Psych 428 Exam 1
watching TV or physical activity
What are some situations that trigger subjective self-awareness?
culture
1. any kind of info that is acquired from other members of one's species through social learning that is capable of affecting an individual's behaviors (in other words, any kind of idea, belief, technology, habit, or practice that is acquired through leaning from others 2. indicates a particular group of individuals, these are people who are existing within some kind of shared context
-depends on how you interpret findings -overgeneralization to all individuals/contexts -cultural differences in psychological processes are shaped by contexts and thus are not fixed -recognizing individual differences and contextual variations within each culture is important
Are cultural psychology studies stereotyping people?
1. Independent view of self= inside-out tendency 2. Interdependent view of self= outside-in tendency
Connect the inside-out and outside-in tendency to the independent and interdependent view of self
1. Existential Universal: a psychological phenomenon is said to exist in multiple cultures, although the phenomenon is not necessarily used to solve the same problem, nor is it equally accessible 2. Functional Universal: Psychological phenomena that exist in multiple cultures, are used to solve the same problems across cultures, yet are more accessible to people from some culture than others 3. Accessibility Universal: strongest case for universality and indicated that a given psychological phenomenon exists in all cultures, is used to solve the same problem, and is accessible to the same degree across cultures
Distinguish between existential universal, functional universal, and accessibility universal
1. Imitative learning= the learner internalizes something of the model's goals and behavioral strategies 2. Emulative learning= the learning is focused on the environmental events that are involved- how the use of one object could potentially effect changes in the state of the environment *Key difference between the 2 is that emulative learning doesn't require imitating a model's behavioral strategies
Distinguish imitative learning and emulative learning
Independent view of self: structure is bounded/stable and tasks include being unique & expressing one's unique attributes Interdependent view of self: structure is flexible/variable and tasks are to belong, fit in, and occupy one's proper place
Distinguish the tasks and structures of the independent view of self vs. the interdependent view of self
-Ps: Halloween trick or treaters in USA -IV: objective self-awareness (presence of mirror vs. absence of mirror), manipulation of objective self awareness -DV: amount of candy taken (just 1 or more than 1?) -Results: no mirror = 30% took more than 1 and with mirror= 15% took more than 1 piece
Explain Diener's Halloween Study
-Ps: European-Canadian and Asian-Canadian undergrads -IV: emotion induction (shame & contempt, anger & fear, sadness & sympathy) -DV: emotional ratings of same emotions of facial expressions *egocentric projection score: avg. rating of emotions that Ps were induced to feel *complementary projection score: avg. rating of emotions that the other would feel in response to the P's emotion -Results: Asian-Canadians took more complementary views and European-Canadians took more egocentric views
Explain the Cohen & Guns study 2 regarding egocentric and complementary projection
-Hypothesis: Easterners have more 3rd person memory than Westerners (when there is an audience) -Participants: European-Canadians & Asian-Canadian undergrads -DV: first vs. third person memories 1= entirely a 1st person memory 11= entirely a 3rd person memory -IV: types of scene (Ps at center of attention vs. Ps not at the center of attention [control]) -Thought that Asians were more likely to take 3rd person when at the center of attention -Results: Asian-Canadians more likely to take 3rd person perspective when at the center of attention and European-Canadians were equal between not center and center of attention
Explain the Cohen & Gunz study 1 regarding first and third memory
-IV #1: culture of the participants (northern males and southern males) -IV #2: experimental condition (insult condition and control condition with no insult) -DV: testosterone level -Results: testosterone increased in insult condition (southern subjects testosterone level increased a lot)
Explain the Culture of Honor Study 1: Physiological level measure
-culture of honor norms are embodied in the laws and social policies of southern states (looser gun laws) -split in US self-defense law *"retreat rule"= requires an innocent person to retreat if possible before killing an assailant *"true man rule"= allows a person to stand fast in the face of an attack and kill the assailant
Explain the Culture of Honor Study 2: Cultural Level Measures
-Ps: European-American and East Asians at the San Francisco Intl. airport -cover story: a gift in exchange for filling out a questionnaire -DV: choice of color (common vs. uncommon pen color) -Results: 70% of European-Americans chose uncommon color and not many for common color (opposite for East Asians whereas most went for the common color)
Explain the Kim & Marcus (study 2) pen study
-coding of magazine ads -materials: popular Korean and U.S. magazines (business, social commentary, women's, and pop culture/youth) -coding categories: *conformity: harmony with group norms (ex: 7 out of 7 people are using this product), following trends *uniqueness: choice or freedom (ex: choose your own view) -RESULTS: American magazines emphasized uniqueness themes (& conformity theme but not as much), Korea has high conformity theme
