Psych midterm (study cards)

Baby Olivia is 2 months old and sleeps 20 hours per day. About _____ in 20 infants sleep more than 19 hours each day.

1

the brain at birth is only half as large as at age

1

It has been eight weeks since Estella became pregnant. Her fetus weighs _____, and is _____ in length.

1 ounces; 1 inches

Sally's weight has tripled since she was born. This gain is typical of a child who is

1 years old

Chronically malnourished infants and children suffer in three ways

1. Their brains may not develop normally 2. Malnourished children have no body reserves to protect them against common diseases. 3. Some diseases result directly from malnutrition

Twelve-month-olds sleep about

12-3/4 hours per day

Ten-month-olds sleep about

12-3/4 hours per day.

Ninety percent of all babies master walking by ____ months

14.4 months

Newborns sleep

15 to 17 hours per day.

Sarah weighed 7 pounds at birth and now weighs 28 pounds. She is most likely:

2 years old

What percentage of embryos spontaneously abort

20 percent

Tom is a 1-year-old boy who weighed 8 pounds at birth. He is now likely to weigh about _____ pounds.

24

Brain size increases dramatically, from about

25 to about 75 percent of adult brain weight in the first two years. Complexity increases as well, with cell growth, development of dendrites, and formation of synapses.

Usually the cluster of cells continues dividing and duplicating throughout development, creating a baby with

26 billion cells and eventually an adult with 37 trillion cells.

It has been three months since Estella became pregnant. Her fetus weighs _____, and is _____ in length.

3 ounces; 3 inches

In what percentage of births in the United States are cesarean sections performed?

34 percent

Juan and Rosey are planning on having a baby. At what age is Rosey a candidate for genetic counseling due to her increased risk of chromosomal abnormalities?

36

at _______, most newborns are ready to thrive at home on mother's milk—no expert help, oxygenated air, or special feeding required.

36 weeks or more

Baby Andre sleeps 13-1/4 hours per day. Based on information provided in the textbook, Andre is probably _____ months old.

4

The fetus usually gains at least 4½ pounds (2.1 kilograms) in the third trimester, increasing to an average of about 7½ pounds (about 3.4 kilograms) at birth

4 and 1/2 ; 7 1/2

At the age of 2, Maude is 2' 8" tall. By the time she reaches adulthood, her height will likely be approximately: Please choose the correct answer from the following choices, and then select the submit answer button.

5' 4"

Typical 2-year-olds are already:

50 percent of their adult height (WHAT)

Roberta has just advanced from touching the rattle that hangs above her to grabbing and holding it. She is probably about _____ months old.

6

how many infants died a century ago on average?

A century ago, at least 5 of every 100 newborns in the United States died (De Lee, 1938), as did more than half of those born in developing nations. Birth was hazardous for women as well: It was the most common reason a healthy woman in her 20s might die.

A combination of factors , , , may be fatal

A combination of factors—genetic susceptibility, poor nutrition, infection, and abnormal bacteria in the digestive system (the microbiome)—may be fatal

A full-term baby weighing only 2,600 grams and a 30-week-old fetus weighing only 1,000 grams are both SGA both not one is SGA

A full-term baby weighing only 2,600 grams and a 30-week-old fetus weighing only 1,000 grams are both SGA, even though the first is not technically low birthweight.

anoxia

A lack of oxygen that, if prolonged, can cause brain damage or death.

significance test

A significance test indicates whether the results of an experiment might have occurred by chance

Darnell underwent surgery to control his severe epilepsy. Now, however, Darnell cannot form new memories of his experiences, although he does remember events in the past. Most likely, the surgery destroyed a portion of the _____ in Darnell's brain.

Amygdala

A quick assessment of a newborn's health, from 0-10. Below 5 is an emergency—a neonatal pediatrician is summoned immediately. Most babies are at 7, 8, or 9—almost never a perfect 10.

Apgar scale A quick assessment of a newborn's health, from 0-10. Below 5 is an emergency—a neonatal pediatrician is summoned immediately. Most babies are at 7, 8, or 9—almost never a perfect 10.

Should infants be protected from every bad experience?

As just explained, infants should not be protected from every experience. Some stress—not getting an attractive object, being bathed or diapered when the baby does not want it—is part of normal infant life. But a flood of stress hormones is harmful

the drive that underlies every motor skill

Babies are powerfully motivated to do whatever they can as soon as they can.

Why is Shaken Baby Syndrome harmful?

Because the prefrontal cortex has not yet developed, telling infants to stop crying is pointless because they cannot decide to stop crying. Such decisions require brain maturity not yet present. Shaking may stop the crying, because blood vessels in the brain rupture and neural connections break. Pediatricians consider shaken baby syndrome an example of abusive head trauma (Christian & Block, 2009). Death is the worst consequence; lifelong intellectual impairment is the more likely one.

Experience is vital for

Brain development An infant who is socially isolated, overstressed, or deprived of stimulation may be impaired lifelong.

