Psychology (Chapter One, Part one)
True
"Minority groups are seriously underrepresented among psychologists." --> True or False
Sample
A subgroup of a population
Clinical Psychology
Focuses on the diagnosis & treatment of mental disorders. (Type of Psychology)
a.) psychodynamic (Sigmund Freud)
Gregory believes that most of human behavior can be explained by examining our unconscious impulses. He takes a __________ view of psych. a.) psychodynamic b.) behavioral c.) Gestalt d.) structuralist
Mind-Body
How are the mind /body connected- relationships b/t what we experience (thoughts & feelings) & what biological processes are (activity in the nervous system) (One of 5 issues)
Independent Variable
In experiment, the variable MANIPULATED to test its effects on the other, dependent variables.
False
Psychologists base their conclusions on widely shared values.
True
Psychologists collect data through careful, systematic observation.
True
Psychologists form hypotheses (predictions) on the basis of theories.
Experimental Group
In a controlled experiment, the group SUBJECTED TO A CHANGE in the dependent variable.
Psychodynamic Theories
Personality theories contending that behavior results from psychological factors that intereact within the individual, often outside conscious awareness.
Naturalistic Observation
Research method involving the systematic study of animal or human behavior in natural settings rather than in the laboratory.
Cognitive Psychology
School of Psych devoted to the study of mental processes in the broadest sense >thinking, feeling, learning, & remembering (School)
Personality Psychology
Studies the differences b/t individuals on such traits as sociability, emotional stabilty, conscientiiousness, & self-esteem.
Biological Psychologists
Study the body's biochemistry & the ways that hormones psychoactive medications, & "social drugs" affect us.
Logos
Study, discuss, word
Gender
The psychological & social meanings attached to being biologically male/female
Psychology
The scientific study of behavior and mental processes, in all of their facets.
Diversity-Universality
Each person is like every other person VS. each person is only like certain other people -- different versus every one. (One of 5 issues)
Observer Bias
Expectations or biases of the observer that might distort or influences his/her interpretation of what was actually observed.
Ivan Pavlov
Experimenting w/ dogs (conditioning them) & research on digestion --> dogs began to salivate in response to buzzer alone
Social Psychology
Explores how society influences the individual including such topics as interpersonal attraction, persuasion, attitude formation, obedience, conformity, and group behavior. (Type of Psychology)
Mental Processes
How we think (cognitive)
Sexual Orientation
Refers to the direction of one's sexual interest toward members of the same sex, opposite sex, or both sexes.
Nature-Nurture
Relative influence of heredity (genes) VS. environment (experience) on thought & behavior (One of 5 issues)
Cross-Cultural Research
Research involving the exploration of the extent to which people differ from one culture ti another.
Correlational Research
Research technique based on the naturally occurring relationship b/t 2 or more variables.
Experimental Method
Research technique in which an investigator deliberately maniupulates selected events or circumstances & then measures effects of those manipulations on subsequent behavior., the use of controlled observations and measurements to test hypotheses
Behavior
The activities of an individual, both observable & hidden
Experimental Psychology
-research (on a # of items) -most is laboratory research
Generalization
A simple matter of conditioning
Race
A subpopulation of a species, defined according to an identifiable characterisitic (geographic location, skin color, hair texture, genes, facial features, etc.)
Scientific Method
An approach to knowledge that relies on collecting data, producing testable hypotheses based in the theory, and testing those hypotheses empirically.
Evolutionary Psychology
An approach to, & the subfield of Psych that is concerned w/ the evolutionary behaviors & mental processes, their adoptive value & the purposes they continue to serve.
