Psychology Human Development Final Exam Review

Seriation

(capacity to order objects in order of magnitude)

Television violence and aggressive behavior in children

*KNOW STUDY

Development of color vision (technique of study and findings)

4 months of age Fantz experiment?

REM sleep during infancy

50% REM sleep It takes no time, they immediately go into REM sleep Babies smile during REM sleep

Babbling (age of onset) Is manual babbling possible?

6-10 months of age—babbling emerges (universal brain maturation) (consonant and a vowel) -Left hemisphere of brain cortex is sending signals (to right hand), and has a possibility of being linked to language (babbling) Manual babbling is possible

Percent adult brain weight at age 10

95%

Longitudinal designs and confounds

A longitudinal study is an observational research method in which data is gathered for the same subjects repeatedly over a period of time. Longitudinal research projects can extend over years or even decades. In a longitudinal cohort study, the same individuals are observed over the study period. Confound- people drop out of study(attrition)

Newborn's brain weight compared to an adult

AGE AND BRAIN WEIGHT Birth 25% 6 mo. 50% 2.5 yrs. 75% 5 yrs. 90% 10 yrs. 95%

Age when children can use plural, future tense and past tense

By ages 3-4, child can use past tense, present tense, and future tense of verbs (know how to conjugate without any previous knowledge)

Piagetian stages: Preoperational

Cognitive stage from age 2 to 7 during which the child becomes capable of representing the world symbolically- for example, through the use of language- but is still very limited in ability to use mental operations. Stage prone to a variety of errors, including centration, lack of reversibility, egocentrism, and animism. In this stage they make mistakes in tasks of conservation and classification.

Cat in the Hat study: significance and findings

DeCasper Prenatal learning: Cat in the Hat study Can fetus learn something in the womb? Sample Women who are 7 ½ weeks pregnant Procedure Read cat in the hat to the child 3 min twice a day Once baby was born, baby was put in head phones with special pacifier Cat in the hat was read by mother (same passage) Then other women (not mom) read same passage *Quick sucks: lead to mom reading cat in the hat *Slow sucks: different women read cat in the hat Conclusions Babies sucked at a rate that would bring on the moms voice reading. Baby was able to associates moms voice in the womb.

Habituation

Definition: Habituation is a decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated presentations. Habituation is one of the simplest and most common forms of learning.

Impact of daycare on attachment

Does daycare influence the quality of attachment? RESEARCH SAYS NO

During what prenatal stage do the eyes, ears, and nose begin to form?

During the embryonic period, week 4 in the womb

Embryonic period

Embryonic Stage-Week 3-8 Cylindrical body forms (brain and spinal cord) Heart develops, beats at week 4 Eyes, ears, nose, mouth forms week 4 Digestive system begins to form (stomach&liver) Bronchial buds forming (lungs) Ears develop week 8

Aging and intelligence (fluid and crystallized)

Fluid intelligence: type of intelligence that involves information-processing abilities such as short-term memory, the ability to discern relations between visual stimuli, and the speed of synthesizing new information. Crystallized intelligence: accumulation of a person's culturally-based knowledge, language, and understanding of social convention (fluid intelligence decreases during middle adulthood and crystallized intelligence increases during middle adulthood.)

Puberty triggered

Hypothalamus- pituitary glands- gonads

Age when infants show capacity for imitating facial expressions

Immediately after birth (2 days), babies hold basic capacity of facial imitations *example of cross motor skills/senses

Preferential looking

Infants generally prefer to view more complex or colorful stimuli. This spontaneous looking preference is the basis of the preferential looking technique. By recording how an infant's eye fixations vary for different stimuli, a researcher can infer an infant's discrimination abilities.

Egocentrism

Not being able to distinguish your point of view from that of someone else. Natural restriction on our perception caused by the simple fact that we can only see the world from our perspective. It takes special effort to see the world from any perspective other than through our own eyes

"False beliefs" and "representational change" (definition , techniques of study, and age changes)

One of the most important milestones in theory of mind development is gaining the ability to attribute false belief: that is, to recognize that others can have beliefs about the world that are diverging. To do this, it is suggested, one must understand how knowledge is formed, that people's beliefs are based on their knowledge, that mental states can differ from reality, and that people's behavior can be predicted by their mental states. An example is that a child is shown when a boy leaves chocolate on a shelf and then leaves the room. His mother puts it in the fridge. To pass the task, the child must understand that the boy upon returning holds the false belief that his chocolate is still on the shelf. The results of research using false-belief tasks have been fairly consistent: most normally developing children are able to pass the tasks until around age four. Representational change is a change in the beliefs surrounding an object or idea. When confronted with an item about which one belief was held, that belief may change to fit the actuality of the object, while still recalling the initial belief. *age 4-5 years old

Findings regarding aging and personality traits (conscientiousness and neuroticism)

Paul Costa and Robert McCrae's study of personality traits in more than 10,000 adults, ages 35-84, suggest that: adults, on average, show no change in neuroticism as they age.

