psychology- chapter 9

the process by which a response becomes more likely to occur or less so, depending on its consequences

operant conditioning

Which of the following would not be considered a secondary reinforcer?

food.

According to the text, which of the following is(are) reason(s) why punishment is ineffective?

people often respond to punishment with rage. the effect may only be temporary. punishment may be seen as attention getting. all of the above

a fear of an object or situation that becomes irrational and interferes with normal activities

phobia

Instinctive drift explains why

pigs cannot learn to drop a "coin" into a box because of instinctive drift. That is, the pig treated the coin instinctively by rooting and throwing the coin in the air

What is the difference between positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement?

positive reinforcement adds a pleasant stimulus to increase the response; negative reinforcement removes an unpleasant stimulus to increase the response.

distinguish between positive and negative reinforcement

positive reinforcement is a reward and behavior it follows tends to increase. negative reinforcement does include something unpleasant and it is the removal of the unpleasant stimulus that leads to an increase in the response rate.

distinguish between primary and secondary reinforcement

primary reinforcement is satisfied biological needs and secondary reinforcers are money, praise, and gold stars

A gold star is a _______________; demerits are a _______________:

secondary reinforcer; secondary punisher.

an operant conditioning procedure in which successive approximations of a desired response are reinforced

shaping

describe shaping, extinction, stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination in operant conditioning

shaping is to be reinforced, the desired response must first occur. extinction is when a reinforcer is withheld, the response eventually stops. stimulus generalization is when a response generalizes to similar stimuli. stimulus discrimination is different responses to similar stimuli.

The process of reinforcing successive approximations of desired responses is called:

shaping.

Spontaneous recovery refers to.

the reappearance of a response after its apparent extinction.

Mary became violently ill with stomach flu a few hours after eating a tuna sandwhich. Although the sandwich had nothing to do with her illness, Mary would become nauseated every time she saw a tuna sandwich Which of the following accounts for Mary's dislike of tuna sandwiches?

the tuna became a conditioned stimulus for nausea.

What do the social cognitive theories and behaviorism have in common?

they both recognize the importance of environmental factors.

A small boy has just recently delighted his parents because he learned to call his father "daddy". However, it has now become an embarrassment to his mother when she takes him out with her because he keeps calling other men "daddy". This is an example of

(stimulus) generalization

the Russian physiologist, considered to be the "father" of classical conditioning

Ivan Pavlov

The general principle that behavior is controlled by its consequences underlies:

Operant Conditioning.

Which of the following is NOT likely to be an example of higher-order conditioning?

When meat is paired with a light, the dog learns to salivate to the light alone. the ability of a dog to salivate when presented with the tone of middle C but not to the tone of D. the ability to work for secondary reinforcers rather than primary reinforcers. none of the above are likely examples.

Which of the following is a primary reinforcer?

a bar of candy

Higher-order classical conditioning occurs when

a new neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus by association with an already established conditioned stimulus.

the application of operant conditioning techniques to teach new responses or to reduce or eliminate maladaptive or problematic behavior

behavior modification

Johnny's mother is trying to get her 5 year old to quit having tantrums in order to obtain candy in the grocery store. She has tried to use extinction in the past, but often gave in after three or four trips to the store. She wants to try extinction again. With your knowledge of operant conditioning, you know it will be very difficult to now get rid of the behavior with this technique because:

behavior that has been intermittently reinforced is very resistant to extinction.

what is behavior modification and how is it used in real world applications?

behaviorists have applied conditioning principles to a wide variety of real-world settings through behavior modification. behavior modification can take place while toilet training of young children in just a few sessions, getting rid of unwanted habits (smoking, nail biting), and acquiring desirable habits (exercising, studying).

When it comes to media violence, what do the authors conclude?

both a + b.

Based on the study of nursery-school children, the effect of giving "good player awards" for drawing pictures with magic marker pens was

children spending less time with the pens.

Ivan Pavlov is most closely associated with

classical conditioning

Taste aversions seem to be specific examples of what type of learning?

classical conditioning

the process by which a previously neutral stimulus acquires the capacity to elicit a response through association with a stimulus that already elicits a similar or related response

classical conditioning

the classical conditioning term for an initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response after being associated with an unconditioned stimulus

conditioned stimulus

distinguish between continuous and intermittent schedules of reinforcement

continuous reinforcement is response reinforced every time it occurs and produces rapid learning. intermittent reinforces some, but not all, responses and produces resistance to extinction. if you want a behavior to persist for a longtime, you should reinforce it intermittently.

According to Pavlov's theory of learning, the unconditioned stimulus (US):

elicits a reflexive response without any learning.

Compared to conditioning models of learning, social-cognitive theories:

emphasize cognitive processes such as perceptions and interpretation of events.

the weakening or disappearance of a learned response

extinction

What do you think your authors would recommend as a better way to deal with an undesirable behavior in a classroom?

extinction of undesirable acts by ignoring them.

The use of _________________ reinforcers sometimes causes a behavior to decrease in frequency.

extrinsic

reinforcers that are not inherently related to the activity being reinforced

extrinsic reinforcers

Money, praise, or gold stars would be considered:

extrinsic reinforcers.

during operant learning, the tendency for an organism to revert to instinctive behavior

instinctive drift

reinforcers that are inherently related to the activity being reinforced

intrinsic reinforcers

distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic reinforcers?

intrinsic reinforcers are reinforcement inherently related to the activity and are pure enjoyment of task, satisfaction of accomplishment. Extrinsic reinforcers are outside reinforcers not inherently related to the response.