Surveys
*A large # of participants are asked a standard set of questions (Research Method) *Enables an immense amount of data to be gathered quickly & inexpensively (Advantages) *Sampling biases can skew results; poorly constructed questions can result in answers that are ambiguous, so data are not clear; accuracy depends on ability & willingness of participants to answer questions honestly (Limitations)
Naturalistic Observation
*Behavior is observed in the environment in which it occurs naturally. (Research Method) *Provides a great deal of 1st hand behavioral info. that is more likely to be accurate than reports after the fact. Participant's behavior is more natural, spontaneous, & varied than behaviors taking place in the lab. A rich source of hypotheses as well. (Advantages) *Presence of an observer may alter participants' behavior; observer's recording may reflect a preexisting bias; it is often unclear whether the observations can be generalized to other settings & people. (Limitations)
Case Studies
*Behavior one 1 person or a few people are studied in depth (Research Method) *Yields a great deal of detailed descriptive info. Useful for forming hypotheses (Advantages) *Case(s) studied may not be a representative sample. Method can be time consuming & expensive. OBSERVER BIAS is potential problem (Limitations)
Survey Research
Carefully selected group of people is asked a set of predetermined questions in face-to-face interviews or in questionnaires.
c.) nature-nurture
Caroline is interested in the question of whether our personality characterisitics are determined for life by genetics or if they can be changed as a result of the experiences of our lives. Which of the enduring issues, (out of 5) discussed in Chapter One, best describes Caroline's interests? a.) mind-body b.) diversity-universality c.) nature-nurture d.) tastes great-less filling
Health Psychology
Concerned w/ Psych.'s contributions to the promotion & maintenance of good health & the prevention & treatment of illness -- psychologists design & conduct programs to help individuals stop smoking, lose weight, manage stress, prevent cavities, or stay physically fit --> (Employed in) hospitals, medical schools, rehabilitation centers, public health agencies, & private practice
Environmental Psychology
Concerned w/ the relations b/t psychological processes & physical environments ranging from homes & offices to urban areas & regions --> Psychologists may do research on attitudes toward diff. environments, personal space, or the effects on productivity of diff. office designs.
d.) counseling
Dakota spends most of his work time in his office helping clients w/ adjustment problems, such as troubled marriages, & coping w/ career changes, such as retirement. Dakota is most likely a(n) __________ psychologist. a.) industrial b.) organizational c.) clinical d.) counseling
Counseling Psychology
Do many of the same things that clinical psychologists do; tend to focus more on persons w/ adjustment problems, rather than on persons suffering from severe psychological disorders. --> Academic settings, community health centers, and private practice.
Positive Psychology
Emerging field of Psych that focuses on positive experiences, including subjective well-being, self-determination, the relationship b/t positive emotions & physical health, & factors that follow individuals, communities & societies to flourish.
Experimenter Bias
Expectations by the experimenter that might influence the results of an experiment or it's interpretation
Humanistic Psychology
School of Psych that emphasizes nonverbal experience & altered states of consciousness as a means of realizing one's full human potential (School)
Psyche
Soul, mind, spirit
Social Psychology
Study how our beliefs, feelings, & behaviors are affected by other persons -- Attitudes, aggression, prejudice, love and interpersonal attraction (are examples of the topics of interest in this field of Psych.) -->Faculties of colleges & universities, increasing # being hired by hospitals, federal agencies, & businesses to perform applied research
Developmental Psychology
The study of how people grow & change physically, cognitively, emotionally, & socially, from the prenatal period through death. Subfields: Child, Adolescent, & Life-span Psychology.
Culture
The tangible goods & the values, attitudes, behaviors, and beliefs that are passed from one generation to another.
Funtionalist Theory
Theory of mental life that is concerned w/ how an organism uses it's perceptual abilites to function in it's environment (Theory)
Person-Situation; Nature-Nurture; Stablilty-Change; Diversity-Universality; Mind-Body
What are the 5 issues represented enduring themes in the history of Psy? P____-S______, N_____-N_______, S_____-C_______, D________-U________, & M_____-B_______.