Primary and secondary sex characteristics

Primary: production of eggs (ova) and sperm and the development of the sex organs Secondary: bodily changes of puberty not directly related to reproduction

Moro reflex

Reflex in response to a sensation of falling backward or to a loud sound, in which the neonate arches its back, flings out its arms, and then brings its arms quickly together in an embrace.

Rooting reflex

Reflex that causes the neonate to turn its head and open its mouth when it is touched on the cheek or the side of the mouth; helps the neonate find the breast.

Semantics

Semantics, or the study of relationships between words and how we construct meaning, sheds light on how we experience the world and how we understand others and ourselves Semantics is the study of meaning. It focuses on the relation between signifiers, like words, phrases, signs, and symbols, and what they stand for; their denotation

Flynn effect

Steep rise in the median IQ score in Western countries during the 20th century, Finding that attests to the importance of environmental influences on intelligence.

Brain maturation during middle/late adolescence:

Synaptic pruning White matter increased Gray matter in frontal cortex increased until age 11 in girls and then decreased Gray matter I frontal cortex increased until age 12 in boys and then decreased Similar pattern in parietal and temporal areas

Hormonal changes during puberty (testosterone and estrogen)

Testosterone levels increase two-fold in girls Testosterone levels can increase 18-20 times in males Estradiol levels double in males Estradiol increases 8-fold in females

Aging (study techniques) (cross-sectional and longitudinal designs- strengths and weaknesses)

The claim that intelligence always declines throughout adulthood was: supported by early cross-sectional studies. Several early cross-sectional studies of adult intelligence led researches to conclude that intelligence in adulthood: peaks at about age 18, remains stable until the mid-20's and declines after.

Piagetian stages: Concrete operations

The cognitive stage in which children become capable of using mental operations. Children progress from the preoperational state to the stage of concrete operations during middle childhood, as they learn to think more systematically and scientifically about how the world works and avoid cognitive errors. Cognitive advances during this stage include the ability to understand conservation, improved classification skills, and the understanding of seriation.

Function of myelination

The myelin sheath is a protective covering that surrounds fibers called axons. To increase the speed at which impulses propagate along the myelinated fiber (conduction.

Can one week old babies distinguish red from blue and other colors?

Their eyes are insensitive to color. Newborns easily distinguish high contrast colors like black and white and they are great at seeing various shades of gray. A one week-old baby can perceive some colors—red, orange, yellow and green. But it takes a full five months before they can see subtle differences between orange and red-orange for example and can see blue and violet or pastel colors.

Gender constancy

Understanding that maleness and femaleness are biological and cannot change

Violation of expectations

Violation of expectation technique- studies ability to add, subtract, and understand gravity, object permanence. Method based on the assumption that infants will look longer at an event that has violated their expectations, and if they look longer at an event violating the rule, this indicates some understanding of the rule.

When does the ability to hear develop?

Week 16 in the womb, during the fetal period.

Can one month old infants distinguish basic speech sounds?

Yes, habituation study showed infants can distinguish pa from ba.

Random assignment

assigning subjects to conditions by chance, which minimizes preexisting differences between those in the different conditions. Eliminates systematic bias

Teratogens

environmental source that causes birth defects, affects the development of the embryo and fetus -Thalidomide (taken by pregnant women to alleviate morning sickness) -Alcohol -Cigarettes -Radiation -Rubella -Pollutants (ex. mercury) -Stress

Overregularization

part of the language-learning process in which children extend regular grammatical patterns to irregular words, such as the use of goed for went, or tooths for teeth. Also known as regularization. "Although technically wrong," says Kathleen Stassen Berger, "overregularization is actually a sign of verbal sophistication: it shows that children are applying the rules".

