Conclusions •consistent with predictions that there is at least some enduring effect of early maternal sensitivity •First relationships may play a special role in establishing foundations for later social development special about 1st attachment and goes over and above continuity forever findings support special about inner working model. continuity in child and parenting overtime.

Attachment 2 - What did the Minnesota Parent-Child Longitudinal Study find about the characteristics of securely and insecurely attached children in preschool, middle childhood and adolescence?

Longitudinal study of consequences of a7achment classification •Started 1974-75 •267 first time mothers •High risk Preschool - •Prediction - secure attachment should produce self-reliance •Findings: - Teachers rated children who had been classified as avoidant or resistant as more dependent than those who were secure - Secure children were rated as better able to manage their impulses •Prediction - secure attachment should have better peer skills •Findings: -Secure children: •Participated more actively •Showed more positive affect with other children •Were more popular •Showed more empathy Middle Childhood - •Secure children -More likely to form friendships -Judged by counselors as more independent -Were less dependent on adults -Better at functioning in groups -Maintained friendships within groups Adolescence - •Secure children -More positive friendships -More positive romantic relationships -Better grades in school, controlling for IQ

Attachment 2 - How does social context relate to attachment classification?

Maternal risk factors play a larger role in insecure attachment than infant risk factors. •Marital relationship •Family stressors •Mother's social support

Temperament - How can parenting influence temperament?

Parenting influences temperament, but temperament also influences parenIng. -Negative emotionality •Increases associated with: -Lower parental involvement -Lack of responsivity to infant distress -High levels of marital problems •Decreases associated with: -Responsive, sensiIve caregiving -Mothers with high levels of social support -Behavioral InhibiIon (low on approach) •Decreases associated with: -Less responsive to infant distress-More responses to infant posiIve affect-Serng firm limits • Sources of temperamental differences -Genetics -Nutrition -ParenIng

Moral Intuitions - Mahajan & Wynn (2012) puppets and food

Participants: 11-month-olds Similarity established on the basis of food preferences. Phase 1: Infant chooses food (green beans vs. graham crackers) Phase 2: 2 Puppets chooses food, same or different from child Phase 3: New experimenter, blind to puppet's and infant's food preferences, offers the two puppets to the infant. Conclusions • 11-month-olds prefer actors who have the same food preferences as they do • The preferences are quite strong • They are showing in-group bias based on fairly trivial characteris-cs.

Social-Emotional Development in Toddlers - What self-conscious emotions emerge from 24 - 36 months?

Pride, evaluative embarrassment •Shame - judge actions as failing to meet standards, want to disappear •Guilt and regret - negative emotion when comparing actions to standards, focus on consequences of behavior, empathy for others • Pride - joyful feeling at successful outcome, feeling of having met standards • Evaluative embarrassment - evaluating one's actions as not living up to one's internalized standards (these do not require response or evaluation by another person) Guilt is not meeting standards based off other people. Shame is not meeting your own personal standard.

Gender - What is the difference between the existential self and the conceptual self?

The Existential Self (18 - 24 months) -Awareness of the existence of the self, as a separate and independent entity -Associated behaviors: mirror self-recognition, sense of ownership, self-conscious emotions The Conceptual Self (24 - 36 months) -Developing knowledge about oneself, and increasing ability to distinguish one's characteristics from others' characteristics -Associated behaviors: identifying one's membership in conceptual categories (I am a girl/boy/brother/sister); developing an autobiographical memory (these events happened to me)

Attachment 2 - What is the Adult Attachment Interview? How do parents' responses to this interview relate to the attachment classification of their own children? (Hint: your textbook)

in which the parent discusses her or his relationships with her or his own mother and father, and the rater pays particular attention not to the content of the response per se (i.e., whether the relationship is described positively or negatively), but to whether the parent can provide convincing details to back up her or his descriptions.term-48 Parental AAI classifications are predictive of corresponding infant-parent attachment classifications (Hesse, 2008). That is, mothers classified with the AAI as autonomous (the analog of a secure attachment in infancy) are likely to have securely attached infants. Mothers classified as dismissing (analogous to insecure-avoidant infant-mother attachment) are likely to have insecure-avoidant infants. Mothers classi- fied as preoccupied (analogous to an insecure-resistant attachment in infancy) are likely to have insecure- resistant attachments. Finally, mothers classified as unresolved (conceptually akin to insecure-disorganized attachment in infancy) are likely to have insecure-disorganized infants. In addition, autonomous mothers are more sensitive toward their infants than are non-autonomous mothers.

