Psychology Chapter. 6

Using the concept of partial reinforcement, can you explain why inconsistent punishment is especially ineffective?

An inconsistent punished response will continue to be reinforced on a partial schedule, which can make it even more resistant to extinction.

Expectancies

Anticipations concerning future events of relationships.

Punishment

Any event that decreases the probability o9f responses it follows.

Positive punishment (punishment)

Any event that follows a response and decreases its likelihood of occurring again; the process of suppressing a response.

Reinforcement

Any event that increases the probability of responses it follows

Programmed instruction

Any learning format that presents information in small amounts, gives immediate practice and provides continuous feedback to learners.

Three undersized side effects of punishment are conditioning of ear and resentment, encouragement of aggression and the learning of escape or xxxxxx responses

Avoidance

Behavioral Self management

Using principles of operant conditioning to carry out a self management project of your own

The schedule of reinforcement associated with playing slot machines and other types of gambling is 1). Fixed ratio 2) variable ratio 3) fixed interval 4) variable interval

Variable ratio

Response contingent

Occurring only after a response

Ideas to break bad habits

1) look for alternate behaviors 2) break up response chains 3) reduce cues and antecedents - meaning try to avoid, narrow down or remove stimuli that elicit the bad habit (get bad food out of house)

Steps in creating a behavioral management plan

1) specify a behavioral goal 2) record a baseline 3) choose reinforcers 4)Record your progress 5) reward success 6) adjust your plan as you learn more about your behavior.

Which is a correct match? 1) social reinforcer-primary reinforcement 2) token reinforcer-secondary reinforcement 3) intracranial stimulation -secondary reinforcement 4) negative reinforcer-punishment

2) Token reinforcer-secondary reinforcement

If a model is successful, or rewarded, the model's behavior is 1) less difficult, 2) less likely to be attended to 3) more likely to be imitated 4) more subject to positive transfer

3) more likely to be imitated

Superstitious behavior

A behavior repeated because it seems to produce reinforcement even though it is actually unnecessary

Behavioral contract

A formal agreement stating behaviors to be changed and consequences that apply.

Secondary reinforcer

A learne4d reinforcer; often one that gains reinforcing properties by association with a primary reinforcer

Model (in learning)

A person who serves as an example in observational learning

Informational view (of conditioning)

A perspective that explains learning in terms of info imparted by events in the environment.

Response chain

A series of actions that eventually lead to reinforcement

neutral stimulus (NS)

A stimulus that does not evoke the UR

Token reinforcement (reinforcer)

A tangible secondary reinforcer such as Money1, gold stars, poker chips and the like.

Observational learning

Acquiring information on how to perform new behaviors by watching others

Latent learning

Acquisition of knowledge or skills not immediately observable in an organisms' s behavior

classical conditioning

An antecedent stimulus that doesn't produce a response is linked with one that does.

Operant conditioning chamber (Skinner box)

An apparatus designed to study operant conditioning in animals. When rat presses the bar, a pellet of food or a drop of water is automatically released.

conditioned emotional response (CER)

An emotional response that has even linked to a previously non emotional stimulus by classical conditioning. Many phobias begin as a CER to a previously neutral stimulus.

Operant conditioning

Based on the consequences of responding. A behavior may be followed by a positive consequence, or a reinforcer, such as food; or by a negative consequence, or punisher, such as a scolding; or by nothing.

Premack Principle

Choose reinforcers - example: if you want to study more and watch tv less. Make tv watching contingent (dependent) on whether or not you meet your daily goal (study more). You might have to make a rule not to watch anything until you have studied for an hour.

High-order conditioning

Classical conditioning in which a conditioned stimulus is used to reinforce further learning - that is, a CS is used as if it were a US.

How does setting daily goals in a behavioral self-management program help maximize the effects of reinforcement?

Daily performance goals and rewards reduce the delay of reinforcement, which maximizes the impact of the reinforcement.

Consequences

Effects that follow a behavior

Responses in operant conditioning are voluntary or xxxxxxx whereas those in classical conditioning are passive, involuntary or xxxxxx responses.

Emitted, elicited

Antecedents

Event that precede a behavior. 3 year old runs to door when dad comes home; then begins running as soon as she hears his truck pull. Sh has associated running to the door with the antecedent sund of the truck

Systematic desensitization

Exposing the phobic person to the feared object while she or he remains calm and relaxed. Fear of heights can be slowly taken to ever-higher elevations until their fears extinguish.

Children who observed a live adult behave aggressively became more aggressive; those who observed movie and cartoon aggression did not. True or False?

False

Partial reinforcement tends to produce slower responding and reduced resistance to extinction. True or False?

False

Positive reinforcers increase the rate of responding and negative reinforcers decrease it. True or False?

False

Primary reinforcers are those learned through classical conditioning. rue or False?

False

The Premack principle states that behavioral contracting can be used to reinforce changes in behavior. True or False?

False

Phobia

Fear that persists even when no realistic danger exits. Fear of animals, water, heights, thunder, elevators etc.

Knowledge of results is also known as what?

Feedback

Pavlov's Experiment

He rang a bell, meat powder on tongue of dog, salivate. This sequences was repeated. Eventually as this was repeated (as conditioning took place) the dogs began to salivate when they heard the bell.

Cognitive learning

Higher-level learning involving thinking, knowing, understanding, and anticipation

After conditioning CS to CR

Horn - eye blink

Before conditioning: NS to no effect

Horn - no effect

Feedback

Information returned it a person about the effects a response has had; also known as a knowledge of results (KR)

Can you imagine different forms of feedback?