Infantile amnesia

refers to universal phenomena, people have a hard time remembering anything before age 3-3.5 PONTENTIAL MECHANISMS -Info is there we just cannot access it (retrieval Failure) -Inadequate storage Information was not stored efficiently -Disrupted Storage Something interfering with recall -Autobiographical self By age 2: fragile sense of self If sense of self is barley developed, how can you store information about yourself. -Hippocampus Not full developed Reason why memories before development cannot be obtained Memory capacity is not available

"Separation anxiety" and "stranger anxiety"

stranger anxiety: fear or wariness of strangers -other humans are source of potential danger -seek security in mother's presence -peaks 6-9 months separation anxiety: distressed when caregiver leaves -peaks at 12 months, normal until age 3 -separation anxiety disorder: persistent, developmentally inappropriate anxiety -characterized by excessive distress excessive worrying, reluctance to go to school, nightmares

Syntax

the arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences in a language.

Dependent variable

the behavior measured; the factor that is affected by the independent variable.

Artificialism

the belief that all things in nature come from people, if people make all things

Moral realism (definition, technique of study, age changes)

the belief that guilt is determined by the amount of damage not the intention

Animism

the belief that intimate objects are alive

Immanent justice (definition, technique of study, age changes)

the belief that justice is a part of nature (bridge breaks after child steals apple)

Phonology

the branch of linguistics that deals with systems of sounds (including or excluding phonetics), especially in a particular language. •the system of relationships among the speech sounds that constitute the fundamental components of a language.

Independent variable

the variable manipulated or controlled; the treatment itself

Operational definition

very specific, concrete procedures or explanations. Specifies the operations and procedures that are used to define the independent and dependent variables. Specifies, with detail, exactly what you did.

Grasping reflex

Palmar grasp reflex (sometimes simply called grasp reflex) is a primitive reflex. It appears as early as 16 weeks in utero and persists until five or six months of age. When an object is placed in the infant's hand and strokes their palm, the fingers will close and they will grasp it with a palmar grasp. The grip is strong but unpredictable; though it may be able to support the child's weight, they may also release their grip suddenly and without warning. The reverse motion can be induced by stroking the back or side of the hand.

Dual representation (definition, technique of study, age changes)

16 months (3 years) Capacity for dual representation (represent objects in two different ways) At 3 years of age, children understand symbols of representation while only 20% 2.5 year olds do, they had difficulty representing objects in two ways *doll house example, shrinking machine with troll doll

First dramatic spurt in vocabulary acquisition

18 months of age—explosion in vocabulary acquisition

Language acquisition (age of first word and 2 word sentences) (Nim Chimpsky)

18 months of age—explosion in vocabulary acquisition 9-10 months of age—1st word comprehension (on average) 12 months of age—first word production (500-100 words) 18-24 months of age—infants speak in two-word sentences (know what they're learning when considering word order, they learn the rules of combining words to create sentences-syntax)

At what age did babies display some primitive understanding of addition and subtraction? (Karen Wynn research)

5 months old -Methods Thirty-two five-month-old infants participated in the experiment. Infants were randomly assigned to two-groups ('1+1' and '2-1'). In the 1+1 condition, infants were presented with a single doll. The object was then hidden from view by a small screen. An experimenter brought a second identical doll into the infant's view, and then placed it behind the screen (out of the infant's sight). In the 2-1 condition, a similar procedure occurred. The infant was presented with two dolls, which were then hidden from view by a screen. The experimenter removes one of the objects within the sight of the infant. In both conditions, the set-up was designed so that the infants would witness a mathematical operation being performed (either addition or subtraction), but would not be able to see the final result. For both groups, after this sequence was complete, the screen was removed to reveal either one or two objects. This process was repeated six times for each infant, alternating between one-item and two-item final displays. Looking time (the amount of time that the infant remained visually fixated on an object while remaining attentive to the display) was measured. -Results The expected results of this experiment follow the theory of violation of expectations, that infants will look for a longer period of time at unexpected events than expected ones. Wynn hypothesized that if infants had the ability to compute numbers, they should look at the incorrect results longer than the correct results. Wynn found that infants in the 1+1 group looked longer when one item was shown as a final result (when the math implied that 1+1=1) than when two items were shown (1+1=2). Infants in the 2-1 group did the reverse, looking longer at the display with two items (2-1=2) than the display with one item (2-1=1). In another experiment within the study, in which infants were presented with 1+1 = 2 or 3, Wynn found that infants looked longer at three objects, the impossible outcome, rather than the two-object display.