Experience-expectant growth.

Certain functions require basic experiences in order to develop, just as a tree requires water. Those experiences are part of almost every infant's life, and thus, almost all human brains grow as their genes direct. Brains need and expect such experiences; development would suffer without them. (harm without this)

The rate of cesareans in _____ increased to about 50 percent in 2014.

China

one reason kangaroo care reduces newborn stress

Familiar, rhythmic sounds such as a heartbeat are soothing. That is one reason kangaroo care reduces newborn stress, as the infant's ear rests on the mother's chest. Soon, infants can pinpoint the source of the noise—an ability that requires instant calculation of the difference between when the sound reaches the left and right ears

herd immunity

Fortunately, each vaccinated child stops transmission of the disease, a phenomenon called herd immunity. Usually, if 90 percent of the people in a community (a herd) are immunized, no one dies of that disease.

factor analysis

Hundreds of variables could affect any given behavior, and many variables may overlap; factor analysis reveals variables that can be clustered together to form a factor, which is a composite of many variables

colostrum

Ideally, nutrition starts with colostrum, a thick, high-calorie fluid secreted by the mother's breasts at birth. This benefit was not understood in some cultures: Again, worldwide research confirmed that colostrum saves infant lives, especially if the infant is preterm After about three days, the breasts begin to produce milk

In poor nations even today, complications at birth are often serious.

Indeed, one estimate is that worldwide almost 2 million newborns (1 in 70) die each year (Rajaratnam et al., 2010) and almost 300,000 women die in pregnancy or birth. In the poorest nations, the rates may be higher, in that some births are not recorded and some maternal deaths—from an illegal abortion for instance—are not attributed to pregnancy.

Causes of low birthweight

Maternal or fetal illness might cause SGA, but maternal drug use is a more common cause. Every psychoactive drug slows fetal growth, with tobacco implicated in 25 percent of all low-birthweight births worldwide Another common reason for slow fetal growth is malnutrition. Women who begin pregnancy underweight, who eat poorly during pregnancy, or who gain less than 3 pounds (1.3 kilograms) per month in the last six months more often have underweight infants. Unfortunately, many risk factors—underweight, undereating, underage, and smoking—tend to occur together. To make it worse, many such mothers live in poor neighborhoods where pollution is high—another risk factor for low birthweight

Measles (rubeola, not rubella) is disappearing, thanks to a vaccine developed in 1963. Prior to that time, 3 to 4 million cases occurred each year in the United States alone (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, May 15, 2015). In 2012 in the United States, only 55 people had measles, although globally about 20 million measles cases occurred that year. If a traveler brings measles back to the United States, unimmunized children and adults may catch the disease. That happened in 2014, when 667 people in the United States had measles—the highest rate since

Measles

Which senses function for newborns at birth?

Newborns have open eyes, sensitive ears, and responsive noses, tongues, and skin. Indeed, very young babies use all their senses to attend to everything. For instance, in the first months of life, they smile at everyone and suck almost anything in their mouths.

Furthermore, maternal obesity and diabetes have increased since 1990; both lead to heavier babies. Yet more underweight babies are born. What could the explanation be?

One possibility is nutrition. In the United States, the U.S. Department of Agriculture (Coleman-Jenson et al., 2015) reported an increase in the rate of food insecurity (measured by skipped meals, use of food stamps, and outright hunger) between the first seven years of the twenty-first century and the next seven, from about 11 percent to about 15 percent. Hungry mothers have smaller babies. Food insecurity also increases chronic illness, another correlate of LBW (Seligman & Schillinger, 2010). Food worries are highest in single mothers, a group that has increased since 2000 Another possibility is drug use. As you will see in Chapter 16, the rate of smoking and drinking among high school girls reached a low in 1992; it then increased, and then decreased. Most U.S. women giving birth in the first decade of the twenty-first century are in the cohort that experienced rising drug use when they were younger; they may still suffer the effects. If that is the reason, the recent decrease in drug use among teenagers will soon result in fewer LBW babies. Sadly, in some nations, cigarette smoking trends are ominous. In Asia, more young women are smoking and drinking than did two decades ago. Are LBW rates about to rise in China? Two nations where low birthweight is increasing are Korea and Japan; both have more young women smokers

Only __ newborn in ____ births survives with 45, 47, or, rarely, 48 or 49 chromosomes

Only 1 newborn in 166 births survives with 45, 47, or, rarely, 48 or 49 chromosomes

____ requires paying attention to a sensation—most of the things we see and sounds we hear are not perceived because they are meaningless

Perception

How do we assess infants pain?

