Psych Block 2
How has equipotentiality been tested using operant conditioning? Do such studies support or contradict the equipotentiality assumption?
Pigeons were trained using operant techniques to either peck at the ground or flap their wings Two different types of reinforcers were employed Reinforcer: food → pecking behavior>flapping Reinforcer: avoid shock → flapping> pecking -Just as in classical conditioning, experimental evidence suggests that this is not the case Some behaviors are easier to learn than others
What are the two forms of inductive reasoning? What are the tradeoffs between the two strategies?
-Algorithms- slow but systematic strategies guaranteed to produce a solution -Heuristics- shortcuts or 'rules of thumb' that can quickly generate an answer -These represent a tradeoff between accuracy and speed In most cases, heuristics provide identical answers to algorithms, but are much more efficient But sometimes the shortcuts used by heuristics can produce answers that are inaccurate
What does it mean to say that all learning should be equipotential? What kind of evidence has addressed this claim? Does it support or contradict the equipotentiality assumption?
-All learning was equipotential meaning all associations could be learned with equal ease. -The equipotentiality assumption was most directly tested using experiments on taste aversion in rats Were rats able to pair any set of stimuli with equal ease? - Rats were NOT able to associate all types of CS equally well with all types of US Could pair flavoring with nausea (radiation) Could pair light/sound with pain (shock) Could not pair cross-combinations (e.g, flavor/shock) Rats brains are prepared to learn appropriate associations like undesired foods. -It is much easier to learn associations that are consistent with this innate knowledge
What abilities do children work to master during Piaget's Pre-operational stage (2-7 years)?
-Children begin to understand symbolic thought -Objects can represent other objects -In the pre-operational stage, -Children are subject to centration -Can generally only focus on one aspect of a problem -In the pre-operational stage, Children are egocentric -Unable to take the perspective of others. -Children begin to master theory of mind (TOM) -Thinking about the beliefs and desires of others
What abilities do children work to master during Piaget's formal operational stage (12+ years)?
-Children can now reason using abstract concepts -Mastery of formal logical operations -It is not inevitable that children reach this stage -Some are 'stuck' in the concrete operational stage for their entire lives
What abilities do children work to master during Piaget's concrete operational stage (7-12 years)?
-Children have overcome many of the limitations of the pre-operational stage -Mastered theory of mind tasks -No longer subject to centration and egocentrism -Children begin to reason logically, but can only do so using concrete concepts -Cannot entertain hypotheticals, counterfactuals, etc.
What is the difference between classical and operant conditioning? What sort of behaviors can be subject to classical conditioning? What sort of behaviors can be subject to operant conditioning?
-Classical conditioning: one type of stimulus becomes associated with another type of stimulus -Classical conditioning holds that pairing a neutral stimulus with a stimulus that naturally evokes a response will cause the neutral stimulus to evoke the same response. -Operant conditioning: actions are associated with their consequences. -Operant conditioning: changes the probability that a behavior is repeated based on the consequences that follow it. Whatever works will be repeated.
What predictions are made by core knowledge theory that are not made by Piaget's theory? What sort of data would support the core knowledge view
-Core knowledge suggest sophisticated knowledge may be present much earlier in life than Piaget would expect -Core knowledge also suggests these model will have 'built-in" assumptions about basic properties of the world -It is continuous development not stage development. -Experiments supporting Piaget's stage theory tend to measure competence, rather than understanding -Require both knowledge and the ability to act on it -Even very young infants have a sense of intuitive physics -Infants have not tested the laws of physics first-hand
What is the difference between inductive and deductive reasoning? Which do we most often rely on? Which type is guaranteed to produce accurate results?
-Deductive reasoning- relies on formal logic -Inductive reasoning- relies on gathering direct evidence -We rely more on inductive reasoning. -deductive reasoning
What distinguishes episodic memories from semantic memories?
-Episodic memories result from the important things that happened in people's lives. Events such as weddings, graduation from college, embarrassing moments, breakups, and many more do not get forgotten. Instead, they are stored in a person's episodic memory. -Semantic memories are the things that people have perfected as a result of learning. This includes concepts, vocabulary, numerical processes, facts, work and academic skills. Before becoming semantic memory, this type of thing must have passed through the person's short-term memory. It is then processed by deep interaction or understanding of that information or skill before it is stored as long-term memory.
What does it mean to say that children seem to have an intuitive grasp of physics? Describe two studies that support this claim. What do these studies suggest about children's innate knowledge?
