Psychology Chapter 5

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stranger anxiety

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about eight months of age

zygotes

the fertilized egg; it enters a two-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo

infantile amnesia

the inability to retrieve accurate memories from early childhood; possibly because the hippocampus partially developed and little sense of self

primary sex characteristics

the main sex-specific reproductive organs; ovaries and testes

egocentric

the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view

conservation

the principle of concrete operational reasoning that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects.

imprinting

the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life

self-concept

our understanding and evaluation of who we are

three major issues

1) the relative impact of genes and experience on development 2) whether development is best described as gradual and continuous or as a sequence of separate stages 3) whether personality traits remain stable or change over the life span

strange situation

Ainsworth's method for assessing infant attachment to the mother, based on a series of brief separations and reunions with the mother in a playroom situation

schemas

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

autism

a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by deficient communication, social interaction, and understanding of others' states of mind

emerging adulthood

a hypothetical phase of the life span between adolescence and full-fledged adulthood which encompasses late adolescence and early adulthood

midlife transition

a natural stage that happens to many of us at some point (usually about age 40, give or take 20 years); midlife transition can include discontentment or boredom with life or with the lifestyle (including people and things) that have provided fulfillment for a long time prior

contrast parental and peer influences during adolescence, and discuss the characteristics of emerging adulthood

a person's peers influence much more when they are adolescents and adolescents usually talk, dress, and act like their peers and find it very important to be accepted socially due to having a group mentality where it is important to be "like everyone else"; when adolescents feel left out socially they are much more likely to experience loneliness, depression, and low self-esteem; during adolescence parents influence their children less and adolescents grow farther apart from their parents as they fight more often mostly about small things like chores, curfews, and homework; however, parents influence career and college choices; in western cultures emerging adulthood is the time when a person is going off to college up until they are completely independent from their parents; this window of time is much smaller in other cultures where people get married and leave their parents much earlier; the time of emerging adulthood now takes longer than in earlier history because people are biologically maturing earlier and delaying complete independence; during this time a person might live on their own but still rely on their parents for financial and emotional needs

pruning

a process where the synaptic connections in the brain that are frequently used are preserved, and those that are not are lost

alzheimer's disease

a progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and, finally, physical functioning

cross-sectional studies

a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another

adolescence

a transitional stage of physical and psychological development that generally occurs during the period from puberty to legal adulthood

assess the impact of aging on memory and intelligence

ability to recall new information declines during early and middle adulthood but ability to recognize information does not, older adults recall meaningful information easier, prospective memory remains strong when cues are available

integrity versus despair (50+)

acceptance of life achievements and significant others; if an indivdual fails at this stage they experience despair

basic trust

according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers

accomodation

adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

define adolescence, and identify the major physical changes during this period

adolescence is the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to social independence; during puberty, both primary and secondary sex characteristics develop dramatically (girls start earlier than boys); the brain's frontal lobes mature and myelin growth increases during adolescence and the early twenties, enabling improved judgment, impulse control, and long-term planning

identity versus role confusion (12-18)

adolescents create their own identity and integrate the different components into a whole; adolescents who are unable to integrate will experience role confusion

describe some developmental changes in brain and motor abilities during infancy and childhood, and explain why our earliest memories rarely predate our third birthday

after birth, the neural networks that enable us to walk, talk, and remember have a wild growth spurt; from ages 3 to 6, growth occurs most rapidly in the frontal lobes, which enable rational planning while he association areas linked with thinking, memory, and language are the last cortical areas to develop; maturation accounts for commonalities, from standing before walking to using nouns before adjectives; as the infant's muscles and nervous system mature, ever more complicated skills emerge (the timing of these are genetically influenced) the average age of earliest conscious memory is 3.5 years.

teratogens

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

attachment

an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation

critical period

an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development

lawrence kohlberg's theory of moral development

believed that moral development is primarily based on moral reasoning; three levels of morality: preconventional, conventional, postconventional

maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

competence versus inferiority (6-11)

child develop a need to do things well to work and to provide in the future; school and peers are critical assets throughout this stage; incompetence and inferiority occurs if child fails to achieve

trust versus mistrust (birth-1)

child develops a sense of trust in others through being nurtured and loved; mistrust occurs if love and nurture does not occur, causing withdrawal later in life.

