psych 323 exam 1

What are the sources of personality theories?

- Careful observation and deep introspection of insightful thinkers - Systematic empirical research -concepts borrowed from other disciplines (most theories utilize all three of these)

Oral Stage:

-Freud's first stage of psychosexual development during which pleasure is centered in the mouth a. The conflict arises when a child is weaned and must give up the comforting breast or bottle. b. Difficulty in transferring psychosexual energy (libido) to the next stage results in fixation at this stage - May lead to dependency - May lead to preoccupation with oral activities (eating, smoking, chewing gum, smoking, fingernail biting, talking too much, etc.)

Latency Stage:

-Freud's fourth psychosexual stage, in which the primary focus is on the further development of intellectual, creative, interpersonal, and athletic skills -in this period, psychosexual energy is channeled into academic and social pursuits; kids focus on making friends, cooperating with teachers, and developing other socially acceptable behaviors. - Because there is no conflict to be resolved, fixation cannot occur.

Genital Stage:

-Freud's last stage of personality development, from the onset of puberty through adulthood, during which the sexual conflicts of childhood resurface (at puberty) and are often resolved during adolescence). -in this stage, the individual gains satisfaction from mature, heterosexual relationships. a. Normal development is characterized by marriage, sexual relations, and childrearing. b. Freud (incorrectly) identified anything other than a progression toward heterosexual marriage and sexual relations as being flawed and unnatural.

Anal Stage:

-Freud's psychosexual period during which a child learns to control his bodily excretions a. The conflict arises when parents toilet train the child—the child may react by refusing to be trained or by refusing to relieve him- or herself at all. b. Difficulty in transferring the libido to the next stage results in fixation at this stage - May lead to excessive usage of bathroom humor and making messes. - May lead to preoccupation with neatness and order - Anal-retentive and anal-expulsive characteristics

Phallic Stage:

-Freud's third stage of development, when the penis becomes the focus of concern and pleasure a. The conflict arises because overt sexual behavior is not socially acceptable. b. Oedipus complex (boys): during this period, little boys desire mother and fear that father will punish this desire by castrating them. Resolution requires that little boys transform their fears into admiration and identification. c. Electra complex (girls): during this period, little girls wish they had a penis and blame mother for their inferiority. Resolution requires that little girls identify with mother so they can obtain a man and have a baby (a penis substitute). Freud was not a fan of the term "Electra complex."

Biological measures:

-Generally aim to correlate individual differences in personality with the activation of specific neural circuits or regions of the brain -early attempts included phrenology and body-typing, while some more modern variations include things like palm reading. more reliable forms include recording brain activity via electrodes, fMRI, EEGs, PET scans, levels of brain chemicals, and hormones.

social desirability response set

-people's tendency to present themselves in a favorable light -present two or more items with equal social desirability to help eliminate bias

Cultural determinants of personality

-personality is innate—that we are born with a certain temperament and character that is permanent -nature vs. nurture

Brief history of personality psychology: testing

-psychologists tested uniformed personnel to determine if they were a good fit for the army - Knowledge and testing soon combined with insights emerging from clinical (therapeutic) work and with approaches evolving in experimental psychology to form the basis of modern personality theory and research.

inductive approach

-rely on the careful collection of observations to outline and revise theories -An approach to psychology in which observations are systematically collected and concepts are developed based on what the data reveal

experimental study (experiments):

-research design that allows us to make inferences about cause and effect -people are randomly assigned to either a treatment group or a control group, and then the two groups are compared

correlational study:

-research design that assess the degree of relationship between two variables -do not tell us anything about causal relationships

case study:

-research design that examines one person or a small number of people in depth, often over an extended time period -different methods including document analysis, self-report measures, and assessments of expressive behavior may be used in combination to learn about an individual. -cannot be used to generalize to other individuals in a population.

quasi-experimental designs:

-research designs involving the manipulation of the independent variable but lacking either random assignment to groups or a control group -are used when circumstances make it impossible (or very difficult) to randomly assign people to conditions

Construct validity:

-the extent to which a test truly measures a theoretical construct -__________ validity is established by finding whether behaviors, attitudes, etc. that are theoretically relevant to the construct can be predicted by the measure

Projective tests:

-these assessment tools require one to draw a picture, complete a sentence, tell a story about an ambiguous stimulus, or interpret an ambiguous stimulus. The goal is to gain access to unconscious motives and concerns, but again, there is a lot of room for bias in interpretation. -examples include the Rorschach Inkblot Test, the Thematic Apperception Test, and the Draw-A-Person Test -the Implicit Associations Test can be viewed as a form of this test that probes a person's implicit attitudes.