Sensory capacities at birth

•Hearing: Newborns can't hear certain very quiet sounds. But, for the most part, their sense of hearing is already well developed. •Smell: A newborn's sense of smell is so acute that she can already tell the difference between the smell of her mother's milk and that of another mother. •Taste: A newborn can distinguish between sweet, salty, sour, and bitter tastes. She shows a preference for sweet taste, such as breast milk, and for salty tastes later on. Your baby will achieve a full sensitivity to taste by 12 to 19 months. •Touch: At birth or shortly after, your baby can distinguish between hot and cold temperatures and feel pain. Your baby's hands and mouth are especially sensitive to touch. Between one to nine months of age, she will be able to distinguish differences in textures with hands and mouth. •Vision: Newborns can focus on objects about eight to 15 inches away. By one month, she will see about three feet away. At birth, she has limited color vision. But by two months, she can discriminate between basic colors. She will achieve full color vision between four and seven months of age. Depth perception develops between three and seven months.

Studies of object permanence (techniques and age of development)

(developed at 12 months of age, as early as 4-4.5 months of age) - knowing objects that are out of sight still exist. -Blanket and Ball Study Aim: Piaget (1963) wanted to investigate at what age children acquire object permanence. Method: Piaget hid a toy under a blanket, while the child was watching, and observed whether or not the child searched for the hidden toy. Searching for the hidden toy was evidence of object permanence. Piaget assumed that the child could only search for a hidden toy if s/he had a mental representation of it. Results: Piaget found that infants searched for the hidden toy when they were around 8-months-old. Conclusion: Children around 8 months have object permanence because they are able to form a mental representation of the object in their minds. -Drawbridge Study The habituation event was a 'drawbridge' rotating through 180° Following habituation, a coloured block was introduced. Five-month-old infants were shown test events in which the block was placed behind the drawbridge, such that the rise of the drawbridge to vertical occluded the block. In the possible event, the drawbridge stopped at the point where the block would prevent further progress. In the impossible event, the drawbridge continued on its accustomed path, passing through the space previously occupied by the block. In both events, the drawbridge reversed at the end of its path, revealing the block in its original position. Baillargeon found that infants as young as 14 weeks looked longer at impossible events. This has been confirmed by subsequent studies using a variety of stimuli. Baillargeon interprets dishabituation to the impossible event as surprise on the infants' part implying that their expectations about the behaviour of objects have been violated. According to Baillargeon these expectations derive from an object concept which exists substantially earlier than Piaget would allow.

Self-awareness in infants (technique and age of development) (Michael Lewis research)

(recognize self)- 18-24 months of age Self awareness in infants (Michael Lewis): self awareness at 2&3 years of age Study: dabbed nose with red dot: 18th months would rub nose realizing its their own nose Younger infants would touch mirror not recognizing reflection.

By what age can a baby discriminate between similar sounds such as "pa" and "ba"?

*(used to study baby's ability to distinguish "pa" from "ba", developed at 1 month of age) Researchers found a way to know whether babies could distinguish between pa and ba. Babies were rewarded for sucking on an artificial nipple by being presented with brief speech sounds. They must have found this rewarding, because they would suck more eagerly when given that reward. If we present the same word over and over, the babies eventually grow tired of hearing it. We say that they have habituated to the sound- they can still hear it, but they stop attending to it. This tendency to habituate to sounds can be used to determine if the babies can tell ba from pa. If they've been hearing nothing but ba for a while, they slow down their sucking as they habituate, if we now present pa, then the babies should regain interest and increase their sucking, but only if they notice the difference in the phoneme. Psychologists have exploited this logic to determine what babies can and cannot perceive in spoken language.

Tasks that become more difficult with age:

-Free recall of lists of unrelated words -Paired associate learning of unrelated word pairs -Recall of pictures, showing pictures -Memory for spatial location -Working memory task, effortful processing (working memory, free recall of lists of unrelated words, paired associated learning tasks)

Tasks that are less effected by aging:

-Recognition tasks -Well learned facts -Implicit memory -Recent tasks

Adolescence Longitudinal Study

-Researches initiated a study on adolescents completed questions that assessed personality and mood longitudinal study 25 years later same questions were given and were told to reflect on adolescents -Findings Most people did not show too many changes Adults remembered adolescence as being much more stressful then they reported during adolescents Overestimated stress in adolescents

Nubby pacifier study: At what age will infants begin to look longer at the familiar, nubby, pacifier?

1 month of age, able to identify bumpy pacifier visually. Meltzoff and Borton conducted experiments on cross-modal perception in 4 week olds, showing that they could detect equivalences between information delivered tactually and visually. In this study infants were given one of two pacifiers, either one with nubs on it or a smooth one. The pacifier was then removed and two visual stimuli were presented, a sphere with nubs on it and a smooth one. The results showed that infants who sucked on the smooth pacifier looked at the smooth sphere while those who had sucked on the nubby pacifier fixated the nubby sphere.

