Psychology Chapter 5
stranger anxiety
the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about eight months of age
zygotes
the fertilized egg; it enters a two-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo
infantile amnesia
the inability to retrieve accurate memories from early childhood; possibly because the hippocampus partially developed and little sense of self
primary sex characteristics
the main sex-specific reproductive organs; ovaries and testes
egocentric
the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view
conservation
the principle of concrete operational reasoning that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects.
imprinting
the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life
self-concept
our understanding and evaluation of who we are
three major issues
1) the relative impact of genes and experience on development 2) whether development is best described as gradual and continuous or as a sequence of separate stages 3) whether personality traits remain stable or change over the life span
strange situation
Ainsworth's method for assessing infant attachment to the mother, based on a series of brief separations and reunions with the mother in a playroom situation
schemas
a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information
autism
a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by deficient communication, social interaction, and understanding of others' states of mind
emerging adulthood
a hypothetical phase of the life span between adolescence and full-fledged adulthood which encompasses late adolescence and early adulthood
midlife transition
a natural stage that happens to many of us at some point (usually about age 40, give or take 20 years); midlife transition can include discontentment or boredom with life or with the lifestyle (including people and things) that have provided fulfillment for a long time prior
contrast parental and peer influences during adolescence, and discuss the characteristics of emerging adulthood
a person's peers influence much more when they are adolescents and adolescents usually talk, dress, and act like their peers and find it very important to be accepted socially due to having a group mentality where it is important to be "like everyone else"; when adolescents feel left out socially they are much more likely to experience loneliness, depression, and low self-esteem; during adolescence parents influence their children less and adolescents grow farther apart from their parents as they fight more often mostly about small things like chores, curfews, and homework; however, parents influence career and college choices; in western cultures emerging adulthood is the time when a person is going off to college up until they are completely independent from their parents; this window of time is much smaller in other cultures where people get married and leave their parents much earlier; the time of emerging adulthood now takes longer than in earlier history because people are biologically maturing earlier and delaying complete independence; during this time a person might live on their own but still rely on their parents for financial and emotional needs
pruning
a process where the synaptic connections in the brain that are frequently used are preserved, and those that are not are lost
alzheimer's disease
a progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and, finally, physical functioning
cross-sectional studies
a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another
adolescence
a transitional stage of physical and psychological development that generally occurs during the period from puberty to legal adulthood
assess the impact of aging on memory and intelligence
ability to recall new information declines during early and middle adulthood but ability to recognize information does not, older adults recall meaningful information easier, prospective memory remains strong when cues are available
integrity versus despair (50+)
acceptance of life achievements and significant others; if an indivdual fails at this stage they experience despair
basic trust
according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers
accomodation
adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information
define adolescence, and identify the major physical changes during this period
adolescence is the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to social independence; during puberty, both primary and secondary sex characteristics develop dramatically (girls start earlier than boys); the brain's frontal lobes mature and myelin growth increases during adolescence and the early twenties, enabling improved judgment, impulse control, and long-term planning
identity versus role confusion (12-18)
adolescents create their own identity and integrate the different components into a whole; adolescents who are unable to integrate will experience role confusion
describe some developmental changes in brain and motor abilities during infancy and childhood, and explain why our earliest memories rarely predate our third birthday
after birth, the neural networks that enable us to walk, talk, and remember have a wild growth spurt; from ages 3 to 6, growth occurs most rapidly in the frontal lobes, which enable rational planning while he association areas linked with thinking, memory, and language are the last cortical areas to develop; maturation accounts for commonalities, from standing before walking to using nouns before adjectives; as the infant's muscles and nervous system mature, ever more complicated skills emerge (the timing of these are genetically influenced) the average age of earliest conscious memory is 3.5 years.
teratogens
agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm
cognition
all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
attachment
an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation
critical period
an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development
lawrence kohlberg's theory of moral development
believed that moral development is primarily based on moral reasoning; three levels of morality: preconventional, conventional, postconventional
maturation
biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience
competence versus inferiority (6-11)
child develop a need to do things well to work and to provide in the future; school and peers are critical assets throughout this stage; incompetence and inferiority occurs if child fails to achieve
trust versus mistrust (birth-1)
child develops a sense of trust in others through being nurtured and loved; mistrust occurs if love and nurture does not occur, causing withdrawal later in life.