Interviews:

-these include unstructured interviews (which are more free and thus potentially more rich, but also more difficult to assess in terms of validity) and structured interviews (more valid, but also more likely to miss important individual nuances). In general, interviews of any type are easily biased by the preconceptions and behaviors of the interviewer. -an example of a structured interview is the interview used to assess the Type A behavior pattern.

Expressive behavior:

-this involves a careful analysis of how people do things—how they move or talk, for example—rather than what they do. -often biased by cultural and gender-related factors.

Other ways to help solve the problem with bias in response sets:

-Lie scales may be used to pick up random response patterns, or those who are lying. -It's best to use several different methods of assessment, since none is without bias.

Distinction between correlation and causation

-__________ is the relationship between two sets of variables used to describe or predict information. -___________, also known as cause and effect, is when an observed event or action appears to have caused a second event or action -_____________ doesn't imply ____________

Q-sort tests:

-a special type of self-report test, which may be more flexible than the traditional questionnaire; the individual places cards, each with a descriptive word or term, into piles indicating if the characteristics are "least" or "most" like themselves - forced-normal distribution (only a few can be in either pile)

Freudian slips and when they may occur:

-an unintentional error regarded as revealing subconscious feelings -when elements of the id "slip past" the moral guardian of the superego -also known as parapraxis

Ethnic bias:

-common form of bias that describes the inappropriate application of a test developed in one culture to another culture -characteristic that may be a strength in one culture is perceived as a weakness or deficiency in another

gender bias:

-common form of bias that occurs when a test produces biased results against one gender or another -characteristics that are strengths for one group, or that are simply not socialized for one group, are perceived as weaknesses or "missing" for another group

Unique vs. general approaches to studying people

-each person's biography is different, so it is hard to generalize -Researchers were so concerned with being scientific that they ignored the most complex aspects of personality. Some modern research thus tries to bridge this gap by first studying each individual in detail and then using common dimensions that emerge to study differences among individuals.

Importance of data and statistics for scientific testing of many theories

-insights are not scientific until they have been tested in a systematic way, using validated methods

deductive approach

-involves applying psychological principles to explain individual behavior and expanding theories based on those observations -An approach to psychology in which the conclusions follow logically from the premises or assumptions

Brief history of personality psychology: evolutionary biology

-most direct influences on modern personality psych -Charles Darwin's idea of evolution argued that individual characteristics that enabled an organism to pass on genes to offspring become more prevalent in the population over generations -Individuals who were not well adapted to the demands of their environment would not survive to reproduce -key contribution of Darwinian evolutionary theory was the way in which it freed thinking from assumptions of divine control.

Psychoanalytic approach

Attention to unconscious influences; importance of sexual drives

How did Freud's focus on sexuality lead to his extensive consideration of males' and females' different genitals?

1. Women were considered inferior because they did not have a penis. 2. Freud proposed that the mature sexual development of a girl involves shifting pleasure-seeking to the vagina (a "vaginal orgasm"); experiencing orgasm from stimulation of the clitoris ("clitoral orgasm") was a psychologically and biologically inferior and less mature form of sexual satisfaction 3. Modern research does not support Freud's notions regarding different kinds of orgasms.

How to fix biases in psychological testing:

All tests must make assumptions about the background, knowledge, and abilities of the person taking the test. Some of these assumptions will be incorrect. This doesn't mean the tests shouldn't be used; it just means we must be careful in our interpretations and look at the context to which results are applied

Why are Freud's ideas less influential today?

Freud's observations about gender differences are not supported by modern research, but he is credited as being among the first scholars to try to understand psychological differences between men and women.