Heinz dilemma

1. Should Heinz have stolen the drug? 2. Would it change anything if Heinz did not love his wife? 3. What if the person dying was a stranger, would it make any difference? 4. Should the police arrest the chemist for murder if the woman died? By studying the answers from children of different ages to these questions Kohlberg hoped to discover the ways in which moral reasoning changed as people grew older. The sample comprised 72 Chicago boys aged 10-16 years, 58 of whom were followed up at three-yearly intervals for 20 years (Kohlberg, 1984). Kohlberg Stages of Moral Development Level 1 - Pre-conventional morality At the pre-conventional level (most nine-year-olds and younger, some over nine), we don't have a personal code of morality. Instead, our moral code is shaped by the standards of adults and the consequences of following or breaking their rules. Authority is outside the individual and reasoning is based on the physical consequences of actions. • Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation. The child/individual is good in order to avoid being punished. If a person is punished, they must have done wrong. • Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange. At this stage children recognize that there is not just one right view that is handed down by the authorities. Different individuals have different viewpoints. Level 2 - Conventional morality At the conventional level (most adolescents and adults), we begin to internalize the moral standards of valued adult role models. Authority is internalized but not questioned and reasoning is based on the norms of the group to which the person belongs. • Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships. The child/individual is good in order to be seen as being a good person by others. Therefore, answers relate to the approval of others. • Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order. The child/individual becomes aware of the wider rules of society so judgments concern obeying the rules in order to uphold the law and to avoid guilt. Level 3 - Post-conventional morality Individual judgment is based on self-chosen principles, and moral reasoning is based on individual rights and justice. According to Kohlberg this level of moral reasoning is as far as most people get. Only 10-15% are capable of the kind of abstract thinking necessary for stage 5 or 6 (post-conventional morality). That is to say most people take their moral views from those around them and only a minority think through ethical principles for themselves. • Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights. The child/individual becomes aware that while rules/laws might exist for the good of the greatest number, there are times when they will work against the interest of particular individuals. The issues are not always clear cut. For example, in Heinz's dilemma the protection of life is more important than breaking the law against stealing. • Stage 6. Universal Principles. People at this stage have developed their own set of moral guidelines which may or may not fit the law. The principles apply to everyone. E.g. human rights, justice and equality. The person will be prepared to act to defend these principles even if it means going against the rest of society in the process and having to pay the consequences of disapproval and or imprisonment. Kohlberg doubted few people reached this stage.

Czikszentmihalyi beeper study (technique and findings)

70% of the time teenagers were happy Recruited 75 teenagers and asked them to wear a beeper, wen beeped, adolescents filled out survey to report moods Tried to measure ecology of adolescent experiences and moods The beeper went off randomly every 2hr period Leads to a random sample of moods and experiences First time moods could be studied. -Intent Map an ecology of adolescent experiences and moods Time beeped and time filled out Because it is a random sample Did they fill out the survey right when it was given to them. 82-88% of people the surveys were completed with in ten minutes from being beeped. -Findings Adolescents reported positive affective (emotion) states 71% of the times they were beeped. 107 adults 19-25 years of age heterogeneous sample (variable) Adolescent vs. adult moods No significant difference in happy/sad ratings between adolescents and adults Adults were much more actively engaged in their activities compared to adolescents Teenagers were most involved in structure activities Sports, hobbies.. Were most engaged when participating in structure activities. -Limitation Were middle to upper class and were confident enough to wear a beeper Expectancy effect responses may not have been valid.

Cross-sectional designs and confounds

A type of observational study that involves the analysis of data collected from a population, or a representative subset, at one specific point in time—that is, cross-sectional data. Confound-difficult to get people similar in every respect except age(cohort effects)

Visual system of the newborn

At birth, babies can't see as well as older children or adults. Their eyes and visual system aren't fully developed. Birth to four months Up to about 3 months of age, babies' eyes do not focus on objects more than 8 to 10 inches from their faces. •At birth, babies' vision is abuzz with all kinds of visual stimulation. While they may look intently at a highly contrasted target, babies have not yet developed the ability to easily tell the difference between two targets or move their eyes between the two images. Their primary focus is on objects 8 to 10 inches from their face or the distance to parent's face. •During the first months of life, the eyes start working together and vision rapidly improves. Eye-hand coordination begins to develop as the infant starts tracking moving objects with his or her eyes and reaching for them. By eight weeks, babies begin to more easily focus their eyes on the faces of a parent or other person near them. •For the first two months of life, an infant's eyes are not well coordinated and may appear to wander or to be crossed. This is usually normal. However, if an eye appears to turn in or out constantly, an evaluation is warranted. •Babies should begin to follow moving objects with their eyes and reach for things at around three months of age.