Behavioral Geneticists
Add yet another dimension: they explore the impact of heredity on both normal & abnormal behavior
Industrial & Organizational Psychology (I/O)
Applis the principles of Psy.to the work place focusing on the practical issues of personal selection & training, working conditions, work place morale, & leadership. (Type of Psychology)
Stability-Change
Are the characteristics we develop in childhood more/less permanent & fixed, or do we change in predictable (& unpredictable) ways over the course of our lives? Is self a cognitive construct, a "fictional character" we create to maintain a sense of inner continuity in the face of the varied, sometimes unpredictable experiences? (One of 5 issues)
d.) Wilhelm Wundt
As a contestant on the TV show JEOPORADY!, you are delighted that you took a psych. course when you read the clue, "Founder of the 1st psychological lab.," and you know that the correct answer (phrased in the form of a question, as required by the show) is, "Who was _________?" a.) B.F. Skinner b.) John B. Watson c.) William James d.) Wilhelm Wundt
Person-Situation
Behavior caused by internal processes as thoughts, emotions, motives, attitudes, values, persoanlity, & genes VS. external factors as incentives, environmental cues, & the presence of other people.... (One of 5 issues)
Correlational Research
*This approach employs statistical methods to examine the relationship b/t 2 or more variables (Research Method) *May clarify realtionships b/t variables that cannot be examined by other research methodsm. Allows prediction of behavior. (Advantages) *This method does not permit researchers to draw conclusions regarding cause-and-effect relationships. (Limitations)
1. Clinical & 2. Counseling Psychology
-over 50% -(1) Diagnoses & treats abnormal traits (schizophrenia, etc.) - (2) deals w/ everyday, normal problems people face (daily life)
1. Psychology & the Law / 2. Forensic Psychology
1. Studies legal issues from a psychological perspective (e.g., how juries decide cases) & psychological questions in a legal context (e.g., how jurors assign blame or responsibility for a crime) 2. Concerned w/ the applied & clinical facets of the law such as determining a defendant's competence to stand trial or if an accident victim suffered physical or neurological damage --> Jobs in theses areas include: law schools, research organizations, community mental health agencies, & correlational insititutions
Subculture
A ________ group is w/in a larger society that shares a certain set of values, beliefs, outlooks, & norms of behavior.
Ethnicity
A common cultural heritage -- religion, language, ancestry -- that is shared by a group of individuals.
Subculture
A group w/in a larger society that shares a certain set of values, beliefs, oulooks, & norms of behavior.
Random Sample
A sample in which each potential participant has an equal chance of being selected (Each potential participant has an equal chance of being chosen)
Psychology
A science that studies behavior, & the mental processes that shape behavior.
Reinforcer(s)
A stimuli that follows a behavior & increases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated
Feminist Theory
Feminist theories offer a wide variety of view on social roles of women & men, the problems & rewards of those roles, & prescriptions for changing those roles. (Theory)
Child Psychologists
Focus on infants and children, concerning w/ such issues as whether babies are born w/ distinct temperaments & @ what age sex differences in behavior emerge
Life-span Psychologists
Focus on the challenges & changes of adulthood, from marriage & having children to facing the transitions related to aging & eventual death (Developmental)
Control Group
In controlled experiment, the group NOT SUBJECTED TO A CHANGE in the independent variable; used for comparison w/ the experimental group.
Experimental Psychology
Includes a diverse group of psychologists who do research in the most basic areas of psychology (e.g., learning, memory, attention, cognition, sensation, perception, motivation, & language.) Sometimes conducted as ANIMALS instead of humans. -->Psychologists are faculty members @ colleges & uuniversities
Participants
Individuals whose reactions or responses are observed in an experimemt.
Case Study
Intensive description & analysis of a single individual or just few individuals.
Neuropsychologists
Interested in the workings of the brain & Central Nervous Systemk (Physiological)
Experimental Psychology
Investigates basis psychological processes such as sensation and perception, memory, intelligence, learning, & motivation.
Physiological Psychology
Investigates the biological basis of behavior. Subfields: Neuroscience, Biological Psychology, & Behavior Genetics
School Psychology
Involved in the development of children in educational settings -- psychologists are typically involved in the assessment of the children & recommendation of actions to facilitate students' learning -->Often consultants to parents & administrators to optimize the learning environments of specific students
1800s or 19th Century
It was not until the late ______ that psych. came into its own as a seperate discipline.