Temperament - What is goodness-of-fit?

match between the infant and the environment (any aspect parents, school situation,) idea is what will work for one kid won't work for everyone. if difficult temperament - need parent that has firm control over behavior, important to have it. exs. parents characteristics are important for certain children. children who are low on approach and inhibited - parents with firm control had children who overcame it earlier on than others. Temperament and environment interact to produce developmental outcomes •Environment - parenting styles, physical environment, educational environment, family environment..... -one aspect could be parents' temperament •Fit with parents' temperament -Fit with parents' temperament ≠ Similarity in temperament • The fit between a temperament and environment are important, rather than the nature of temperament or the quality of environment alone • The environment that is a good fit for one child may not be a good fit for a child with a different temperament

Moral Intuitions - Negativity Bias Finding

younger kids (3 mos.) not at first prefer helpers over neutral shapes. Do not like hinderers.

Attachment 1 - What were some problems shown by Romanian orphans who suffered early deprivation and lacked the opportunity to form early attachment relationships?

• Failure to establish an attachment relationship at the appropriate point in development may have long-lasting consequences. • Children adopted before 8 months may show good recovery, but if institutionalized into second year and beyond some show lasting socio-emotional effects. -Failure to establish attachment relationships -Cognitive impairments -Indiscriminate friendliness -Behavior problems

Attachment 1 - What were some theoretical influences on Bowlby's theory of attachment?

• Freud • Spitz, and other observations of institutionalized infants • Ethology • Harlow •Freud - mom saGsfies babys oral needs •Behaviorism - relief from hunger -> positive associations •Harry Harlow - maybe its not just food? How about contact comfort?

Attachment 1 - What are the 4 stages in the development of an attachment relationship, and at what ages do they occur?

• Indiscriminate social responsiveness (0 - 2 months) • Discriminate social responsiveness (2-7 months) • Focused attachment (8-24 months) • Goal-corrected partnership (24 months +)

Gender - What is some evidence that parents treat boys and girls differently from an early age.

• Parents of boys provided more physical stimulation at 10 & 13 months (Laflamme et al., 2002) -Mothers engaged in more dyadic conversation with daughters at 6, 9 & 14 months -No sex differences in infant vocalization Seavey, Katz, & Zalk (1975): Baby X study • Non-parent adults played with 3-month-old in gender-neutral clothes • Told baby was girl or boy (or not given gender information) -Played with doll more when baby labeled girl -There is a lot of evidence that parents treat infant boys and girls differently from birth -These differences may influence sex differences in behavior long before children have identified their own gender

Social-Emotional Development in Toddlers - What is behavioral regulation? What factors are thought to contribute to individual differences in this ability, and why is it thought to be important for later development?

•Compliance to adult directives, overcoming impulsive reactions, suspending desired activities.... •Involves: •Inhibiting impulses •Effortful control of attention, arousal (Rothbart) •Emotion regulation Critical to: •Behavioral regulation is critical predictor of success in various domains -Developing a conscience -Success with peers -Adaptation to school •Predictors include -Temperament of child -Parenting factors (availability, warm control, relationship quality, family emotional climate) Some research evidence on predictors of behavior regulation in toddlers ATTENTIVENESS/RELATIONSHIP •Positive family emotional "climate" •Security of attachment •Mothers emotionally available during challenging situations CONTROL • Mothers who provide more "warm control" when elici@ng compliance (Feldman & Klein, 2003) • Mothers who are sensi@ve during free play/less interfering TEACHING •Engaging in conversations about emotions (more research needed) - has been linked to child's greater understanding of emotions. • MODELING • Express own emotions clearly and explain • Don't express anger physically, don't allow child to either/remain calm • Show behavioral control through example • When child behaves badly, show them the correct thing to do

Attachment 1 - What is the purpose of the Strange Situation procedure, and at what age is it used?

•Designed to assess quality of attachment •Typically used around 12-24 months of age •Uses infant response to separations and reunions as a measure of attachment quality

Emotions - Describe Sroufe's differentiation view of the development of emotions.

•Differentiation of emotions -Going from few to many in the first 3 years Perhaps all of our emotions can be traced back to 3 main branches... Anger/Frustration - Wariness/Fear - startle response - turn to anxiety, fear, worry, wariness Pleasure/Joy & contentment, happiness, complex positive emotions guilt or shame develop over time. when get older you combine in different ways in complex ways. basic ways start here and branch out. Babies only start out with a small number of different types of emotions. All complex emotions we have as an adult originally start as a baby as just one of the three lines of emotion. As you get older and complicated creature and cognitive abilities - roots of all emotions. minimizing and maximizing responses that adults can have to pull out more of one emotion than another. positive and discourage negative emotions.

Emotions - According to Tronick, what are some things that infants learn in early face-to-face interactions?