initiative versus guilt (4-5)
child moves into new spaces to explore and learns to play with others; feelings of guilt and fear occur if not allow to explore
concrete operations stage (7-11)
children can think logically about concrete events and objects; children acquire the mental abilities needed to comprehend mathematical transformation and conservation
senorimotor stage (birth-2)
children experience the world through their motor and sensory interaction with objects; object permanence; stranger anxiety
habituation
decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation; as infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner
summarize current views regarding continuity versus stages and stability versus change in lifelong development
development is emphasized as a slow, continuous shaping process; life does not fall into neatly defined stages, but the concept of stage remains useful since there is brain growth in childhood and puberty that correspond with Piaget's stages, plus, they contribute a developmental perspective to the whole lifespan; life contains both stability and change where personality tends to have continuity, but the foundations of today can lead to a better tomorrow; stability allows us to depend on others and provide identity while change motivates us for the future
state three areas of change that developmental psychologists study, and identify the three major issues in developmental psychology
developmental psychologists study physical, cognitive, and social changes throughout the life span; three issues pervade this study: (1) the relative impact of genes and experience on development, (2) whether development is best described as gradual and continuous or as a sequence of separate stages, and (3) whether personality traits remain stable or change over the life span
autonomy versus shame and doubt (2-3)
develops motor and verbal skills which allows autonomy and the child becomes more confident and in control; if a child is not provided with what they need socially, i.e. nurturance, they will feel ashamed and less confident
generativity versus stagnation (35-50)
develops the capacity to care and nurture; indivduals who fail at this stage will focus only on caring for self
frontal lobe maturation
enables improved judgment, impulse control, and long-term planning; continues to mature into the early 20's (25)
menarche
first menstrual period
preconventional morality
good and bad interpreted in terms of external reward and punishments; looking for reward and trying to avoid punishment
children of permissive parents tend to be
impulsive and lacking in self-control ("immature"); aggressive; bossy and self-centered; low in independence and achievement
discuss the course of prenatal development and the destructive impact of teratogens, and describe some abilities of the newborn
in the first week, cell division produces a zygote then cells begin to differentiate (specialize in structure and function) and the cells become the embryo; by 9 weeks after conception, the embryo looks unmistakably human and is now a fetus; along with nutrients, teratogens ingested by the mother can reach the developing child and place it at risk, also f the mother drinks heavily, the effects may be visible as fetal alcohol syndrome; newborns are born with sensory equipment and reflexes that facilitate their interacting with adults and securing nourishment as well as turn their heads in the direction of human voices and gaze longer at a drawing of a facelike image than at a bull's-eye pattern
postconventional morality
individuals recognize alternative moral courses, explore the options, and decide on a personal moral code
assimilation
interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas (child sees a cat and calls it a dog)
preoperational stage (2-6 or 7)
language development is rapid, but the child is unable to understand the mental operations of concrete logic; egocentrism
intimacy versus isolation (20-35)
learn to build reciprocal relationships with others on many levels including socially, sexually and occupationally; indivduals who fail to build these relationships will feel isolated
permissive parents
low on maturity demand and control; may be less controlling in order to stress warmth and child's autonomy; may be less controlling because they do not know how to control or do not have resources to control; see themselves as resources rather than active agents.
johnathan haidt's social intuitionist explanation
moral feelings precede moral reasoning; "could human morality really be run by the moral emotions, while moral reasoning struts about pretending to be in control?"