Physiological measures, including hormones, heartbeat, and rapid brain waves, are studied to assess infant pain, but the conclusions are mixed Infant brains are immature: They have some similar responses to pain and some dissimilar ones when compared to adults Babies born very early experience many medical procedures that would be painful for adults. The more procedures they undergo, the more impaired their development at age 1, but that outcome could be related to the reasons for those procedures rather than the pain of them Some people imagine that even the fetus feels pain; others say that the sense of pain does not mature until months later. Digestive difficulty (colic) and teething are said to be painful. However, this is unproven: Crying or lack of crying is an imperfect measure of pain at every stage of life.

_______ a crippling and sometimes fatal disease, has been virtually eliminated in the Americas. Only 784 cases were reported anywhere in the world in 2003. However, false rumors halted immunization in northern Nigeria. ______ reappeared, sickening 1,948 people in 2005, almost all of them in West Africa. Public health workers and community leaders rallied and Nigeria's polio rate fell again, to 6 cases in 2014. However, poverty and wars in South Asia prevented immunization there: Worldwide, 359 cases were reported in 2014, almost all in Pakistan and Afghanistan

Polio

When unused brain connections atrophy and die to allow for growth

Pruning The expansive brain growth is followed by pruning. Just as a gardener might prune a rose bush by cutting away some growth to enable more, or more beautiful, roses to bloom

__________ , the most lethal disease for children in the past, was eradicated worldwide as of 1980. Vaccination against __________ is no longer needed.

Smallpox

Experience-dependent growth

Some brain functions depend on particular experiences. These experiences are not essential: They happen in some families and cultures but not in others. Because of experience-dependent experiences, humans can be quite different from one another, yet all fully human. (not harm but just difference with this)

Fragile X syndrome

Some recessive conditions are X-linked, including hemophilia, Duchenne muscular dystrophy, and fragile X syndrome, the last of which is caused by more than 200 repetitions on one gene (Plomin et al., 2013). (Some repetitions are normal, but not this many.) The cognitive deficits caused by fragile X syndrome are the most common form of inherited intellectual disability. (Many other forms, such as trisomy-21, are not usually inherited.) Boys are much more often impaired by fragile X than are girls, again because they have only one X. Further evidence of the benefit of cell death comes from a sad symptom of fragile X syndrome (described in Chapter 3), "a persistent failure of normal synapse pruning" (Irwin et al., 2002, p. 194). Without pruning, the dendrites of children with fragile X are too dense and long, making thinking difficult. Similar problems occur for children with autism spectrum disorder: Their brains are unusually large and full, making communication between neurons less efficient and some sounds and sights overwhelming (Lewis et al.,

SIDS reasons

Stomach-sleeping is a proven, replicated risk, but it is not the only one. Other risks include low birthweight, winter, being male, exposure to cigarettes, soft blankets or pillows, bed-sharing, and physical abnormalities (in the brainstem, heart, mitochondria, the microbiome

LBW

The World Health Organization defines low birthweight (LBW) as under 2,500 grams, which is 5 and a 1/2 pounds

The hypothalamus is more involved in ______ than in memory.

The hypothalamus is more involved in motivation than in memory.

Dynamics-Systems Approach

The idea is that human development is an ongoing, ever-changing interaction between the body and mind and between the individual and every aspect of the environment, including all of the systems described in the ecological-systems approach.

multicultural

Thus, the words culture and multicultural need to be used carefully, especially when they are applied to individuals, including oneself. Each of us is multicultural; our ethnic, national, school, and family cultures sometimes clash. One of my students wrote:

postpartum depression

When birth hormones decrease, between 8 and 15 percent of women experience postpartum depression, a sense of inadequacy and sadness (called baby blues in the mild version and postpartum psychosis in the most severe form). With postpartum depression, baby care (feeding, diapering, bathing) feels very burdensome. The newborn's cry may not compel the mother to carry and nurse her infant. Instead, the mother may have thoughts of neglect or abuse, thoughts so terrifying that she is afraid of herself. She may be overprotective, insisting that no one else care for the baby. This signifies a fearful mother, not a healthy one.

Turner Syndrome

XO (only one sex chromosome) Females. Short, often "webbed" neck. Secondary sex characteristics (breasts, menstruation) do not develop. Some learning disabilities, especially related to math and spatial understanding; difficulty recognizing facial expressions of emotion.

Triple X Syndrome

XXX Females. Normal appearance. Impaired in most intellectual skills. 1 in 1,000 females

Klinefelter Syndrome

XXY Turns out Males. Usual male characteristics at puberty do not develop—penis does not grow, voice does not deepen. Usually sterile. Breasts may develop. Can have some learning disabilities, especially in language skills. 1 in 700 males

Jacob's Syndrome

XYY Males. Typically tall. Risk of intellectual impairment, especially in language skills. 1 in 1,000 males

Does early remediation benefits deaf infants?

Yeah, If they have cochlear implants early in life, their ability to understand and produce language is not delayed—unlike for those whose deafness is remedied later (Tobey et al., 2013). Screening is needed later as well because losses may occur in infancy

Is there such thing as too much stimulation?