Piagetian stages: Formal operations

Cognitive stage beginning at age 11 in which people learn to think systematically about possibilities and hypotheses. When adolescents reach formal operations they use it for all cognitive activities; however, research has shown that both adolescents and adults tend to use formal operations in some areas of their lives but not in others. Piaget also proposed that formal operations is a universal sage of cognitive development, but its prevalence appears to vary across cultures as measured by standard tasks, although it may be used in the course of culturally specific daily activities.

Confounds

Confounding variables are factors other than the independent variable that may cause a result. A confounding variable is an "extra" variable that you didn't account for in your experimental design.

Conservation

Conservation is one of Piaget's developmental accomplishments, in which the child understands that changing the form of a substance or object does not change its amount, overall volume, or mass.

Dementia

Dementia is a general term for a decline in mental ability severe enough to interfere with daily life. Memory loss is an example. Alzheimer's is the most common type of dementia. While symptoms of dementia can vary greatly, at least two of the following core mental functions must be significantly impaired to be considered dementia: •Memory •Communication and language •Ability to focus and pay attention •Reasoning and judgment •Visual perception

Infant emotions

Emotions do not all emerge at the same time. Primary emotions (e.g., fear, anger, sadness, interest, and joy) appear in the first year whereas secondary emotions (e.g., embarrassment, guilt, and shame) are usually expressed by the end of the 2nd year of life, require social learning. Between the ages of 0-3 months, your baby will: •See clearly within 13 inches from her face •Be comforted by a familiar adult •Respond positively to touch •Quiet when picked up •Listen to voices •Smile and show pleasure in response to social stimulation Between the ages of 3-6 months, your baby will: •Give warm smiles and laughs •Recognize faces •Cry when upset and seek comfort •Show excitement by waving arms and legs •Notice a difference between two people based on the way they look, sound, or feel •Smile at herself in the mirror •Enjoy looking at other babies •Pay attention to her own name •Laugh aloud Between the ages of 6-9 months, your baby will: •Express several different clear emotions •Play games like Peek-a-boo •Show displeasure at the loss of a toy •Respond to you when you talk to her or make gestures •Start to understand your different emotions (for example, your baby might frown when you speak in an angry tone of voice) •Show more comfort around familiar people, and anxiety around strangers •Possibly comfort herself by sucking thumb, or holding a special toy or blanket Between the ages of 9-12 months, your baby will: •Show happiness to see her parents' face, her toys, or a mirror •Know strangers from his family, and cry when his parent goes away •Give affection and love •Pay attention to simple commands such as "no" and "give it to me" •Respond by turning to look when you call her name •Imitate some of your actions (e.g. waving, pretending to talk on the phone) •Have fear with new situations •Understand the word "no", but will not always obey

Growth spurt

Extremities Trunk Muscle mass Lung capacity Heart Girls: Puberty: between 8 ½ - 13 years old; peaks 10-11 Growth spurt: starts 10-12 ends at 14 Boys: Puberty: begins at 11,12 years old Growth spurt: starts 12-14 ends at 16

Fantz's experiment

Fantz introduced in 1958 the visual preference paradigm - showing that infants look longer at patterned (e.g. checkered) images rather than uniform images. A innovation in this task was the measurement of the duration of the infant gaze rather than just the direction of first gaze.[4] In 1964, Fantz extended this idea to habituation situations, to show that over multiple exposures to the same and a different image, the infant gradually exhibited a preference for the novel stimulus. The researcher could now estimate an infant's discriminatory and perceptual capability by showing different images in highly controlled situations, often within a stagelike box, and observing which changes in the scenarios the infant would perceive as novel.

Executive functioning-brain region

Frontal cortex. The most typical psychological term for functions carried out by the prefrontal cortex area is executive function. Executive function relates to abilities to differentiate among conflicting thoughts, determine good and bad, better and best, same and different, future consequences of current activities, working toward a defined goal, prediction of outcomes, expectation based on actions, and social "control" (the ability to suppress urges that, if not suppressed, could lead to socially unacceptable outcomes). Frontal cortex supports concrete rule learning. More anterior regions along the rostro-caudal axis of frontal cortex support rule learning at higher levels of abstraction.