Personal vs. situational influences

If extroverted people can act like introverts, or if honest people can behave dishonestly, what sense does it make to talk about personality? And how do we take into account the fact that everyone is influenced, at least in part, by situation?

internal consistency and split-half reliability

Describes the extent to which subparts of a test yield the same results

Cognitive approach

Emphasis on active nature of human thought

Neo-analytic/ ego approach

Emphasis on self as it struggles to cope with internal emotions and drives and external social demands

Discriminant Validity:

Making sure a test is not related to what it should not be related to

Usefulness of personality for understanding behavior

People are complex creatures, and it is important to avoid simplistic illusions or wishful thinking about a personality

Interactionist approach

Recognition of different selves in different situations

validity:

Refers to the extent to which a test actually measures what it claims to measure

Behaviorist approach

Scientific analysis of learning experiences that shape personality

convergent validity:

Seeing if a test is related to what it theoretically should be related to

How do personality psychologists differ from pseudoscientific endeavors?

Since personality psychologists use scientific methods to test their theories, conclusions are much more reliable and valid (compared to those obtained from astrology, palm reading, physiognomy, and other pseudoscientific endeavors)

Test-retest reliability (measure of consistency over time)

Involves the test's degree of consistency on different occasions

defense mechanisms

Ways of Protecting the Conscious Mind from Unacceptable Unconscious Content

Objective Assessment:

measurement that is not dependent on the individual making the assessment

Subjective Assessment:

measurement that relies on Interpretation by the individual making the assessment

Due in part to the historical period, Freud viewed men as ________ and women as ________.

men: inherently superior women: deviant

Online analysis of social media and Big Data:

easy to gather large amounts of information on current focus and interest, network ties to others, unassuming; subject to self-presentation bias.

why do theories of personality borrow concepts from other disciplines?

other disciplinary concepts need to be noted because these concepts could be used to test present theories—for instance, if new advances in biochemistry show that one theory of personality is impossible, the theory must be reworked to be consistent with current biochemical knowledge.

Research designs:

case studies, correlational studies, and experimental studies (experiments)

One of Freud's arguments was that women have

an unconscious desire for suffering - Women in unhealthy or abusive relationships were viewed as masochistic.

Margaret Mead:

anthropologist who highlighted the importance of cross-cultural comparisons

Advantages of subjective assessment:

complex and rich phenomena may be examined and valuable insights gained.

Reliability

consistency in scores or ratings that are expected to be consistent

what is personality research impacted by?

culture

Henry Murray:

integrated clinical issues with theory and assessment issues, emphasis on comprehensive orientation, longitudinal design

Idiographic approach

involved with the study of individual cases (unique)

The Barnum effect:

refers to the tendency to believe vague generalities about one's own personality (horoscopes)

Nomothetic approach

seeks to formulate laws (general)

Ratings and judgments:

someone else fills out a questionnaire or answers questions about the target (participant); parents, teachers, friends, spouse, psychologist.

Content validity:

the extent to which a measure accurately measures the domain it is supposed to

Criterion-related validity:

the extent to which a measure can predict important outcome criteria

Personality psychology

the scientific study of psychological forces that make people uniquely themselves

Gordon Allport:

the search for underlying organizational properties, with a focus on the uniqueness and dignity of the individual

ego ("I")

the structure which deals with reality; operates according to the reality principle

superego ("over-I")

the structure which internalizes societal norms; operates according to the morality principle

The importance of the unconscious

the unconscious mind governs behavior to a greater degree than people suspect

id ("it")

the undifferentiated core of personality; operates according to the pleasure principle

the multitrait-multimethod perspective

the use of multiple assessment methods and various traits in order to determine test validity

Brief history of personality psychology: theater and self-presentation

theatrical notions have subsequently been addressed in personality psychology, especially in under- standing the importance of the social situation. They have also influenced existential and humanistic psychologists who have speculated about what it means to be a human being. But where theater gives momentary insight, personality psychology seeks lasting and universal scientific principles.

Behavioral observations:

these include actually watching people perform various behaviors as well as experience sampling (such as having a person carry a beeper and then write down what he or she is doing each time the beeper goes off). Expressive behavior can be reliably coded.

Demographics and lifestyle:

this includes gathering information about the person's age, place of birth, religion, family size, etc. Although these variables are not psychological in nature, they can aid in reaching a more complete understanding of the makeup of an individual.

Document analysis:

this technique involves careful analysis of an individual's letters, diaries, etc. Writings such as these are most useful as supplements to other sources of information, but may be a rich source of data in their own right.

the structure of the mind:

three parts (id, ego, superego) that correspond to emotional, rational, and ethical aspects respectively

Authoritarian personality:

traits often associated with masculinity, rigidness, defensiveness, cold

Brief history of personality psychology: religion

-Western: People fulfill a divine purpose and struggle for good and against evil -Eastern: emphasize self- awareness and spiritual self-fulfillment

Male-female differences

-Why do men often seem more aggressive, dominant, antisocial, and better at performing mathematical and spatial tasks? -Why are women generally more socially connected, more prone to depression, and more nurturant?