initiative versus guilt (4-5)

child moves into new spaces to explore and learns to play with others; feelings of guilt and fear occur if not allow to explore

concrete operations stage (7-11)

children can think logically about concrete events and objects; children acquire the mental abilities needed to comprehend mathematical transformation and conservation

senorimotor stage (birth-2)

children experience the world through their motor and sensory interaction with objects; object permanence; stranger anxiety

habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation; as infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner

summarize current views regarding continuity versus stages and stability versus change in lifelong development

development is emphasized as a slow, continuous shaping process; life does not fall into neatly defined stages, but the concept of stage remains useful since there is brain growth in childhood and puberty that correspond with Piaget's stages, plus, they contribute a developmental perspective to the whole lifespan; life contains both stability and change where personality tends to have continuity, but the foundations of today can lead to a better tomorrow; stability allows us to depend on others and provide identity while change motivates us for the future

state three areas of change that developmental psychologists study, and identify the three major issues in developmental psychology

developmental psychologists study physical, cognitive, and social changes throughout the life span; three issues pervade this study: (1) the relative impact of genes and experience on development, (2) whether development is best described as gradual and continuous or as a sequence of separate stages, and (3) whether personality traits remain stable or change over the life span

autonomy versus shame and doubt (2-3)

develops motor and verbal skills which allows autonomy and the child becomes more confident and in control; if a child is not provided with what they need socially, i.e. nurturance, they will feel ashamed and less confident

generativity versus stagnation (35-50)

develops the capacity to care and nurture; indivduals who fail at this stage will focus only on caring for self

frontal lobe maturation

enables improved judgment, impulse control, and long-term planning; continues to mature into the early 20's (25)

menarche

first menstrual period

preconventional morality

good and bad interpreted in terms of external reward and punishments; looking for reward and trying to avoid punishment

children of permissive parents tend to be

impulsive and lacking in self-control ("immature"); aggressive; bossy and self-centered; low in independence and achievement

discuss the course of prenatal development and the destructive impact of teratogens, and describe some abilities of the newborn

in the first week, cell division produces a zygote then cells begin to differentiate (specialize in structure and function) and the cells become the embryo; by 9 weeks after conception, the embryo looks unmistakably human and is now a fetus; along with nutrients, teratogens ingested by the mother can reach the developing child and place it at risk, also f the mother drinks heavily, the effects may be visible as fetal alcohol syndrome; newborns are born with sensory equipment and reflexes that facilitate their interacting with adults and securing nourishment as well as turn their heads in the direction of human voices and gaze longer at a drawing of a facelike image than at a bull's-eye pattern

postconventional morality

individuals recognize alternative moral courses, explore the options, and decide on a personal moral code

assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas (child sees a cat and calls it a dog)

preoperational stage (2-6 or 7)

language development is rapid, but the child is unable to understand the mental operations of concrete logic; egocentrism

intimacy versus isolation (20-35)

learn to build reciprocal relationships with others on many levels including socially, sexually and occupationally; indivduals who fail to build these relationships will feel isolated

permissive parents

low on maturity demand and control; may be less controlling in order to stress warmth and child's autonomy; may be less controlling because they do not know how to control or do not have resources to control; see themselves as resources rather than active agents.

johnathan haidt's social intuitionist explanation

moral feelings precede moral reasoning; "could human morality really be run by the moral emotions, while moral reasoning struts about pretending to be in control?"

discuss the effects of nourishment, body contact, and familiarity on infant social attachment

more attached to caregivers who are soft and warm, rock, feed, pat, based on touch and arousal; nourishment is necessary for better neural connections; Harlow conducted Monkey Love Experiments that proved that baby monkeys are more attached to soft, warm caregivers

identify the major changes in physical and sensory abilities that occur in middle adulthood (40-65) and later life (65+)

muscular strength, reaction time, sensory abilities, and cardiac output begin to decline in the late twenties and continue to decline throughout middle adulthood and late adulthood; women's period of fertility ends with menopause around age 50 while men have no similar age-related sharp drop in hormone levels or fertility; in late adulthood, the immune system weakens, increasing susceptibility to life-threatening illnesses and chromosome tips (telomeres) wear down, reducing the chances of normal genetic replication; for some, longevity-supporting genes, low stress, and good health habits enable better health in later life

secondary sex characteristics

nonreporductive sexual characteristics; breasts (on females) and an adam's apple (on males)

assess the impact of parental neglect, family disruption, and day care on attachment patterns and development