Explain the Kim & Markus (study 1) of uniqueness and conformity
-IV: offered $1 to lie about task vs. offered $20 to lie about task & no lie control -between-particpants manipulation -experimental design -DV: rating of task enjoyment -hypotheses: (1) when one engages in attitude-discrepant behavior (i.e. telling a lie) & does not have enough justification (i.e. only $1 reward) for the behavior, one will change the attitude to reduce dissonance (2) $1 reward condition= participants will change (3) $20 reward condition= no attitude change ***outcomes were the same as hypotheses
Explain the Leon Festinger Cognitive Dissonance Theory experiment
-Participants: American and Kenyan people (American undergrads, Nairobi undergrads, workers in Nairobi [large city] , Masai, & Sambura [local Kenyan culture groups with low western exposure]) -DV: 20 Statement Task -Results: -undergrads scored self more by psychological attributes -workers, Masai, & Sambura score self more by social roles (sambura the highest)
Explain the Ma and Schoeneman experiment regarding the 20 Statement Task
-correlational study -Participants: American and Korean undergrads -DV #1: self-consistency index (lower= consistency differed) -Americans showed higher consistency -DV #2: rating of one's subjective well-being -USA= 0.44 & Korea= 0.19 -positive correlation means higher well being with those who showed higher consistency -U.S. association of consistency & well-being is stronger than in Korea -Participants #2: informants (a friend and family member) of participant #1 -DV #3: rating of P1's social skills -DV #4: rating of P1's likability -Result: significant relationship in the U.S. but not in Korea
Explain the Suh study on self-consistency
-A scenario study -Participants: American and Polish undergrads -IV: info about one's own prior compliance vs. one's peers' compliance DV: willingness to comply (0: no likelihood to 8: high likelihood) -Self-compliance condition: considering that in the past you yourself had always complied, how willing are you to comply with the marketing survey request? -Peer-compliance condition: considering that in the past all your classmates had complied, how willing are you to comply with the marketing survey request? -Results: *self-compliance: Americans were more likely than Polish to comply *peer-compliance: Polish care more about being consistent with their classmates' behavior than Americans
Explain the experiment of Cialdini and his colleagues regarding compliance
-cover story: Restaurant survey -Participants: Canadian & Japanese undergrads -DV: changes in rating of chosen and unchosen menus before and after the decision ("spreading of alterations")- amount of difference between chosen and unchosen entree, if there is 0 spreading of alterations then there is no rationalization of choice -Results: Canadians significantly rationalize their choice while Japanese did not -IV: choice for the self vs. choice for others -For friend results: Canadians showed weaker spreading of alterations and Japanese showed significant spreading of alterations -Context matters!!
Explain the experiment of Hoshino-Browne and colleagues regarding cognitive dissonance
Ps: American and Japanese undergrads IV: presence vs. absence of a mirror DV: actual-ideal self-discrepany measure *Actual self rating ("I am extremely attractive") 1= not at all 5= very accurate *Ideal self rating ("I would ideally like to be extremely attractive") *Actual Ideal Discrepancy = (ideal self rating) - (actual self rating) -the larger the discrepancy= the more self critical Results: Americans without mirror: lower discrepancy than with mirror, Japanese without mirror and with mirror were pretty self critical (high discrepancy #)
Explain the study of Heine & colleagues in regards to self-discrepancy
1. Allows exploration 2. Useful for within-cultural analysis
What are the 2 benefits of questionnaires?
Rationalization: dissonance reduction (ex: exaggerate good features of what you chose and the bad features of what you didn't choose)
How do we reduce cognitive dissonance?
1. Compare subgroups within culture e.g. European Americans vs. Asian Americans 2. Compare within-culture correlation e.g. correlation between independence score and well-being (within each culture) 3. Add experimental manipulation
How do you conduct within-cultural analyses using questionnaires in cross-cultural work?
Individualistic cultures tend to have more independent self-concepts (North America and Western Europe) Collectivistic cultures tend to have more interdependent self-concepts
Relate individualistic and collectivistic cultures to the independent and interdependent view of self
False
True or false: Emulative learning requires imitating a model's behavioral strategies
1. questionnaire 2. experimental studies 3. content-analysis
What are 3 ways to collect data?
1. compare cultures that are economically developed to a similar degree 2. include an independent variable that can be manipulated 3. multiple methods
What are 3 ways to minimize potential problems with experiments?
1. East Asians tend to see the truth in more statements than European-Americans do
What are cultural differences within the acquiescence bias?
1. avoid using a scale with middle answer (e.g. yes/no format) 2. standardize the data
What are possible solutions to the moderacy and extremity biases?