Yes, if the brain produces an overabundance of cortisol (the stress hormone) early in life (as when an infant is frequently terrified), that makes the brain react oddly to stress lifelong. As a result, years later that child or adult may be hypervigilant (always on the alert) or emotionally flat (never happy, sad, or angry). Note that this is an emotional response to fear or yelling, not directly caused by physical pain.

syndrome

a cluster of distinct characteristics that tend to occur together

parental alliance

a commitment by both parents to cooperate in raising their child

spina bifida

a neural-tube defect where the tail of the spine is not closed normally

Meta-analysis

a study of studies; it improves data analysis by combining the results of studies that were too small, or too narrow, to lead to solid conclusions.

Current newborn mortality in the United States is

about 1 in 250.

As with vision and hearing, smell and taste rapidly

adapt to the social context

kwashiorkor

after age 1, when growth slows down, hair becomes thin, skin becomes splotchy, and the face, legs, and abdomen swell with fluid (edema).

The age (about 22 weeks after conception) at which a fetus might survive outside the mother's uterus if specialized medical care is available.

age of viability

Both exuberant growth and pruning

aid cognition, as the connections that are experience-dependent are strengthened.

A genetic counselor's ethical responsibility to a couple is to

allow them to make their own decisions

In vitro fertilization (IVF) has led to millions of much-wanted babies and also to

an increase in multiple births, who often are preterm and of low birthweight. Ethical concerns regarding IVF have quieted, but new dilemmas appear with stem cells and CRISPR.

Pain and temperature are not among the traditional five senses, but they are

are often connected to touch. Some babies cry when being changed, distressed at the sudden coldness on their skin. Some touches are unpleasant—a poke, pinch, or pat—although this varies from one baby to another.

The brain stem plays a vital role in

automatic responses such as heartbeat, breathing, and arousal.

Most recessive disorders are on the _________ and thus not X-linked.

autosomes

Ideally, prenatal nutrition, then breast-feeding, and then supplemental iron and vitamin A stop malnutrition

before it starts.

Wasting

being severely underweight for their age and height

Stunting

being short for their age because chronic malnutrition kept them from growing

coordinating both eyes to see one image

binocular vision Because binocular vision (coordinating both eyes to see one image) is impossible in the womb (nothing is far enough away), many newborns seem to use their two eyes independently, momentarily appearing wall-eyed or cross-eyed. Typically, experience leads to rapid focus and binocular vision. Usually between 2 and 4 months, both eyes can focus on a single thing

Kareem was born 36 weeks after conception. He weighed 5 pounds, 3 ounces. Kareem was: neither LBW nor SGA. SGA, but not LBW. both SGA and LBW. LBW, but not SGA.

both SGA and LBW. Kareem was less than 5-1/2 pounds. small for gestational age (SGA). A full-term baby weighing only 2,600 grams and a 30-week-old fetus weighing only 1,000 grams are both SGA, even though the first is not technically low birthweight.

By mid-pregnancy the fetus may look fully formed, but development of the ____________ and ____________ will take more time to become appropriately mature for survival

brain; lungs

with experience, perception

builds and visual scanning improves. Thus, 3-month-olds look closely at the eyes and mouth, smiling more at smiling faces than at angry or expressionless ones. They pay attention to patterns, colors, and motion

Serious recessive diseases

can become common if carriers have a health advantage

These skills emerge directly from reflexes and proceed in a

cephalocaudal (head-down) and proximodistal (center-out) direction. Infants first control their heads, lifting them up to look around. Then they control their upper bodies, their arms, and finally their legs and feet.

cerebral palsy

cerebral palsy (a disease marked by difficulties with movement) was once thought to be caused solely by birth procedures (excessive medication, slow breech birth, or use of forceps to pull the fetal head through the birth canal). However, we now know that cerebral palsy results from genetic sensitivity, teratogens, and maternal infection (Mann et al., 2009), worsened by insufficient oxygen to the fetal brain at birth. This lack of oxygen is called anoxia. Anoxia often occurs for a second or two during birth, indicated by a slower fetal heart rate, with no harm done. To prevent prolonged anoxia, the fetal heart rate is monitored during labor, and the Apgar is used immediately after birth.

A surgical birth, in which incisions through the mother's abdomen and uterus allow the fetus to be removed quickly, instead of being delivered through the vagina. (Also called simply section.)

cesarean section (c-section)

Immunization protects not only from temporary sickness but also from

complications, including deafness, blindness, sterility, and meningitis.