How NOT to test personality:

1. Using the stars to understand personality (astrology) is rarely useful. 2. Physical body measures such as phrenology are not valid. 3. Palm reading, numerology, and handwriting analysis may be fun, but usually do not tell us very much about personality.

Eight Different Approaches to Studying Personality:

1. Psychoanalytic 2. Neo-analytic/Ego 3. Biological 4. Behaviorist 5. Cognitive 6. Trait 7. Humanistic/Existential 8. Interactionist

What are some of the ethical issues in personality testing?

1. Test results will always contain some "error," and thus will always be somewhat inaccurate. 2. When these tests are used to identify those who should be excluded from something (like school, medical treatment, etc.), these errors become very important. 3. The fact that errors do occur should not preclude our making use of the psychological assessment tools that are available. 4. Instead, we must be careful at many points in the assessment process: - In our interpretation of test results - When choosing how to apply our knowledge - In the construction of new tests - Open to revision of "tried and true" measures if new information becomes

Stages of Psychosexual Development (Freud)

Oral Stage (0-1yr) Anal Stage (1-3yrs) Phallic Stage (3-6yrs) Latency Stage (6-11yrs) Genital Stage (11+yrs)

The basic questions that personality psychologists seek to answer are:

"What does it mean to be a person?" "How are we unique as individuals?" "What is the nature of the self?"

what are random variations in measurement called?

"errors of measurement" or "error variance"

Types of systematic empiricial research

- deductive approach - inductive approach

acquiescence response set

-Tendency for some people to be more likely to agree than disagree with anything you ask them -Some items should be reverse worded (reverse-coded) to help eliminate this bias.

self-report tests:

-Test that ask test takers to respond to a series of questions and report on their own personality features -These are usually pencil-and-paper tests (questionnaires) -Some examples include the MMPI, ACT, NEO-PI, PRF, and MBTI.

The Unconscious, in Freud's view:

1. Early in his career, he began using hypnosis to treat patients, many of whom he believed suffered from hysteria. 2. Moved into the realm of suggestion, free-association, and dream interpretation - Dreams called the "royal road" to understanding the unconscious - Manifest vs. latent content (an iceberg is a very familiar analogy)

What are different ways of assessing reliability?

1. Internal consistency and split-half reliability 2. Cronbach's coefficient alpha for internal consistency 3. Test-retest reliability (measure of consistency over time)

How does one choose items to include in a personality test?

1. Items should discriminate among individuals with varying levels of the measured trait. 2. Items should be intercorrelated, but not so highly that the items are overly redundant. 3. The final assessment should have a normal distribution (individuals very high or very low, as well as in the middle, should be measurable with the test); Item Response Theory (IRT)

How can we have reliable personality assessments when people change, or when our environments influence us in different ways?

1. Look at personality as an underlying influence that affects behavior—that is, specific responses or behaviors might change over time, but consistent underlying patterns should be discernible. 2. Look for consistency in the short term, but expect changes when looking over periods of many years. Also, expect to see some changes after life-changing transitions and/or traumatic events.

Cronbach's coefficient alpha for internal consistency

A statistic that measures internal consistency

Humanistic/ existential approach

Appreciation of spiritual aspects of personality; emphasis on struggles for self-fulfillment

Trait approach

Focus on individual assessment techniques

Biological approach

Focus on tendencies and limits imposed by biological inheritance

Kurt Lewin:

Gestalt tradition, integrative nature of perception and thought, a whole that is greater than the sum of the parts; believed in the importance of changing situations (dynamic systems)

The definition of the self

a person's essential being that distinguishes them from others, especially considered as the object of introspection or reflexive action

8 psychological forces that make people uniquely themselves:

a. Unconscious forces b. Ego forces c. A person is a biological being d. Conditioning and shaping forces e. Cognitive forces f. Traits, skills, and predispositions g. Spiritual forces h. Person-environment interaction

Problems with subjective assessment:

observers may not agree in their judgments; even when they do agree, they may still be wrong.