discuss the effects of nourishment, body contact, and familiarity on infant social attachment
more attached to caregivers who are soft and warm, rock, feed, pat, based on touch and arousal; nourishment is necessary for better neural connections; Harlow conducted Monkey Love Experiments that proved that baby monkeys are more attached to soft, warm caregivers
identify the major changes in physical and sensory abilities that occur in middle adulthood (40-65) and later life (65+)
muscular strength, reaction time, sensory abilities, and cardiac output begin to decline in the late twenties and continue to decline throughout middle adulthood and late adulthood; women's period of fertility ends with menopause around age 50 while men have no similar age-related sharp drop in hormone levels or fertility; in late adulthood, the immune system weakens, increasing susceptibility to life-threatening illnesses and chromosome tips (telomeres) wear down, reducing the chances of normal genetic replication; for some, longevity-supporting genes, low stress, and good health habits enable better health in later life
secondary sex characteristics
nonreporductive sexual characteristics; breasts (on females) and an adam's apple (on males)
assess the impact of parental neglect, family disruption, and day care on attachment patterns and development
parental neglect deprives kids of opportunity to form attachments, kids become withdrawn and frightened; damage from disruption of attachment seems minimal before 16 months of age; quality day care with responsive adults interacting with kids in a safe environment doesn't seem to harm kid's language skills and thinking but some studies show aggressiveness and defiance are linked with extensive time in day care
theory of mind
people's ideas about their own and others' mental states--about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict; children develop this as they grow the ability to take another's persepctive
children of authoritarian parents tend to
perform moderately well in school; be less involved in problem behaviors; be moody and easily annoyed; have poorer social skills; have lower self-esteem; have more depressive symptoms
children of authoritative parents tend to
perform well in school and be cooperative with adults; be well-adjusted; be socially competent; be curious and self-confident; be independent and achievement-oriented
spermarche
period during which males achieve first ejaculation
fetal alcohol syndrome
physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking; in severe cases, symptoms include noticeable facial misproportions
authoritarian parents
provide structure & rules, though they are not always clearly communicated; highly demanding and directive; not sensitive to child's conflicting viewpoint; expect child to accept their judgments, values and goals without questioning; will apply forceful measures to achieve control
formal operations stage (12-adulthood)
reasoning expands from purely concrete to encompass abstract thinking
longitudinal studies
research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period
secure and insecure attachment
secure attachment: infants use the mother as a home base from which to explore when all is well, but seek physical comfort and consolation from her if frightened or threatened; insecure attachment: characterized by complete dependence on a caregiver and extreme reluctance to explore one's environment; the result of unresponsive parenting
contrast secure and insecure attachment, and discuss the roles of parents and infants in the development of attachment and an infant's feelings of basic trust
securely attached kids play and explore in the mother's presence, and become distressed when she leaves but when the mother returns, they become happy again; insecurely attached kids don't explore as much as securely attached kids and when the mother leaves, they become upset and cry loudly, but when the mother returns, they remain upset
trace the onset and development of children's self-concept
self-Concept is the sense of one's identity and personal worth, this begins to emerge at around 6 months; kids recognize themselves in the mirror at 15 to 18 months; by age 8 to 10, their self-image is steady
piaget's stages of development
sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational
authoritative parents
set and enforce clear standards; high on control and maturity demands. provide structure & clearly stated rules; emphasize communication and supportive discipline; value child's opinion and expressions
puberty
sexual maturation; the end of childhood and the point where reproduction is first possible
telomeres
shorter bits of DNA at the end of chromosomes; when they become too short they can no longer replicate; stress speeds up this process
social clock
social clock the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement
conventional morality
start to understand and apply the standards established by our society
developmental psychologists
study physical, cognitive, and social changes throughout the life span
abstract reasoning
the ability to analyze information, detect patterns and relationships, and solve problems on a complex, intangible level; such as forming theories about the nature of objects and ideas as well as being able to identify inconsistencies and hypocrisy
delayed gratification
the ability to resist the temptation for an immediate reward and wait for a later reward; associated with resisting a smaller but more immediate reward in order to receive a larger or more enduring reward later
fluid intelligence
the ability to solve new problems, use logic in new situations, and identify patterns
crystallized intelligence
the ability to use learned knowledge and experience
earliest conscious memory
the average age of our earliest conscious memory is three-and-a-half years old
object permanence
the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived
brain development in adolescence
the brain's frontal lobes mature and myelin growth increases during adolescence and the early twenties, enabling improved judgment, impulse control, and long-term planning
menopause
the time during which a woman's ovaries begin producing less estrogen and progesterone and cease the ripening and releasing of eggs
describe trends in people's life satisfaction across the life span, and describe the range of reactions to the death of a loved one
well-being and satisfaction stable across life span, as we age highs less high and lows less low but average level remains stable; individuals achieve integrity at end of life by knowing that their life was meaningful and worthwhile; the range of reactions to death varies from culture to culture; some encourage public weeping with grieving done intensely and openly while some people grieve lightly and briefly
stages of prenatal development
zygote stage- lasts from conception to two weeks; egg travels down fallopian tubes to uterus and cells continue to multiply (100 cells by two weeks) and cells begin to differentiate embryo stage- begins with implantation (weeks 2-12); embryo develops rapidly and by the end of the stage, can recognize face, eyes, ears, fingers, toes and the heart is beating; most susceptible to environmental/external influences fetus stage- lasts from three months until birthl; organs increase in size and complexity, arms and legs move spontaneously; by five months, its 10 inches long with a lot of neural growth, but few synapses; by seven months the fetus has viability (can survive on its own if necessary)