Paternal experiences of pregnancy and birth are called _________, expected in some cultures, a normal variation in many, and considered pathological in others. Here, fathers may experience pregnancy and birth biologically, not just psychologically. Many fathers have symptoms of pregnancy and birth, including weight gain and indigestion during pregnancy and pain during labor.

couvade

Cheryl gave birth one month ago, and now she never wants to start the day. She finds it burdensome to perform the tasks needed to care for her baby son and feels that she cannot be the mother he needs. Cheryl may be experiencing postpartum:

ddperession

Sometimes such damage from illness is not apparent until

decades later

binocular vision aids development in

depth perception This ability aids in the development of depth perception, which has been demonstrated in 3-month-olds, although it was once thought to develop much later. Toddlers who are experienced crawlers and walkers are very adept at deciding whether a given path is safe to cross upright or is best traversed sitting or crawling. This illustrates early coordination of the senses and motor skills (Kretch & Adolph, 2013). (This does not mean that toddlers can be trusted not to fall off tables or out of windows.)

Taste preferences endure

despite immigration or when historical circumstances change. Thus, a feeding pattern that was protective may no longer be so. Indeed, when starvation was a threat, families sought high-fat foods; now their descendants enjoy French fries, whipped cream, and bacon, jeopardizing their health

Dementia

dominant disease Another exception to the general rule that serious dominant diseases are not inherited is a rare but severe form of Alzheimer's disease. It causes major neurocognitive disorder (formerly called dementia) before age 60

Huntington's disease

dominant disease fatal central nervous system disorder caused by a copy number variation—more than 35 repetitions of a particular set of three base pairs Most of the 7,000 known single-gene disorders are dominant (always expressed). Severe dominant disorders are infrequent because people with such disorders usually die in childhood and thus the gene is not passed on to the next generation. Dominant disorders become common only when they are latent in childhood. That is the usual case with Huntington's disease, a fatal central nervous system disorder caused by a copy number variation—more than 35 repetitions of a particular set of three base pairs. Although children with the dominant gene sometimes are affected, symptoms usually first appear in midlife, when a person could have had several children, as did the original Mr. Huntington. Half of his children inherited his dominant gene, which is why the disease is named after him

Birthweight progress

doubles by 4 months, triples by 1 year, and quadruples by 2 years, when toddlers weigh about 28 pounds (12.7 kilograms). Two-year-olds are about half their adult height

A woman who helps with the birth process. Traditionally in Latin America, a doula was the only professional who attended childbirth. Now doulas are likely to arrive at the woman's home during early labor and later work alongside a hospital's staff.

doula

Lucy has been hired to provide support to Dan and Deb while Deb is in labor. Lucy meets Deb and Dan at their house after labor begins and is timing Deb's contractions, massaging Deb during her contractions, and giving Dan ideas about how to help Deb manage the pain. She is also giving them information to help them decide when they want to go to the hospital to meet their doctor, who will be delivering the baby. Lucy is MOST likely a(n):

doula

The name for a developing human organism from about the third week through the eighth week after conception.

embryo

The stage of prenatal development from approximately the third week through the eighth week after conception, during which the basic forms of all body structures, including internal organs, develop.

embryonic period

Genes influence every disorder, yet with each disorder _____ can make a difference in the expression and outcome

environmental and social influences

Jack is attempting to replicate an experiment in which some baby mice were licked and nuzzled by their mothers constantly and some were neglected. Jack noted that when a mother mouse licks her newborn babies, that action reduced methylation of a gene, allowing increased serotonin to be released by the hypothalamus. The serotonin not only increased momentary pleasure but also started a chain of epigenetic responses that reduced stress hormones from many parts of the brain and body. Jack's subsequent experiments with the mice seem to indicate that the effects were lifelong. Jack's experiment seems to imply that:

every experience that a person has, especially in the early days and months, affects brain pattern.

Surrounding and supporting the microsystems are the

exosystems, which include all the external networks, such as community structures and local educational, medical, employment, and communications systems, that affect the microsystems.

Thomas and Richard are both English-speaking men but are from geographically distant regions. Thomas was brought up in Brisbane, Australia, and Richard in Indianapolis, Indiana. They both speak the same language but differ extensively in their accent, vocabulary, and inflection. Despite their cultural differences, they both developed language skills because language is ____

experience-expectant

Sheena's baby weighed 2 pounds, 1 ounce at birth. Sheena's baby was ____ birthweight.

extremely low

ELBW

extremely low birthweight (ELBW) under 1,000 grams, which is 2 pounds, 3 ounces

Microsystems

family, peer group, classroom, neighborhood, house of worship—intimately and immediately shape human development.

Nan is pregnant with her first child. She just found out that the baby has grown 1 pound since her last doctor's appointment. She is in the _____ period of prenatal development.

fetal

Simone's son was diagnosed with mental deficits. Simone's heavy alcohol consumption during her pregnancy may have been the cause of her son's _____ syndrome.

fetal alcohol syndrome

The stage of prenatal development from the ninth week after conception until birth, during which the fetus gains about 7 pounds (more than 3,000 grams) and organs become more mature, gradually able to function on their own.

fetal period

"There it is! That's my son!" Brad jubilates as he and Val view the sonogram of Val's fetus. Because the fetus's sex organ is just barely visible, the fetus is in the _____ period. Val is at least ______ weeks pregnant

fetal; 12

The name for a developing human organism from the start of the ninth week after conception until birth.

fetus

Doctors worldwide recommend breast-feeding with no other foods—not even juice—for the

first months of life.