-Even very young infants have a sense of intuitive physics -Infants have not tested the laws of physics first-hand --Events that violate these laws are surprising to infants -Ex: violations of the solidity of matter -EX: 1. habituation, 2. Placing the box, 3. Possible event, 4. Impossible event -Ex: violations of the laws of gravity -Innate knowledge guides learning along particular pathways -Direct experience is not required for some types of knowledge
What are the two main types of learning (as defined in lecture)? What is different about them? In what situations would each one be favored?
-Experiential learning: you try new behaviors yourself and experience the consequences of those behaviors -Observational learning: you watch the behavior of others and observe the consequences of their actions - Observational is watching rather than doing and it is more favorable in high cost situations.
Provide an example of a problem that a child who has mastered formal reasoning could complete, but one who had only mastered concrete reasoning could not.
-If you hit glass with a feather the glass will break. -I hit glass with a feather - Correct abstract response : the glass broke. Those who have not mastered formal reasoning would not understand this problem. If feather was replaced with hammer they would then make sense because hammer's are heavy and hard and feathers are light and soft.
What is the difference between imitating someone and understanding their actions? Give an example of a behavior that is the product of imitation.
-Imitation precedes understanding. -Imitation is exactly mimicking behaviors. -Understanding is copying with a goal in mind. -An example of imitation is yawning after someone else yawns.
What is centration? What sorts of tasks do children who are subject to centration struggle to understand?
-In the pre-operational stage, -Children are subject to centration -Can generally only focus on one aspect of a problem -having two rows of blocks. one with 5 blocks and one with 7. however stretching the row of 5 blocks to look longer than the compacted 7 blocks.
What does it mean to say that children are egocentric? How does that relate to theory of mind (if at all)?
-In the pre-operational stage, Children are egocentric -Unable to take the perspective of others. -Children begin to master theory of mind (TOM) -Thinking about the beliefs and desires of others -Egocentric children have no theory of mind. Because they are unable to take the perspective of others.
What is the encoding specificity principle? What types of circumstances can impact retrieval?
-Information retrieval is easier when we are in circumstances that mimic those in which the information was encoded -State-dependent retrieval involves matching the same psychological (internal) state present during encoding. -Context-dependent retrieval involves matching the same physical (external) environment present during encoding
How do levels of processing relate to memory? What type of processing is most effective? Least effective?
-Information that has been in active memory (short-term or working) is either discarded or moved to long-term memory this process of transferring information to long-term memory is called encoding -Encoding can occur through a variety of processes, some of which require deeper processing of information than others Levels of processing theory argues that the deeper the processing, the more effective the encoding -Deeper processing is most effective and Shallow processing is least effective
How is information stored in long-term memory organized? How do particular concepts become associated over time?
-Information that is successfully encoded is moved to long-term memory, where it can be stored (almost) indefinitely -Information stored in long-term memory is organized into semantic networks -Each piece of knowledge is represented by a node These nodes are linked via neural connections -When a node is activated, strongly linked nodes are more likely to be activated -When two concepts are simultaneously activated, the neural pathways between them become stronger
In what circumstances would we expect information to be relatively more innate? Relatively more learned? Why?
-Innate in predictable circumstances because your body will just react in the most logically way because natural selection allows it too. -Learned in an unpredictable circumstance because it is not something that was already known or thought if it was something adapted.
How does systematic desensitization reduce fear of a particular stimulus? Describe the process in terms of the components of classical conditioning.
-It replaces the reaction of fear or phobia with relaxation -Once as an association has been made between a US and CS, other stimuli can be associated with CS to evoke the CR Classical conditioning can be chained together -For example, after one round of conditioning, a novel CS can be paired with the initial CS Called second-order conditioning
What is the difference between learned vs. innate knowledge? What are the advantages and disadvantages of each?
-Knowledge learned is based off of exposure to situations. -Innate knowledge is something that is present without previous experiences. Also known as instincts. -Innate knowledge is useful in predictable situations. Natural selection can build systems that rely on innate knowledge. However, when situations become unpredictable innate knowledge becomes unuseful. -Knowledge learned provides more flexibility to adapt to a foreign situation. However, learning requires either experiment or observation and is not already known.
Define object permanence, and provide an example of what a baby both with and without object permanence would do when his favorite toy is hidden from sight.
-Mastered in the sensorimotor stage. -Objects that are no longer visible continue to exist. -A baby with object permanence would be aware the the toy car is under the bowl. - a baby without object permanence would think that there is just a bowl present and the toy no longer exists.
What does it mean to say that memory is reconstructed? What is it reconstructed from?
-Memory doesn't work like a recording device, it works in parts that when put together results in memory. -Unlike a camera, information is stored in neural impulses -Access to that information depends on how accurately it can be reconstructed from those impulses
What is memory misattribution? How is it different than suggestibility?