Current research regarding storm and stress and adolescent moods

G. S. Hall's (1904) view that adolescence is a period of heightened "storm and stress" is reconsidered in light of contemporary research. The author provides a brief history of the storm-and-stress view and examines 3 key aspects of this view: conflict with parents, mood disruptions, and risk behavior. In all 3 areas, evidence supports a modified storm-and-stress view that takes into account individual differences and cultural variations. Not all adolescents experience storm and stress, but storm and stress is more likely during adolescence than at other ages. Adolescent storm and stress tends to be lower in traditional cultures than in the West but may increase as globalization increases individualism. Similar issues apply to minority cultures in American society. Finally, although the general public is sometimes portrayed by scholars as having a stereotypical view of adolescent storm and stress, both scholars and the general public appear to support a modified storm-and-stress view.

Storm and stress

G. Stanley Hall (emerging researcher, proposed that adolescents are filled with storm and stress) Ana Freud (Sigmond Freud's daughter, worked as a psycho analyst, "adolescence is an interruption of peaceful growth", "the upholding of a steady equilibrium during the adolescent process is in itself abnormal") -Cause: hormonal changes reawaken old impulses

Memory changes during infancy and childhood

Infantile amnesia: inability to remember anything that happened prior to age 2. One theory proposes that we can't remember anything prior to age 2 because that's barely when self awareness becomes encoded. Stored, and retrieved in memory. Rehearsal: mnemonic (memory strategy) that involves repeating the same information over and over. In middle childhood, memory is often fleeting. Organization: mnemonic that involves placing things mentally into meaningful categories. Also essential in middle childhood.

Mid-life crisis (initial research and follow-up findings)

Initial research concluded that midlife crisis was a part of normal psychological development but the conclusion was based on personal midlife struggles of researcher which was not a good basis for generalizing other people. Claims of a normative midlife crisis have been shown to be false. On the contrary, midlife is more likely to be a period of stability and high life satisfaction.

Imprinting

Instant and enduring bond to the first moving object seen after birth; common in birds

Symptoms of fetal alcohol syndrome

Physical defects may include: *low birth weight •Distinctive facial features, including wide-set eyes, an exceptionally thin upper lip, a short, upturned nose, and a smooth skin surface between the nose and upper lip •Deformities of joints, limbs and fingers •Slow physical growth before and after birth •Vision difficulties or hearing problems •Small head circumference and brain size •Heart defects and problems with kidneys and bones Brain and central nervous system problems Problems with the brain and central nervous system may include: •Poor coordination or balance •Intellectual disability, learning disorders and delayed development •Poor memory •Trouble with attention and with processing information •Difficulty with reasoning and problem-solving •Difficulty identifying consequences of choices •Poor judgment skills •Jitteriness or hyperactivity •Rapidly changing moods Social and behavioral issues Problems in functioning, coping and interacting with others may include: •Difficulty in school •Trouble getting along with others •Poor social skills •Trouble adapting to change or switching from one task to another •Problems with behavior and impulse control •Poor concept of time •Problems staying on task •Difficulty planning or working toward a goal

Attachment research (technique of study, age of development, attachment classifications)

Secure Attachment Securely attached children comprised the majority of the sample in Ainsworth's studies. Such children feel confident that the attachment figure will be available to meet their needs. They use the attachment figure as a safe base to explore the environment and seek the attachment figure in times of distress. Securely attached infants are easily soothed by the attachment figure when upset. Infants develop a secure attachment when the caregiver is sensitive to their signals, and responds appropriately to their needs. An individual who has experienced a secure attachment 'is likely to possess a representational model of attachment figures(s) as being available, responsive, and helpful'. Insecure Avoidant Insecure avoidant children do not orientate to their attachment figure while investigating the environment. They are very independent of the attachment figure both physically and emotionally. They do not seek contact with the attachment figure when distressed. Such children are likely to have a caregiver who is insensitive and rejecting of their needs. The attachment figure may withdraw from helping during difficult tasks and is often unavailable during times of emotional distress. Insecure Ambivalent / Resistant The third attachment style identified was insecure ambivalent (also called insecure resistant). Here children adopt an ambivalent behavioral style towards the attachment figure. The child will commonly exhibit clingy and dependent behavior, but will be rejecting of the attachment figure when they engage in interaction. The child fails to develop any feelings of security from the attachment figure. Accordingly, they exhibit difficulty moving away from the attachment figure to explore novel surroundings. When distressed they are difficult to soothe and are not comforted by interaction with the attachment figure. This behavior results from an inconsistent level of response to their needs from the primary caregiver.