1. Use concrete items ex: instead of asking "how creative are you?" ask, "how much do you paint?" 2. Use concrete response options ex: instead of "frequently" or "a lot" say "________ times per month" 3. Use behavioral and physiological measures ex: instead of "how creative are you?" say "draw a picture of an alien" and code how creative the drawing is
What are possible solutions to the reference-group effect?
-collecting data in Qatar -found that Qataris showed even larger cognition dissonance effect than Americans do -conclusion might not be based on the culture (another variable) -we can't distinguish the effects of culture from other factors -in quasi-experiment, we cannot make causal claims
What are potential problems of Quasi-experiement? (hypothetical case)
mirror, camera, hearing one's recorded voice
What are some situations that trigger objective self-awareness?
When people become objectively self-aware, they end to 1. Compare themselves to standards 2. Perceive discrepancies between themselves and the standards 3. Become self-critical
What are the consequences of objective self-awareness?
-east asians tend to have more moderate responses -african americans and hispanic-americans tend to give more extreme responses than european-americans do
What are the cultural differences of the moderacy & extremity biases?
hypothesis, variables (ind. and dep), and random assignment
What are the ingredients of experiments?
Participants may not consciously know their own behavior or attitudes -experiments have the potential to produce much larger effects than questionnaires do because they are highly involving
What are the limits of self-report?
1. response biases (moderacy bias, extremity bias, acquiescence bias) 2. deprivation effects 3. reference-group effects 4. limits of self-report
What are the problems of questionnaires?
Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic
What does "WEIRD society" mean?
1. calculate the overall average of each participant's score 2. calculate how much each item deviates from the participant's own average
What does it mean to standardize the data?
1. include reverse-scored measurements (e.g. with self-esteem scale questions would include "I have many great talents" and "I feel like a failure")
What is a possible solution to the acquiescence bias?
Social facilitation is an example which is the tendency for individuals to do better at well-learned tasks and worse at poorly learned ones when in the presence of others
What is an example of accessibility universalism?
intrinsic motivation is an example because studies have shown that East Asians work harder after failures and that Westerners tend to work harder after successes (same phenomenon but used in different ways)
What is an example of existential universalism?
Asking someone to sign a petition for a cause (i.e. the small request) then asking to donate $ to the same cause (i.e. the larger request)
What is an example of the foot-in-the-door technique?
1. one bilingual translates materials from one language to another 2. a second bilingual translates the materials back into the original language 3. the original and back-translated materials are compared and points of divergence are discussed and resolved
What is back-translation?
different groups of participants receive difference levels of the independent variable. The groups that receive each level of the independent variable are referred to as "conditions"
What is between-group manipulation?
the emotions that the other would feel in looking at the self become projected onto another -e.g. when one feels sad, one assumes that others feel sympathy
What is complementary projection?
the emotions felt by the self become projected onto another -e.g. when one is feeling said, one assumes that others feel sad
What is egocentric projection?
a gender identity that is believed to reflect an underlying and under-changing nature -in general, the gender that is associated with more power in a culture is the one that is more likely to be essentialized
What is essentialized gender?
judging people from other cultures by the standard's of one's own culture
What is ethnocentrism?
own perspective, our point of view in that memory
What is first-person memory?
Do the findings generalize to populations other than the samples that were studied?
What is generalizability?
A state of mind in which individuals consider how they appear to others and are conscious of being evaluated
What is objective self-awareness?
A state of mind in which individuals consider themselves from the perspective of the subject and demonstrate little awareness of themselves as individuals ("I")
What is subjective self-awareness?
When someone takes the perspective that "people are the same wherever you go"
What is the "color-blind" (or "culture-blind") approach?
a tendency to agree with most statements which is an issue for cross-cultural comparisons
What is the acquiescence bias?
one translator translates original into chosen language then another translator translates the translation back into the original language
What is the back-translation method?
psychological discomfort caused by holding 2 or more inconsistent cognitions (beliefs, attitudes and/or behaviors); he believes that people are motivated to reduce dissonance
What is the cognitive dissonance theory proposed by Leon Festinger?
culture where males strive to protect their reputation through aggression; when insulted, males need to aggress to protect their status and reputation; prevalent in the US south (where herding has been historically practiced)
What is the culture of honor?
-people often express stronger preferences for something that they lack than for things they have -those who have it take it for granted -ex: freedom in USA vs. in a totalitarian nation
What is the deprivation effect?
a tendency for people to value something more when it is lacking in their culture
What is the deprivation effect?
the influencer starts with a small request in order to gain eventual compliance with a related larger request
What is the foot-in-the-door technique?
A model of the self in which identity is thought to come from inner attributes that reflect a unique essence of the individual and that remain stable across situations and across the lifespan
What is the independent view of self?