-Memory misattribution: When we confuse the details of one memory with those of another memory. -Suggestibility: When we incorporate incorrect information from external sources into our memories ex: associating "smashed" with an accelerated speed.
Most people assume that parents play a huge role in shaping their children; what evidence suggests that peers may actually play a larger role?
-More recent work on early influences in childhood behavior has shifted the focus from parents to peers -As they get older, children spend more time with peers -They also disclose more intimate information to peers -Because of this proximity, peers could potentially have a greater impact on behavior than parents -Children will adjust their behavior so that they fit in with the peer group, rather to conform to parental expectations
What is the function of sensory memory (why do we have it)? What are the two types of sensory memory that have been studied? How many types of sensory memory do you expect people to have?
-Our sensory systems briefly retain incoming information. Sensory memory serves as a buffer for information -Iconic memory- retention of visual images Usually lasts- ½ second -Echoic memory- retention of auditory information Usually lasts- 2 seconds
What are the two dimensions of parenting style? Which combination produces the best outcomes in Caucasian children? What about in African-American and Chinese-American children? Why is direction of causality so difficult to establish in studies of parenting style?
-Parenting styles can vary across two dimensions: -Support- how sensitive are parent to children's needs -Control- how much control do parents require over children -Best outcomes of Caucasian children are a result of Authoritative parenting (high support/high control) -Best outcomes of African-American and Chinese-American children are a result of Authoritarian parenting (low support/high control) -Direction of causality is difficult to establish in studies of parenting style because the reverse direction is equally plausible
What are the three systems that make up working memory? What type of information is each responsible for? How are these systems controlled?
-Phonological loop- holds verbal/auditory information Ex: remembering order at subway -Visuospatial sketchpad- holds visual/spatial information Ex: which shapes are identical? -Episodic buffer- temporary workspace to combine information from other parts of your memory system Ex: should i buy this shirt? -The central executive system focuses attention on the relevant aspects of a task and engages appropriate systems
What is a schema? How do assimilation and accommodation adjust schemas?
-Piaget held that children actively construct mental models (schemas) (simulations) of how the world works Ex: schema= all furry things are cats -Schemas are not guided by innate mechanisms Information is gathered through purely a trial -and -error process -Assimilation occurs when an existing schema successfully explains a novel situation (CONSISTENT) -Accommodation occurs when a schema must be revised to account for new information (ADAPTATION)
What are the two ways to categorize schedules of reinforcement? Provide examples of all possible combinations of these schedules. Which are most effective at establishing behavior? Preventing extinction?
-Reinforcement schedules are often divided in two categories -Continuous reinforcement schedules (FR-1)- every behavior is reinforced -Intermittent reinforcement schedules (non FR-1)- only some responses are reinforced -As with the types of consequences, types of reinforcement schedules are not mutually exclusive Fixed ratio: Piece work Variable ratio: Roulette wheel Fixed interval: Paycheck Variable interval: Radio giveaways -Not all reinforcement schedules are equally effective Ratio reinforcements > interval reinforcements Fixed reinforcements > variable reinforcements
What is the difference between a reinforcer and a punisher? A positive vs. negative consequence. Describe an example of all possible combinations of these outcomes.
-Reinforcers- consequences that increase the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated in the future -Punishers- consequences that decrease the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated in the future -Positive- a new stimulus is presented after the behavior -Negative- an existing stimulus is removed after the behavior -Positive reinforcement: ex: gold star, getting a promotion because of making more than the quota -Negative reinforcement: ex: time out until tells the truth about eating the last cookie -Positive punishment: ex: spanking, hot stove and burns hand -Negative punishment: ex: Grounding, not getting to play in sport due to bad grades.
Describe the representativeness heuristic. In what situations is it likely to be most problematic? Why do we rely on it in the first place? What is the 'gamblers fallacy'? How does it relate to the representativeness heuristic?
-Representativeness heuristic refers to our tendency to judge the probability of an event by how prototypical it is -Tendency to see two independent events as dependent -The heuristic should generally work, as a situation only becomes prototypical if it happens the most frequently
What is the conjunction fallacy? Create your own example in which you think a person would commit the conjunction fallacy, and explain why.
-The assumption that two events occurring together are more likely than either event occurring independently -Sebastian is 26 years old, a gym-shark, athletic, energetic, and adventurous. In college, he majored in business. As a student, he was captain of several intramural teams. -Sebastian is a salesman. -Sebastian is a salesman and is apart of an adult sports team.
Describe the availability heuristic. In what situations is it likely to be most problematic? Why do we rely on it in the first place?