Adolescent Psychologists
Look largely @ how puberty affects a range of developmental phenomena, from relationships w/ peers & parents to search for a new identity (Developmental)
Counseling Psychology
More concerened with the "normal" adjustment issues such as making difficult choices or coping w/ a troubled relationship. (Type of Psychology)
Physiological Psychology
One of Psych.'s hottest areas b/c of the recent dramatic increase in interest in the physiological correlates of behavior -- psychologists study both very basic processes (e.g., how brain cells function) & more observable phenomena (e.g., behavior change as a function of drug abuse of the biological / genetic roots of psychiatric disorders) --> Some continue their education in clinical areas & work w/ people who have neurological problems
Free Association
Patient lies on a couch, recounts, dreams, and says whatever comes to mind
Ethnic
People who have ancestors from the same religion of the world & who share a common language, religion, & set of social traditions are said to be part of the same _________ group.
False
Psychologists appeal to common sense in their arguments.
Industrial/Organizational Psychology
Psychologists are primarily concerned w/ the relationships b/t people & their work environments -- they may develop new ways to increase productivity or be involved in personnel selection --> I/O Psychologists can be found in business industries, gov't agencies, colleges & universities (probably the most highly paid psychologists)
Clinical Psychology
Psychologists assess & treat people w/ psychological problems- may act as therapists for people experiencing normal psychological crisis (e.g., grief) or for individuals suffering from chronic psychiatric disorders. --> May be found in hospitals, community health centers, or private practice. (Psychologists)
Psychometrics & Quantative Psychology
Psychologists concerned w/ the methods & techniques used to acquire & apply psychological knowledge -- Psychometrologist revises: old intelligence, personality, & aptitude tests / devises new ones; Qunatative psychologists assist: researchers in Psych. or other fields to design experiments & interpret their results --> (Often employed in) colleges & universities, testing companies, private research firms, & government agencies
Rehabilitation Psychology
Psychologists in this field work w/ people who have suffered physical deprivation or loss @ birth or during later development as a result of damage or deterioration of function (e.g., resulting from a stroke). They help people overcome both the psychological & situational barriers to effective functioning in the world --> Work in hospitals, rehabilitation centers, medical schools, & in gov't rehabilitation agencies
True
Psychologists systematically test hypotheses.
True
Psychologists try to explain their observations by developing a thesis.
Philosophy & Science
The (2) roots of Psychology
Experimental Research
*One or more variables are systematically manipulated, & the effect of that manipulation on other variables is studied (Research Method) *B/c of strict control of variables, offers researchers the opportunity to draw conclusions a/b cause-and-effect relationships (Advantages) *Artificially of the lab setting may influence subjects' behavior; unexpected & uncontrolled variables may confound results; many variables cannot be controlled & manipulated. (Limitations)
Family Psychology
Concerned w/ the prevention of family conflict, the treatment of marital & family problems, & the maintenance of normal family functioning -- psychologists design & conduct programs for marital enrichment, pre-marital preparation, & improved parent-child relationships; also conduct research on topics such as child abuse, family communication patterns, & the effects of divorce & remarriage --> Often employed in medical schools, hospitals, community agencies, & private practice
Educational Psychology
Concerned w/ the study how our beliefs, feelings, & behaviors are affected by other persons; attempt to understand the basic aspects of learning & then develop materials & strategies for enhancing the learning process. --> (Example) Might study readiing & develop a new technique for teaching reading from the results of the research.
Dependent Variable
In experiment, the variable that is MEASURED to see how it is changed by manipulations to the dependent variable.
Representative Sample
Sample carefully chosen so that the characteristics of the partipants correspond closely to the characteristics of the larger population (Subjects are chosen to reflect the general characteristics of the population as a whole)
Structuralism
School of Psych that stresses the basic untis of experienve & the combinations in which they occur *identifying elements & how they can be combined & integrated (School)
Gestalt (Whole) Pscyhology
School of Psych that studies how people percieve & experience objects as WHOLE patterns (School)
Bahaviorism
School of Psych that studies only observable & measurable BEHAVIOR (School)
Developmental Psychology
Study how we develop intellectually, socially, emotionally, and morally during our lifespan; Some focus on just one period of life (e.g., childhood or adolescence) -->Research & teach in academic settings, BUT many act as CONSULTANTS to day-care centers, schools, or social service agencies.