"Vicarious conditioning" is most closely associated with:

observational learning.

Mark McGrunt, star hitter for the semipro "Skinnerian Sluggers" baseball team, has the annoying habit of spitting three times before he steps into the batter's box. What most likely accounts for this peculiar superstitious behavior?

it is likely the result of coincidental, intermittent reinforcement.

what is latent learning?

latent learning is learning that is not immediately expressed.

Developing a "mental representation" is best associated with which of the following types of learning?

latent learning.

list and explain the four components and the major principles of classical conditioning

learning occurs when a neutral stimulus (bell or bowl) is regularly paired with an unconditioned stimulus (US is meat), the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) which in turn elicits a conditioned response (CR) which is similar to the original unconditioned response (UR is salivation ). The major principles are the weakening and disappearance of the CR (extinction), reappearance of the CR after it has been extinguished (spontaneous recovery), the occurrence when we associate a new neutral stimulus with an already conditioned stimulus (high order classical conditioning), a stimulus which is similar to CS that produced CR (stimulus generalization).

understand how fear and taste aversion can be classically conditioned, and know how phobias can be eliminated

many of your worst fears are due to the fact that we are biologically prepared and primed to acquire certain kinds of fears. when it comes to taste aversion, there is a greater biological readiness to associate sickness with taste rather than sights or sounds. phobias are treated by systematic desensitization which is a counterconditioning technique used by clinical psychologist to treat phobias.

discuss six limitations of punishment as a way to control behavior and describe acceptable guidelines

punishment often administered inappropriately or mindlessly. when punished, people often respond with rage, anxiety, fear, and flight ("side effects" create more problems than punishment solves). "when cat's away , the mice will play"- the effect of punishment may be temporary. what is often actually learned by being punished is it is better not to get caught. 4) misbehavior is often hard to punish immediately- which is when punishment would be most effective. 5) punishment does not tell recipient what they should be doing instead of misbehaving. if punishment is seen as attention getting by the punished, then it may be actually perceived as a reinforcement!

In Tolman's classic research on rats in a maze, the rats who found no food for ten days but found food on the eleventh,

quickly learned to run to the end of the maze.

In classical conditioning, the responses involved tend to be ______________ , but in operant conditioning they are _____________.

reflexive; complex and not reflective

A negative reinforcer is a stimulus that is ______________ and thus ___________ the probability of a response.

removed; increases

In both latent learning and social-cognitive learning, what is acquired is __________________ rather than a specific response.

response tendencies

Which of the following includes the study of mental processes and is not heavily influenced by behaviorism?

social cognitive theories.

Pavlov's dog Rex drooled heavily at the sight of a blue dog food bowl. Pavlov used extinction to stop the salivating. Two weeks later, however, Rex began to salivate again at the sight of the blue bowl. This is an example of:

spontaneous recovery.

Which of the principles of classical conditioning best explains Juan's following reaction? After a traffic accident in which Juan was riding in a red car, the sight of any red car made him fearful (_______________). Cars of other colors did not bother him at all (____________________).

stimulus generalization; stimulus discrimination.

describe how superstitions might be learned according to operant conditioning

superstitious behavior may be the result of coincidental reinforcement. ex. you wear mismatched socks for the exam and you received a perfect score ( guess which socks you are likely to wear for the next exam)

In negative reinforcement,

the behavior is more likely to occur in the future. an unpleasant stimulus plays an important role. the effect on the behavior is similar to the effect of positive reinforcement. all of the above.

The cognitive view of classical conditioning maintains that:

the conditioning process provides the organism with predictive information about the relationship between stimuli.

Pavlov's discovery of classical conditioning occurred while he was actually studying:

the processes of digestion.

Five-year-old Samantha is watching a storm from her window. A huge bolt of lightning is followed by a tremendous thunderclap. Startled, Samantha jumps at the noise. This happens several times. As the storm moves farther away, Samantha jumps at the sight of a lightning bolt but hears the thunder after her jump! In this example, the unconditioned stimulus is the _______________ and the conditioned stimulus is the ________________.

thunder; lightning

explain the two types of consequences a response can lead to

two types are reinforcement which more accurately means it simply strengthens the behavior it follows and punishment is response weakened.

the classical conditioning term for stimulus that elicits a reflexive response in the absence of learning

unconditioned stimulus

In basic classical conditioning, learning occurs when a neutral stimulus is paired with a(an) _______. The neutral stimulus becomes a ___________ which can elicit a conditioned response.

unconditioned stimulus; conditioned stimulus.

Systematic desensitization

uses counterconditioning to treat phobias.

how do social cognitive theories describe observational learning processes?

we create a mental representation (cognitive map) about the environment, responses, and their consequences. social-cognitive learning theories add the human's capacity for higher order cognitive processes to the learning experience. the two emphasizes of social-cognitive theories are cognitive processes such as perceptions and interpretation of events and observational learning and the role of models.

discuss the effects of extrinsic reinforcers on motivation

when "paid" to do something, we interpret the activity as "work". when pay is discounted, we won't work for nothing. we regard rewards as too controlling and rebel. extrinsic rewards raise the rate of responding to such a high level that the activity is no longer enjoyable.

what is actually learned in classical conditioning?

while conditioning means the person learns to associate stimuli, conditioning may be more about predictive information than a simple association between stimuli. This evolutionary adaptation enables the organism to anticipate and prepare for an upcoming important event.