Temperamental individuality

Temperament is an individual's behavioral style and characteristic way of responding. Developmentalists such as Parker and Barrett (1992) are especially interested in the temperament of infants. Some infants are extremely active, moving their arms, legs and mouth incessantly. Others are tranquil. Some children explore their environment eagerly for great lengths of time. Others do not. Some infants respond warmly to people. Others fuss and fret. All of these behavioral styles represent a person's temperament. (Goldsmith & Lussier, 1991; Gottfried & Lussier, 1993; Mehegany, 1992) Key Dimensions of Temperament Many psychiatrists such as Thomas and Chess (1987,1991), believe there are three basic types, or clusters, of temperament: easy, difficult, and slow to warm up. •The Easy Child is generally in a positive mood, quickly establishing regular routines in infancy and adapts easily to new experiences. •The Difficult Child tends to react negatively and cry frequently, engaging in irregular daily routines and is slow to accept new experiences. •The Slow to Warm Up Child has a low activity level, is somewhat negative, shows low adaptability and displays a low intensity of mood.

Apgar test

The Apgar score is a simple assessment of how a baby is doing at birth, which helps determine whether your newborn is ready to meet the world without additional medical assistance. Your practitioner will do this quick evaluation one minute and five minutes after your baby is born. This score rates a baby's appearance, pulse, responsiveness, muscle activity, and breathing with a number from 0 to 2 (2 being the strongest rating). The five numbers are then totaled. "APGAR": Activity, Pulse, Grimace, Appearance, and Respiration. Activity (muscle tone) Pulse (heart rate) Grimace (reflex response) Appearance (color) Respiration (breathing)

Babinski reflex

The Babinski reflex occurs after the sole of the foot has been firmly stroked. The big toe then moves upward or toward the top surface of the foot. The other toes fan out. This reflex is normal in children up to 2 years old. It disappears as the child gets older. It may disappear as early as 12 months. When the Babinski reflex is present in a child older than 2 years or in an adult, it is often a sign of a brain or nervous system disorder.

Theory of mind

The ability to attribute mental states — beliefs, intents, desires, pretending, knowledge, etc. — to oneself and others and to understand that others have beliefs, desires, intentions, and perspectives that are different from one's own. *begins in early childhood/infancy, 3 years old

Can newborn infants distinguish between sweet and sour tastes?

Yes, researchers recognize five primary tastes--sweetness, saltiness, bitterness, sourness and umami, a savory, hearty taste associated with glutamate and found in meats, milk products, and mushrooms. A newborn senses all of these tastes except one: Experiments suggest that babies can't taste salt until they are about 4 months old.

"Strange situation"

accesses attachment of child to parent Strange Situation test (Mary Ainsworth): observed attachment relationships between a caregiver and child. The child plays for about 20 minutes while the caregivers and strangers enter and leave the room. The child's amo unt of exploration, reactions of the mom leaving, stranger anxiety and child's reunion with mom are being observed. The "Secure" babies- a child who is securely attrached to its mother will explore and play freely while the caregiver is present, using her as "safe base" from which to explore. The child will engage with the stranger when the caregiver is present, and will be visibly upset when the caregiver departs but happy to see the caregiver on his or her return. The child feels confident that the caregiver is available, and will be responsive to their attachment needs and communications. • More curious, self- directed, more sought out by peers, and more likely to seek help from teacher. The "Anxious-aviodant, insecure" babies- A child with the anxious-avoidant insecure attachment style will avoid or ignore the caregiver - showing little emotion when the caregiver departs or returns. The child will not explore very much regardless of who is there. The child's needs are frequently not met and the child comes to believe that communication of needs has no influence on the caregiver. *The baby remained close enough to maintain protection but distant enough to avoid rejection. Strange Situation Conclusion Ainsworth (1978) suggested that behavior in the strange situation classification was determined by the behavior of the primary care (in this case the mother). For example, securely attached infant are associated with sensitive & responsive primary care. Insecure ambivalent attached infants are associated with inconsistent primary care. Sometimes the child's needs and met and sometime they are ignored by the mother / father. Insecure avoidant infants are associated with unresponsive primary care. The child comes to believe that communication of needs has no influence on the mother / father. For example, securely attached children develop a positive working model of themselves and have mental representations of others as being helpful while viewing themselves as worthy of respect (Jacobsen, & Hoffman, 1997). Avoidant children think themselves unworthy and unacceptable, caused by a rejecting primary caregiver (Larose, & Bernier, 2001). Ambivalent children have negative self image and exaggerate their emotional responses as a way to gain attention (Kobak et al., 1993). Accordingly, insecure attachment styles are associated with an increased risk of social and emotional behavioral problems via the internal working model.