A model of the self in which individuals are perceived not as separate and distinct entities but as participants in a larger social unit where identity is contingent upon key relationships with in-group members
What is the interdependent view of self?
contrast to "color-blind" approach, attending to and respecting group differences
What is the multicultural approach?
cultural information can continue to accumulate without losing the earlier information
What is the ratchet effect?
people from different cultures tend to evaluate themselves by comparing themselves to different reference groups and thus to different standards ex: "I am tall" the reference groups are different in different cultures
What is the reference-group effect?
people understand that others have minds that are different from their own, and thus that other people have perspectives and intentions that are difference from their own
What is the theory of mind?
to what extent do you imagine the scene as an observer might see it
What is third-person memory?
-Looking at the perspective of how the person you are talking to views you -Example: "Mom loves you" (she is taking the perspective of the child)
What is third-person referencing?
researchers need to make sure that one;s measures and manipulations are the same across cultures
What is translation?
1. read ethnography 2. immerse oneself in the culture 3. have a collaborator from the culture
When conducting cross-cultural research, what are 3 ways to get to know the culture?
interdependent view of self because "I am a daughter" is in relation to the parents
Which view of self is someone demonstrating by saying "I am a daughter?"
Richard Schweder
Who is viewed by many to be the father of the modern incarnation of cultural psychology?
Because no single study is perfect and converging evidence from diverse methodologies is the best type
Why are multiple methods used?
Because cultural members share the same response biases and reference groups
Why are response biases less of an issue for within-cultural analysis?
-self concepts shape how people think in general -whenever a task or a situation is self-relevant, self concepts are used to evaluate, organize, and regulate one's experience and action
Why do self-concepts matter?
once we make a commitment, we experience internal and external pressures to behave consistently with that commitment
Why does the foot-in-the-door technique work?
situation sampling
a method used for comparing cultures with psychological measure. Situations are generated by participants in more than one culture, and then those situations are presented to different groups of participants from multiple cultures. This method allows us to see both (a) whether situations common in one culture influence people differently than situations common in another culture, and (b) whether people in one culture respond to the same situations differently than those from another culture
Five Factor model of personality
a model of 5 core traits underlying human personality
nonuniversal
a particular cognitive tool that can be said to not exist in all cultures
entity theory of self
a view of the self in which a person's abilities and traits are largely innate features that the individual cannot change
incremental theory of self
a view of the self in which a person's abilities and traits are malleable and can be improved
methodological equivalence
having one's methods perceived in identical ways across different cultures
prestige bias
humans are especially concerned with detecting who has prestige- that is, they seek others who have skills are respected by others- and they try to imitate what these individuals are doing
unpackaging
identifying the underlying variables that give rise to the cultural difference
cultural words
in addition to the physical characteristics of our environment, humans are a cultural species that exists within worlds consisting of cultural information that has accumulated over history
socially desirable responding
one kind of response bias, people who strongly show this bias are motivated to be evaluated positively by others, and as a result they might disguise their true feelings to appear more socially desirable
extraversion
part of the Five Factor model of personality that indicates how much an individual is active or dominant
conscientiousness
part of the Five Factor model of personality that indicates how responsible and dependable an individual is
neuroticism
part of the Five Factor model of personality that indicates the degree to which an individual can be seen as emotionally unstable and unpredictable
agreeableness
part of the Five Factor model of personality that indicates the extent to which a person tends to be warm and pleasant
Occam's razor
principle that states that any theory should make as few assumptions as possible, eliminating, or "shaving off," any extraneous assumptions
power
refers to the capability of your study to detect an effect (which in studies of culture is usually a cross-cultural difference) to the extent that such an effect really exists; reflects the quality of the design of your study
openness to experience
reflects a person's intelligence and curiosity about the world
neocortex ratio
researchers calculated the ratio of the volume of the neocortex (the outermost layer of the brain that is concerned with high functions such as sensory perception, motor control, and conscious thought) to the volume of the rest of the brain
Russian cultural-historical school
school of thought that argued that people interact with their environments through the "tools," or human-made ideas that have been passed to them across history such as cultural inventions like the wheel, agriculture, or democracy
Muller-lyer illusion
the illusion that the line of the left looks longer than the line on the right
encephalization quotient
the ratio of the brain weight of an animal to that predicted for a comparable animal of the same body size
independent variable
the variable that is varied or manipulated
dependent variable
the variable that you measure
social brain hypothesis
to function well in a highly social community, one must be able to outmaneuver others within it, which requires attending to a highly complex series of relations
cultural priming
works by making certain ideas more accessible to participants, and to the extent that those ideas are associated with cultural meaning systems, we can investigate what happens when people start to think about certain cultural ideas