•Early emotions are influenced by social experience •Infant emotions are related to evaluating goal achievement -Goal achieved -> joy! -Goal blocked -> frustration/ anger -Goal impossible -> sadness •Infant emotions are also signals to the caregiver •Caregivers influence infant emotions -By helping them achieve goals -By regulating negative emotions •Caregiver successfully regulates infant emotions -View self as effective -View interactions as positive -View caregiver as trustworthy -Caregiver does not successfully regulate infant emotions -Regulation of negative affect becomes infants primary goal -Disengaged from people and objects -Interactions more negative

Social-Emotional Development in Toddlers - What are self-conscious (secondary) emotions emerging 18-24 months?

•Exposure embarrassment - embarrassment at being made the center of attention (difference between evaluative, exposure is embarrassed to be the center of attention, evaluative is you have a standard in mind and judge what you have done as not meeting that standard. •Affection •Empathy •Defiance/Rage •Jealousy •Positive or negative evaluation of the self- global feelings of satisfaction or dissatisfaction in response to praise/criticism or success/failure to accomplish goals Exposure embarrassment, empathy, affection, defiance, jealousy, positive/negative evaluation of self

Social-Emotional Development in Toddlers - How are temperamentally fearful and fearless children different in the factors that influence a strong conscience, according to Kochanska?

•Interpretation -For fearful children, forceful discipline arouses them so much they cannot take in the parents messages - gentle discipline is better -For fearless children, conscience may be instilled more by positive desire to please parent, which is facilitated by positive parent- child relationship Fearless children: attachment security more important than gentle discipline Fearful children: gentle discipline more important than attachment security

Temperament - What outcomes are associated with "difficult" temperament?

•Lack of control - restlessness, short attention span, emotional lability, negativism (More Internalizing symptoms (depression, anxiety) More Externalizing symptoms (aggression, acting out) Hyperactivity Antisocial behavior. •Sluggishness - flat affect, shyness, fearfulness (More Internalizing symptoms (depression, anxiety) More Externalizing symptoms (aggression, acting out) Lower ratings of overall competence) •Approach - little caution, quick adjustment to new situations, self-reliant •Bates et al., 1995 -Study of "difficult" babies -Harsh parental reacIons at 4 years predicts externalizing behaviors in adolescence -RestricIng maternal control (serng firm limits) at 2 years (without physical punishment) --> posiIve outcomes in adolescence

Attachment 1 - How does culture affect attachment classification in the Strange Situation?

•Northern Germany (Grossman et al, 1985) -High proportion of avoidant classification -Low proportion resistant •Japan (Miyake et al., 1985) -High proportion of resistant classification -No avoidant classification •Some conclusions from cross-cultural studies of a"achment security as assessed in the Strange Situation • The meaning of the SS may vary depending on the care-giving practices a child has experienced (which vary by culture) • Even within a culture, the meaning of the SS may vary

Temperament - What are ways that temperament is measured, and what are advantages and disadvantages of different types of measures?

•Parental interviews, questionnaires -A large sample of observaIons, untrained observers -Might be biased •Home observations -Typical behavior -But maybe responses to rare events and novelty are revealing and important •Structured laboratory measures -Unfamiliar environment, small sample of behavior -Get to see all children in the same situaIons -Trained coders, systematic •Biological measures •e.g., EEG response, heartrate, corIsol response -What if they don't agree with behavior? •Researchers typically use multiple different types of measures of temperament to get a more complete picture.

Attachment 1 - Describe the 4 attachment classifications

•Secure (B) 62-68% of middle class U.S. babies -Explore toys, interact with caregiver -Distressed by absence of C. -Greet C. enthusiastically •Insecure-avoidant (A) 15%-Not engaged with toys, not distressed at separation, avoid on reunion •Insecure-resistant/anxious ( C ) 9% -Very engaged with C, reluctant to explore, very distressed at separation; anger and relief on reunion •Disorganized (D) 5-15% -contradictory or unusual behaviors. -E.g., -approach backward -Smile and turn away -Frozen posture -Blank stares -Repetitive behaviors -Fearful expressions

Social-Emotional Development in Toddlers - Describe changes occurring 18-24 months that are associated with the emergence of self-conscious emotions.

•Self-recognition -Passes "rouge test" • Well differentiated sense of self-other -use of personal pronouns "me" "I" "mine" -Reason about others' desires (e.g., broccoli/cracker task) -Respond to requests to perform actions on self as well as on mother • Drive for autonomy-"I do it!" -defiance, "terrible twos" • Secondary emo@ons -Exposure embarrassment, empathy, affec@on, defiance, jealousy, posi@ve/nega@ve evalua@on of self