The amount of time a child sleeps decreases over the

first two years. Variations in sleep patterns are normal, caused by both nature and nurture. Bed-sharing is the norm in many developing nations, and co-sleeping is increasingly common in developed ones.

marasmus

first year, when body tissues waste away

Scientists have been gathering data on the numbers of LBW babies in each nation, due to concern about their high-risk status, in hopes of learning more about prevention. Which of the following is one of the hypotheses that scientists have associated with the current trends

food insecurity

Two-year-olds are typically

four times heavier than they were at birth.

Which genetic disorder is sex-linked, appears on the X chromosome, and may result in mental retardation?

fragile X syndrome

The first two weeks of prenatal development after conception, characterized by rapid cell division and the beginning of cell differentiation.

germinal period

Deliberate actions that coordinate many parts of the body, producing large movements, are called

gross motor skill

2 year olds are typically in terms of height and weight

half their adult height and about one-fifth their adult weight

Fathers can be supportive during pregnancy as well as

helpful in birth. Paternal support correlates with shorter labor and fewer complications. Some fathers become very involved with the pregnancy and birth, experiencing couvade.

Once malnutrition is apparent,

highly nutritious formula (usually fortified peanut butter) often restores weight—but not always

The process, beginning about 10 days after conception, in which the developing organism burrows into the uterus, where it can be nourished and protected as it continues to develop.

implantation

The most dramatic motor skill is

independent walking, which explains why I worried when my 14-month-old daughter had not yet taken a step (as described in the introduction to this chapter). All the basic motor skills, from the newborn's head-lifting to the toddler's stair-climbing, develop in infancy.

In the first two years of life,

infants grow taller, gain weight, and increase in head circumference—all indicative of development.

Julie swaddles her baby when the baby is distressed. Julie

is doing the right thing; a baby's sense of touch is acute and swaddling makes it feel secure.

Compared with formula using cow's milk, human milk

is sterile, more digestible, and rich in nutrients (Wambach & Riordan, 2014). Allergies and asthma are less common in children who were breast-fed, and in adulthood, their obesity, diabetes, and heart disease rates are lower.

Carriers of the sickle-cell trait are:

less likely to die of malaria.

Influencing both of these systems is the

macrosystem, which includes cultural patterns, political philosophies, economic policies, and social conditions.

Batoor was born in war-torn Afghanistan. Malnutrition caused him to waste away soon after his birth; he passed away at the age of 4 months. Batoor suffered from _____.

marasmus kwashiorkor starts at age 1

food insecurity

measured by skipped meals, use of food stamps, and outright hunge

Survival is more common if some cells have 46 chromosomes and some 47, (a condition called

mosaicism

anencephaly

neural tube defect where part of brain is missing

Some stimulation is experience-expectant, needed for

normal brain development

The basic, expected experiences must happen for

normal brain maturation to occur, and they almost always do. For example, in deserts and in the Arctic, on isolated farms and in crowded cities, almost all babies have things to see, objects to manipulate, and people to love them. Babies everywhere welcome such experiences: They look around, they grab for objects, they smile at people. As a result, babies' brains develop. Without such expected experiences, brains wither

In contrast, dependent experiences might happen; because

of them, one brain differs from another, even though both brains are developing normally. Experiences vary, such as which language babies hear, what faces they see, whether curiosity is encouraged, or how their mother reacts to frustration. Depending on those particulars, infant brains are structured and connected one way or another; some dendrites grow and some neurons thrive while others die

Implantation of the placenta occurs successfully about _________ in natural conceptions.

one half of the time

Psychologists find that a common source of irrational thinking is (about vaccines)

overestimating the frequency of a memorable case (Ariely, 2010). As a result, the rate of missed vaccinations in the United States has been rising over the past decade, and epidemics of childhood diseases, such as one that occurred at Disneyland in Anaheim, California, in 2014, are feared

but in 20 of the U.S. states

parents are able to refuse vaccination because of "personal belief" This horrifies public health workers, who know that the risks of the diseases—especially to babies—are far greater than the risks from immunization of children.