Knowledge of results means that you find out if your response was right or wrong. Knowledge of the correct responses also tells you what the correct response should have been. Elaboration feedback adds additional information, such as explanation of the correct answer. Adding knowledge of the correct response, some elaboration, or both is more effective than knowledge of result alone.l

Learning that suddenly appears when a reward or incentive for performance is given is called: discovery learning, latent learning, rote learning or reminiscence?

Latent learning

conditioned response (CR)

Learned reaction elicited by pairing an originally neutral stimulus with ab unconditioned stimulus. (The bell in the dog example started out as an unconditioned stimulus). After time, it becomes a conditioned stimulus. The dog's saliva becomes the conditioned response. Example: Salivation of the CS.

Discovery learning

Learning based on insight and understanding

Operant conditioning

Learning based on the positive or negative consequences of responding.

Rote learning

Learning that takes place mechanically, through reptilian and memorization, or by learning rules

Escape learning

Learning to make a response in order to end an aversive stimulus

Avoidance learning

Learning to make a response in order to postpone or prevent discomfort

Cognitive map

Mental representation of the environment

Psychologists use the term xxxxxxx to describe observational learning

Modeling

Primary reinforcers

No learned reinforcers; usually those that satisfy physiological needs

Vicarious classical conditioning

Occurs when we learn to respond emotionally to a stimulus by observing another person's emotional reactions. Ex: being told that snakes are danger souls may not explain a White's emotional response. More likely the child has observed others reacting earfully to the word snake.

Partial reinforcement

Pattern in which only a portion of all responses are reinforced.

Schedule of reinforcement

Protocol for determining when and how often responses will be rewarded.

Before conditioning: US to UR - what is an example?

Puff of air - eye blink

Stimulus generalization

Reappearance of a learned response after its apparent extinction

Social reinforcer (reinforcement)

Reinforcement based on receiving attention, approval, or affection from another person.

Shaping

Reinforcement of increasingly close approximations of a desired response. Animals are trained this way. Humans can too. If you want to study more, set a series of gradual, daily goals. Then you can reward yourself for small steps in the right direction.

Negative punishment (response cost)

Removal of a positive reinforcer after a response is made

associative learning

Requires little awareness or thought. Happens when a person or animal forms a simple association among various stimuli, behaviors or both.

Law of effect

Responses that lead to desirable results are repeated while those that produce undesirable ones are not.

Secondary reinforcement

Reward that organisms learn to like

Variable ratio (VR) schedule

Rule for delivering reinforcement after varying numbers of correct response

Fixed interval (FI) schedule

Rule for how long a set time period must pass before a subject's correct response can be reinforced.

Variable interval (VI) schedule

Rule for how long a varying time period must pass before a subject's correct response can be reinforced.

Fixed ratio (FR) schedule

Rule specifying the number of correct responses a subject must give to receive reinforcement

Self-recording

Self-management based on keeping records of response frequencies

Changing the rules in small steps so that an animal (or person) is gradually trained to respond as desired is called xxxxxx

Shaping

Extinction in operant conditioning is also subject to xxxxx of a response a) successive approximations, b) shaping c) automation d) spontaneous recovery

Spontaneous recovery

Stimulus control

Stimuli present when an operant response is acquired tend to control when and where the response is made.

Discriminative stimuli

Stimuli that precede rewarded and non rewarded responses in operant conditioning

Mild punishment tends to only temporarily xxxxxxx a response that is also reinforced. 1) enhance, 2) aggravate 3) replace 4) suppress

Suppress

Operant stimulus discrimination

Tendency to make an operant response when stimuli previously associated with reward are present and to withhold the response when stimuli associated with no reward are present.

Stimulus generalization

Tendency to respond to stimuli similar to conditioned stimulus

Stimulus discrimination

The learned ability to respond differently to similar stimuli

Acquisition

The period in conditioning during which a response is reinforced.

Operant stimulus generalization

The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to those that preceded reinforcement.

A self-management plan should use the principle of shaping by setting a graduate series of goals. True of False?

True

After a target behavior has been selected for reinforcement, it's a good idea to record a baseline so you can set realistic goals for change. True or False?

True

Like covert sensitization, covert reinforcement of desired responses also is possible. True or False?

True

Negative reinforcement increases responding; punishment suppresses responding. True or False

True

Responding tends to occur in the presence of discriminative stimuli associated with reinforcement and tends not to occur in the presence of discriminative stimuli associated with no reinforcement. True or False?

True

Self recording even without the use of extra reward, can bring about desired changes in target behaviors. True or False

True

Informational view of classical conditioning

We process association among events. Doing so creates new, possibly conscious mental expectancies about how events are interconnected tell

Extinction (classical conditioning)

Weakening of a learned response by repeatedly presenting the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus.

Extinction (operant conditioning)

Weakening of a learned response when it is no longer followed by reinforcement.

Positive reinforcement

When a response is followed by a reward or other positive event.

Learning

a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience

conditioned stimulus (CS)

a stimulus that evokes a response because it has been repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus

Unconditional Stimulus (US)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response. Example: meat powder on dog's tongue

unconditioned response (UR)

in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth). Example: Reflex salivation to the US

Knowledge of results (KR)

informational feedback; almost always improves learning and performance

cognitive learning

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language