-The availability heuristic refers to our tendency to judge the probability of an event according to the ease with which we can generate examples of it -In situations we have not yet experience or heard of. -It is often easier to think of examples of things that we have either experienced personally or heard about in a great detail -The media selectively publicizes rare but extreme events -Before we had the media acting as a filter for information things that were easier to imagine probably were things that happened more often
What abilities do children work to master during Piaget's Sensorimotor stage (birth-2 years)?
-The child possesses basic reflexes -Automatic motor patterns elicited by certain situations -Ex: rooting and sucking reflex -Begins to organize sensory and motor information -Child recognizes that it is an agent that can affect the world
How much information can be held in working memory? What technique can increase this capacity? How can the duration of working memory be increased?
-The components of working memory are limited to amount of information they can accommodate -Typically 7+- 2 pieces of information This capacity can be increased with chunking -They are also limited the amount of time they can retain information -Typically- 20 seconds This can be extended through rehearsal
In the monkey studies pitting contact comfort vs. food, which 'mother' did the monkeys prefer? Did these results support or undermine behaviorist theories about mother/infant attachment?
-The monkeys prefered the 'mother' that provided comfort rather than the 'mother' that provided food. -The results supported the theories of attachment. Motivates infants and caregivers to stay in close proximity, so that caregivers can respond to infant's needs as they arise
How are the acquisition phase and extinction phase of classical conditioning related? What is spontaneous recovery, and why might it occur?
-The paring of the US and CS is called the acquisition phase of classical conditioning -When the US and CS are no longer paired, this is called the extinction phase of classical conditioning -Acquisition and extinction phases are related because if you remove the US then the CR is most likely to disappear or ever occur. -Spontaneous recovery can occur when the CS sometimes produces the CR even after extinction has taken place. -This occurs because the CS can sometimes still cause a CR without the US. There may be other tangible benefits in the presence of CS.
Describe the 'strange situation' experiment. What are the three types of responses infants can generate? How are these responses linked to the infants (and later adults) internal working models of social relationships?
-These ideas have been tested using the strange situation experimental paradigm -tests the responses of the infants to their absent caregivers. -Parent and infant arrive in a room together -Parent leaves the infant alone -Parent returns and reunites with the infant -Three responses: -Securely attached -Insecurely attached- avoidant -Infants are not particularly distressed when the parents leave \s the room -Tend to ignore/disengage from parent upon return -Insecurely attached- ambivalent -Infants are distressed when the parent leaves the room -Are not comforted upon return of the parent -Expectations about how people treat each other that carry over into adult relationships -Positive internal working model -Negative internal working model -When children who are securely attached (compared to insecurely attached) grow up, they have better outcomes: -Have better social skills and more diverse peer groups -More likely to have close/strong friendships -More likely to form committed, long-term relationships
What type of domains allow people to do well on Wason Selection Tasks? Why are people better at reasoning in these domains? Construct a novel Wason Selction task for each domain.
-Two domains: Thinking about social contracts and Thinking about precautionary rules. -It is less abstract and more applicable to an actual scenario. -if a person is clubbing the they must be 18+. -if a person is skateboarding they should be wearing a helmet.
Describe the four components of classical conditioning. Generate a novel example of classical conditioning (specifying each component) from your everyday experience.
-Unconditioned stimulus (US): a stimulus that produces a naturally occurring response -ex: holding a leash and dog sees leash -Unconditioned response (UR): reflexive action that is reliably elicited by the US -ex: dog approaches leash -Conditioned stimulus (CS): an initially neutral stimulus that produces no reliable response -ex: saying let's go for a walk while holding a leash -Conditioned response (CR): reaction that resembles UR, but is produced by the CS -ex: just saying let's go for a walk and the dog approaches the leash
Describe the vividness heuristic. In what situations is it likely to be most problematic? Why do we rely on it in the first place?
-Vividness heuristic refers to our tendency to place greater weight on personal experiences than objective data -The problem is that almost all relationships in the real world are only probabilistic One inconsistent case does not invalidate such a relationship -This heuristic may persist because not all relationships have an equal chance of being true in every type of person -People we know are likely more similar to us than randomly selected individuals, so may be a better proxy for us.
What is the Wason Selection Task? What does it illustrate about people's ability to deploy formal logic?
-Wason Selection Task: If a card has a vowel on one side, then it must have an even number on the other side. -People are generally terrible and formal logic.
Describe the factors make someone a good target to copy. Provide a real-world example for each.
-When someone has expertise in something we desire to accomplish or learn. -ex: juggling 10 balls vs. juggling 3 balls -When someone has high status. -ex: A CEO vs. a barista -When someone is most similar to us. -ex: Peers vs. Parents
How is change blindness explained by absentmindedness? What can change blindness tell us about how the mind processes our social world?