parental neglect deprives kids of opportunity to form attachments, kids become withdrawn and frightened; damage from disruption of attachment seems minimal before 16 months of age; quality day care with responsive adults interacting with kids in a safe environment doesn't seem to harm kid's language skills and thinking but some studies show aggressiveness and defiance are linked with extensive time in day care

theory of mind

people's ideas about their own and others' mental states--about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict; children develop this as they grow the ability to take another's persepctive

children of authoritarian parents tend to

perform moderately well in school; be less involved in problem behaviors; be moody and easily annoyed; have poorer social skills; have lower self-esteem; have more depressive symptoms

children of authoritative parents tend to

perform well in school and be cooperative with adults; be well-adjusted; be socially competent; be curious and self-confident; be independent and achievement-oriented

spermarche

period during which males achieve first ejaculation

fetal alcohol syndrome

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking; in severe cases, symptoms include noticeable facial misproportions

authoritarian parents

provide structure & rules, though they are not always clearly communicated; highly demanding and directive; not sensitive to child's conflicting viewpoint; expect child to accept their judgments, values and goals without questioning; will apply forceful measures to achieve control

formal operations stage (12-adulthood)

reasoning expands from purely concrete to encompass abstract thinking

longitudinal studies

research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period

secure and insecure attachment

secure attachment: infants use the mother as a home base from which to explore when all is well, but seek physical comfort and consolation from her if frightened or threatened; insecure attachment: characterized by complete dependence on a caregiver and extreme reluctance to explore one's environment; the result of unresponsive parenting

contrast secure and insecure attachment, and discuss the roles of parents and infants in the development of attachment and an infant's feelings of basic trust

securely attached kids play and explore in the mother's presence, and become distressed when she leaves but when the mother returns, they become happy again; insecurely attached kids don't explore as much as securely attached kids and when the mother leaves, they become upset and cry loudly, but when the mother returns, they remain upset

trace the onset and development of children's self-concept

self-Concept is the sense of one's identity and personal worth, this begins to emerge at around 6 months; kids recognize themselves in the mirror at 15 to 18 months; by age 8 to 10, their self-image is steady

piaget's stages of development

sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational

authoritative parents

set and enforce clear standards; high on control and maturity demands. provide structure & clearly stated rules; emphasize communication and supportive discipline; value child's opinion and expressions

puberty

sexual maturation; the end of childhood and the point where reproduction is first possible

telomeres

shorter bits of DNA at the end of chromosomes; when they become too short they can no longer replicate; stress speeds up this process

social clock

social clock the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement

conventional morality

start to understand and apply the standards established by our society

developmental psychologists

study physical, cognitive, and social changes throughout the life span

abstract reasoning

the ability to analyze information, detect patterns and relationships, and solve problems on a complex, intangible level; such as forming theories about the nature of objects and ideas as well as being able to identify inconsistencies and hypocrisy

delayed gratification

the ability to resist the temptation for an immediate reward and wait for a later reward; associated with resisting a smaller but more immediate reward in order to receive a larger or more enduring reward later

fluid intelligence

the ability to solve new problems, use logic in new situations, and identify patterns

crystallized intelligence

the ability to use learned knowledge and experience

earliest conscious memory

the average age of our earliest conscious memory is three-and-a-half years old

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

brain development in adolescence

the brain's frontal lobes mature and myelin growth increases during adolescence and the early twenties, enabling improved judgment, impulse control, and long-term planning

menopause

the time during which a woman's ovaries begin producing less estrogen and progesterone and cease the ripening and releasing of eggs

describe trends in people's life satisfaction across the life span, and describe the range of reactions to the death of a loved one

well-being and satisfaction stable across life span, as we age highs less high and lows less low but average level remains stable; individuals achieve integrity at end of life by knowing that their life was meaningful and worthwhile; the range of reactions to death varies from culture to culture; some encourage public weeping with grieving done intensely and openly while some people grieve lightly and briefly

stages of prenatal development

zygote stage- lasts from conception to two weeks; egg travels down fallopian tubes to uterus and cells continue to multiply (100 cells by two weeks) and cells begin to differentiate embryo stage- begins with implantation (weeks 2-12); embryo develops rapidly and by the end of the stage, can recognize face, eyes, ears, fingers, toes and the heart is beating; most susceptible to environmental/external influences fetus stage- lasts from three months until birthl; organs increase in size and complexity, arms and legs move spontaneously; by five months, its 10 inches long with a lot of neural growth, but few synapses; by seven months the fetus has viability (can survive on its own if necessary)


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