Blake's photoreceptors detect light and dark stimuli. Cortical processing then allows him to recognize the words in his psychology textbook. As he reads, Blake relates the information to his own experiences. Blake's recognition of the words illustrates:

perception

Receptors that are highly sensitive to sweetness are active on Malia's tongue. Bitterness receptors are also active, but to a lesser extent. Malia recognizes the taste of cola and considers her resolution to reduce her soda consumption. Malia's recognition of the drink's taste is called

perception

humans have extensive

postnatal brain growth This extensive postnatal brain growth is highly unusual for mammals. It occurs in humans because birth would be impossible if the fetal head grew large enough to contain the extensive networks needed to sustain human development. Because of the need for extensive brain growth after birth, humans must nurture and protect their offspring for a decade or more

When birth hormones decrease, between 8 and 15 percent of women experience_______, a sense of inadequacy and sadness (called baby blues in the mild version and postpartum psychosis in the most severe form).

postpartum depression

Rebecca is very organized. She has set aside specific hours for studying and knows when she has had enough to eat. This behavior can be explained by a mature:

prefrontal cortex

immunization

primes the body's immune system to resist a particular disease. is said to have had a greater impact on human mortality reduction and population growth than any other public health intervention besides clean water

Currently in the United States, neonatal mortality is

rare: Less than 1 newborn in 250 dies, and most of them were born far too soon. About 40 other nations have even better rates of newborn survival. In developed nations, a woman almost never dies from complications of pregnancy, abortion, or birth—the rate is less than 1 in 10,000.

Mesosystems

refer to interactions among systems, as when parents and teachers coordinate to educate a child.

Motor skills begin with

reflexes, explained in Chapter 4. Reflexes become skills if they are practiced and encouraged.

What is one characteristic of infants, which is an inborn drive to compensate and overcome problems called?

self-righting Infants with few toys develop their brains by using sticks, or empty boxes, or whatever is available. Malnourished newborns have catch-up growth, so a 5-pound newborn may gain weight faster than an 8-pound one. Plasticity is apparent from the beginning of life

Hair cells in Gino's basilar membrane detect a series of high-pitched tones. Gino recognizes the ring tone assigned to calls from his mother. Gino remembers that he had neglected to call his mother the night before as he had promised. Gino's detection of the tones illustrates:

sensation

____ occurs when a sensory system detects a stimulus, as when the inner ear reverberates with sound, or the eye's retina and pupil intercept light

sensation

folic acid

should be taken before pregnancy but One maternal allele results in low levels of folic acid in a woman's bloodstream and hence in the embryo, which can produce neural-tube defects—either spina bifida, in which the tail of the spine is not enclosed properly (enclosure normally occurs at about week 7), or anencephaly, when part of the brain is missing. Neural-tube defects are more common in certain ethnic groups

experience-expectant events make all people

similar, yet everyone is unique because each undergoes particular experience-dependent events.

Around 50% of babies can sit without support by which month

sixth month

As with gross motor skills, fine motor

skills are shaped by culture and opportunity. For example, when given "sticky mittens" (with Velcro) that allow grabbing, infants master hand skills sooner than usual. More generally, all senses and motor skills expand the baby's cognitive awareness, with practice advancing both skill and cognition

Beal's notes revealed that almost all SIDS babies died while

sleeping on their stomachs, contrary to the Chinese custom of placing infants on their backs to sleep Beal noticed an ethnic variation: Australian babies of Chinese descent died of SIDS far less often than did those of European descent. Back-sleeping protected against SIDS. Beal's published report (Beal, 1988) caught the attention of doctors in the Netherlands, where pediatricians had told parents to put their babies to sleep on their stomachs. Two Dutch scientists (Engelberts & de Jonge, 1990) recommended back-sleeping; thousands of parents took heed. SIDS was reduced in Holland by 40 percent in one year—a stunning replication.

Jayne is a responsive parent to her full-term son. She knows when he needs to eat and when he needs to sleep. In regard to sleep, he usually:

sleeps more than low-birthweight babies.

SGA

small for gestational age (SGA). Some fetuses gain weight slowly throughout pregnancy and are small-for-dates, or small for gestational age (SGA).

Beginning with _________ in the nineteenth century, doctors discovered that giving a small dose of a virus to healthy people stimulates antibodies and provides protection

smallpox

This was once the most lethal disease for children but has since been eradicated.

smallpox

Which of the following diseases has been eliminated worldwide?

smallpox

Vision improves

so rapidly that researchers are hard-pressed to describe the day-by-day improvements Almost immediately, experience combines with maturation of the visual cortex to improve the ability to see shapes and notice details By 2 months, infants not only stare at faces but also, with perception and cognition, smile. (Smiling can occur earlier but not because of perception.)

The foods of a particular culture may aid survival because

some natural substances are medicinal. For example, bitter foods provide some defense against malaria; hot spices help preserve food and thus work against food poisoning (Krebs, 2009). Thus, for 1-year-olds, a taste for their family cuisine may save their lives

Monozygotic twins occur if those first stem cells

split completely, which rarely occurs.

Another drug-based medical intervention is induced labor, in which labor is

started, speeded up, or strengthened with a drug. The rate of induced labor in the United States tripled between 1990 and 2010 and is close to 20 percent. Starting labor before it begins spontaneously increases the likelihood of an epidural and makes cesarean birth more common

The first duplications of the one-celled zygote create

stem cells, each of which could become a person if it developed.