-absentmindedness: not fully attending to the information as it comes in from sensory systems -Failure to detect (sometimes major) changes in visual scenes. -We visually process far more than our minds can and in our social world it is common to fail to detect changes because our mind cant keep up with our eyes. -Also when we are focused on one thing it is difficult to catch every single detail in our surroundings because our attention is on that on thing.
How does priming work? How can it be used to subtly influence people's behavior? Describe one novel example of a potential application for priming.
-priming involves the unconscious recalibration of cognitive systems to produce behaviors appropriate for the situation -It refers to activating particular representations or associations in memory just before carrying out an action or task. -For example, a person who sees the word "yellow" will be slightly faster to recognize the word "banana." This happens because yellow and banana are closely associated in memory.
What is the difference between proactive and retroactive interference? How do they combine to explain the serial position effect?
-proactive interference occurs when old information interferes with new information -retroactive interference occurs when new information interferes with old information -items at the beginning and end of a list are remembered best. Serial position effect depends on thinking about how both proactive and retroactive interference affect memory.
How can shaping help organisms learn completely novel behaviors?
-provided reinforcement is given for successive approximations of the desired behavior. -theory involves reinforcing behavior that are successively closer and closer to the approximations of the desired, or targeted, behavior. -ex: Giving the dog a treat every time he gets closer and closer to achieving the goal of closing the door.
Describe the debate between blank-slate vs. innate models of development. Do the same for continuous vs. discontinuous models of development. Situation Piaget's theory and core-knowledge theory in these debates.
-the debate suggests that newborns are born with a blank-slate and learn everything overtime and are taught everything. The counter is that newborns are actually born with innate knowledge and basic instincts. -Piaget's stage theory of development Blank slate, discontinuous development -Core-knowledge theory of development Innate knowledge, continuous development
When is most newly acquired information forgotten? What is the process called?
-transience(forgetting): information stored in memory can deteriorate over time -most information that will be forgotten is lost almost immediately after being encoded.
How long does amnesia usually last? What is the difference between anterograde and retrograde amnesia?
Amnesia can be either temporary (concussions/trauma) can see improvements 6-9 months or permanent (severe brain damage). -Retrograde amnesia is the inability to recall past memories -anterograde amnesia is the inability to create new memories.
Describe both the Sally/Anne and crayon test for theory of mind. How will a child with a well-developed theory of mind perform on these tasks? A child without a well-developed theory of mind?
A child sees that Sally puts crayons in the crayon box. Sally leaves then Anne takes the crayons out and puts candles in the crayon box. Sally comes back and if the child says that Sally thinks there are crayons in the box then they have Theory of Mind because they understand Sally's perspective. But if the child says candles, then they do not have theory of mind because they only understand their perspective.
What is stated in the law of effect? How does it relate to operant conditioning?
Based on the Law of Effect -Behaviors with pleasant consequences likely to be repeated -Behaviors with unpleasant consequences unlikely to be repeated essentially , operant conditioning proceeds by trial-and-error to achieve desired (or avoid undesired) outcomes
Sketch a figure illustrating how memory works, including a description of how information is both stored and retrieved.
Phase 1. Sensory Memory (attention) --> Phase 2. Working Memory (encoding)-> Phase 3. Long-term memory <-- (retrieval)
Describe the factors that can affect the speed and effectiveness of classical conditioning. Explain why each factor is likely to produce the effect that it does.
The strength of the coupling between the US and CS -Contiguity-how closely in time does the US follow the CS -Contingency- how reliably does the US follow the CS The novelty of the CS -Latent inhibition- the more prior experience we have with the CS, the slower we are to make new associations with it Previous experience associating the CS and US -Savings- its is much quicker easier to reactivate a previously learned association that to learn it from scratch
Describe three techniques that might be used to increase depth of processing.
There are a wide range of encoding methods that facilitate deep processing -Elaborative encoding involves making connections between the new information and your pre-existing knowledge Think about the meaning/personal relevance of the info -visual imagery encoding involves associating the new information with visual images Usually easier for concrete (knife) than abstract (truth) words -Organizational encoding involves grouping the new information into related categories
What is generalization? What is discrimination? What determines whether an animal will show generalization or discrimination towards a CS?
generalization- Early in conditioning it is common for stimuli that are similar to (but distinct from) the CS to evoke the CR discrimination- Later in conditioning, it less likely that stimuli that are not exactly identical to the CS evoke the CR -more experience with the CS allows them to become better at distinguishing its unique properties.
