Psychology 7.1 and 7.2
The Steps of memory
1. Information enters through sensory memory. 2. Focus on the information and what it means. 3. Perform maintenance rehearsal for short term memory, elaborate rehearsal to send it to long-term memory. 4. Retrieve information from long-term memory.
The levels of processing
1. Shallow Processing 2. Intermediate Processing 3. Deep Processing
What are 2 ways to elaborate memory uses to transfer information to long-term memory?
1. forming associations, or mental connections, between the information in short-term memory that you want to store and information you already have stored in your permanent long-term memory. 2. generate personally relevant examples of the material you are learning. Every time you generate an example from your own life that demonstrates a psychological principle, you are engaging in elaborative rehearsal and increasing the chances of retrieving the material later
when maintenance rehearsal is used to learn material, how information is lost in only 2 days?
75%
chunks
A group of familiar stimuli stored as a single unit.
phonemic encoding
A level of verbal processing that emphasizes what a word sounds like.
Semantic encoding
A relatively deep form of memory encoding that emphasizes the meaning of verbal input.
Structural encoding
A relatively shallow form of memory that emphasizes the physical structure of the stimulus.
In Working Memory Model, To what degree does the model explain real-world behavior?
Because the working memory model is a parallel model of memory, it can better account for processes such as top-down perceptual processing.
dependent variable
In an experiment, the variable that is thought to be affected by the manipulation of the independent variable.
Short-term memory has a limited capacity.
It can hold only about seven plus or minus two items.
The Duration of Short-Term Memory
It's Yours for 30 Seconds
In Working Memory Model, What are the components of the memory system?
Memory consists of several interacting components: sensory memory, working memory, and LTM.
In Three-Stages Model, What are the components of the memory system?
Memory consists of three separate stages: sensory memory, STM, and LTM.
In Three-Stages Model, What is the relationship between short-term memory and long-term memory?
STM is a single component of memory that is separate from LTM.
The Capacity of Short-Term Memory:
Seven (Plus or minus Two)
In Three-Stages Model, To what degree does the model explain real-world behavior?
The three-stages model cannot easily explain some cognitive processes such as top-down perceptual processing.
echoic memory
hearing
Short-term memory
is a limited-capacity store that can maintain unrehearsed information for about 20 seconds.
phonological rehearsal loop
is the acoustic recitation system that represented all of short-term memory in the original model.
In the end, if we do not send sensory information on to short-term memory within seconds (or less),
it will be lost forever as our sensory memories decay.
haptic memory
learning through our senses of taste, smell, and touch.
What happens when people cannot rehearse?
material is quickly lost from short-term memory.
Short-term memory uses a dual coding system in which
memories can be stored either visually or acoustically
visuospatial sketchpad
permits people to temporarily hold and manipulate visual images. This component is at work when you try to mentally rearrange the furniture in your bedroom.
Levels-of-processing theory
proposes that deeper levels of mental processing result in longer-lasting memory codes.
Maintenance rehearsal
repeating information over and over again to keep it in short-term memory for an extended period of time
iconic memory
sight
What are the primary means through which we acquire information and the most studied by psychologists?
sight (iconic memory) and hearing (echoic memory)
encoding
the act of inputting information into memory
central executive
the attention-controlling component of working memory
explicit memory
the conscious use of memory
Without rehearsal,
the maximum duration of short-term storage is only about 20 to 30 seconds.
storage
the place where information is retained in memory
retrieval
the process of accessing information in memory and pulling it into consciousness
rehearsal
the process of repetitively verbalizing or thinking about information to be stored in memory.
memory traces
the stored code that represents a piece of information that has been encoded into memory
primacy effect
the tendency for people to recall words from the beginning of a list better than words that appeared in the middle of the list
recency effect
the tendency for people to recall words from the end of a list better than words that appeared in the middle of the list
implicit memory
the unconscious use of memory
In Working Memory Model, How does memory operate?
Memory operates in a parallel fashion.
In Three-Stages Model, How does memory operate?
Memory operates in a serial fashion.
In a serial-position experiment
Murdoch, 1962
What are the components of working memory
Phonological rehearsal loop. Executive control system. Episodic Buffer. Visuospatial Sketchpad.
working memory
a multifaceted component of long-term memory that contains short-term memory, a central executive, a phonological loop, and a visuospatial sketch pad; the function of working memory is to access, move, and process information that we are currently using
according to Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart, not all encoding is created equal.
They propose that incoming information can be processed at different levels. Some methods of encoding create more durable memory codes than others.
How do we transfer information from sensory memory to short-term memory?
To transfer information from sensory memory to short-term memory, all we have to do is pay attention to the sensory information.
executive control system
handles the limited amount of information that people can juggle at one time as they engage in reasoning and decision making. This component is at work when you mentally weigh all the pros and cons before deciding whether to buy a particular car.
In Working Memory Model, What is the relationship between short-term memory and long-term memory?
Working memory is a multicomponent part of LTM that includes STM, the central executive, the phonological loop, and the visuospatial sketchpad.
forgetting curve
a graph of the amount of learned information that is forgotten over time
chunking
a means of using one's limited short-term memory resources more efficiently by combining small bits of information to form larger bits of information or chunks
levels-of-processing model
a model that predicts that information that is processed deeply and elaboratively will be best retained in and recalled from long-term memory
dual coding system
a system of memory that encodes information in more than one type of code or format
short-term memory (STM)
a system of memory that is limited in both capacity and duration; in the three stages model of memory, short-term memory is seen as the intermediate stage between sensory memory and long-term memory
sensory memory
a system of memory that very briefly stores sensory impressions so that we can extract relevant information from them for further processing
long-term memory (LTM)
a system of memory that works to store memories for a long time, perhaps even permanently. It is an unlimited capacity store that can hold information over lengthy periods of time.
episodic buffer
allows the various components of working memory to integrate information and serves as the interface between working memory and long-term memory.
attention
an organism's ability to focus its consciousness on some aspect of its own mental processes and/or its environment
consciousness
an organism's awareness of its own mental processes and/or its environment
Elaborative rehearsal
forming associations or links between information one is trying to learn and information already stored in long-term memory so as to facilitate the transfer of this new information into long-term memory