Having mumps in childhood, for instance, can cause

sterility and doubles the risk of schizophrenia in adulthood

In some nations, the traditional diet for young children or their mothers does not provide

sufficient vitamins, fat, and protein for robust health

Six-year-old Austin is hyperactive and has been tested for ADHD. A school psychologist suggests that Austin's hyperactivity might reflect the influence of some prenatal substance that did not affect his physical development but instead influenced the development of his brain. Austin might be showing the effects of behavioral _____ that his mother ingested while he was in the womb.

teratogens

Donald loves to smell roses and thinks they are the most beautiful flower. Which part of his brain is he using to experience the rose?

the cortex

Most child deaths occur in

the first month. In the twenty-first century in developed nations, 99.9 percent of 1-month-olds live to adulthood. Public health measures (clean water, nourishing food, immunization) deserve most of the credit. Not only survival but life itself is better for children, because parents have fewer births and thus attend more to each one. Maternal education is pivotal here. Especially in low-income nations, educated women have far fewer, but much healthier, children than women who never went to school

Crawling is another example of

the head-down and center-out direction of skill mastery. As they gain muscle strength, infants wiggle, attempting to move forward by pushing their arms, shoulders, and upper bodies against whatever surface they are lying on.

Bronfenbrenner eventually added a fifth system, the chronosystem, to emphasize

the importance of historical time.

The sense of hearing develops during

the last trimester of pregnancy At birth, certain sounds trigger reflexes, even without conscious perception. Sudden noises startle newborns, making them cry.

Formula is preferable only in unusual cases, such as when

the mother uses toxic drugs or is HIV-positive. Even with HIV, however, breast milk without supplementation is advised by the World Health Organization. In some nations, the infants' risk of catching HIV from their mothers is lower than the risk of dying from infections, diarrhea, or malnutrition as a result of bottle-feeding

The primary motor cortex is an area of the brain involved in

the planning, control, and execution of voluntary motor functions.

Cognition involves

thinking about a stimulus rather than detecting it.

Newborn Simi enthusiastically moves her arms and legs when her mother pulls a T-shirt over her head and momentarily covers her face. She is demonstrating the _____ reflex.

thrashing

Babies appreciate what their mothers eat, prenatally

through amniotic fluid, then through breast milk, and finally through smells and spoonfuls of the family dinner.

The distinction between essential and variable input

to the brain's networks can be made for all mammals. But some of the most persuasive research has been done with songbirds. All male songbirds have a brain region dedicated to listening and reproducing sounds (experience-expectant), but birds of the same species produce slightly different songs (experience-dependent) depending on where they live

Early dendrite growth is called

transient exuberance: exuberant because it is so rapid and transient because some of it is temporary

a preterm baby is born how early and weighted how much

two or more weeks early, and it is usually, but not always, LBW - low birth weight.

An image of a fetus (or an internal organ) produced by using high-frequency sound waves. (Also called sonogram.)

ultrasound

Lily has always been considered thin, and she only gained 12 pounds in the last six months of her pregnancy. Her baby will likely be _____ at birth.

underweight

Serious dominant disorders

usually do not appear until midlife.

Bonnie gave birth 36 weeks after conception. Her baby weighed 3 pounds, 5 ounces. Bonnie's baby was ____ birthweight.

very low

VLBW

very low birthweight (VLBW) under 1,500 grams, which is 3 pounds, 5 ounces

By contrast to hearing, vision is

vision is immature at birth. Although in mid-pregnancy the eyes open and are sensitive to bright light (if the pregnant woman is sunbathing in a bikini, for instance), the fetus has nothing much to see. Consequently, newborns are legally blind; they focus only on things between 4 and 30 inches (10 and 75 centimeters) away

A baby described as small for gestational age (SGA):

weighs significantly less than expected for the time since conception

Medical checkups in the first months of a child's life focus especially on

weight, height, and head circumference because early detection of slow growth can halt later problems. Percentile changes can signify difficulties.

Protein-calorie malnutrition occurs when

when a person does not consume enough food to sustain normal growth

In the first year of life, infants' heart rates slow and they relax when

when stroked gently and rhythmically on the arm

about 1 in every 300 infants is born with

with only one sex chromosome (no Y) or with three or more (not just two)

Do infants need stimulation?

yes, Some parents put babies in a quiet place, imagining that is needed. Not at all—playing with a young baby, allowing varied sights and sounds, and encouraging movement (arm waving, then crawling, grabbing, and walking) all foster growth. Severe lack of stimulation stunts the brain. As one review explains, "enrichment and deprivation studies provide powerful evidence of . . . widespread effects of experience on the complexity and function of the developing system Proof of this came first from research on rodents! In an experiment, some "deprived" rats (raised alone in small, barren cages) were compared with "enriched" rats (raised in large cages with toys and other rats). At autopsy, the brains of the enriched rats were larger and heavier, with more dendrites (Diamond, 1988; Greenough & Volkmar, 1973). Subsequent research with other mammals confirms that isolation and sensory deprivation stunt development, which is sadly evident in longitudinal studies of orphans from Romania, described in