Psychology Module 5

Echoic Memory

(auditory) When you hear a sound, you form a similar split-second memory of the image in your mind; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

Iconic Memory

(visual) a picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

Unconditioned Response (UR)

A natural, involuntary response to a stimulus (salivation)

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A stimulus that causes a 'learned' response in an organism (bell)

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

A stimulus that naturally causes a response (food)

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

A stimulus that originally has nothing to do with the situation

Positive Reinforcement

Occurs when a something pleasant is added to a situation as a result of a behavior; Example: Johnny cleans his room by six oclock, so he receives a toy

Negative Punishment

Occurs when something pleasant is removed from a situation as a consequence or result of a behavior; Example: You continue to drive recklessly and endanger others, so your drivers license is taken away from you.

Positive Punishment

Occurs when something unpleasant is added to a situation as a consequence or result of a behavior; Example: You drive 20 miles per hour over the speed limit, so you receive a speeding ticket.

Negative Reinforcement

Occurs when something unpleasant is removed from a situation as a result of a behavior; Example: You have a headache, so you take a particular medication. The headache (unpleasant) is removed, and your behavior (taking of that medication) is reinforced

Conditioned Response (CR)

The 'learned' response in an organism (salivation)

Fixed Ratio

This occurs when a behavior is rewarded for a "fixed number" of responses

Variable Ratio

This occurs when a behavior is rewarded for a "variable number" of responses

Fixed Interval

This occurs when a behavior is rewarded the first time it occurs after a fixed interval of time has passed

Variable Interval

This occurs when a behavior is rewarded the first time it occurs after a variable interval of time has passed

Three-box Model

also called the information processing model; assers that there are three stages of memory

Continuous Reinforcement

can be given every time a behavior occurs and is often used when training animals

Associative Learning

changes in an organism's behavior that are due to associating stimuli

Edward Thorndike

devised the "law of effect"; studied the effects of providing rewards for animal behavior in tasks

Albert Bandura

did the now-famous 'Bobo doll experiment' that demonstrated observational learning

Implicit

difficult to state outright

Explicit

easy to state outright

Information Processing Theory

focuses on encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

Levels of Processing Theory

focuses on how deeply information is processed

B.F. Skinner

further studied the law of effect and closely studied animals in specially-constructed boxes

Abstract Learning

generally refers to the learning of ideas and concepts

Reinforcers

good consequences

Salience

how much it "sticks out" or becomes noticeable to us

Primacy Effect

information presented at the beginning of a list is easier to remember

Recency Effect

information presented at the end of the list is easier to remember

Recall Memories

involves retrieving information in the absense of any type of clue (fill in the blank questions)

Recognition Memory

involves retrieving information with some sort of clue (multiple choice questions

Chaining

learning of several linked behaviors necessary to either receive a reinforcer or avoid a punishment

State-Dependent Memory

memories that depend on a particular mental state, like intoxication or drug-induced state of consciousness. (thoughts that you have before bed)

Mnemonic Devices

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organized devices

Mood-Congruent Memory

mood seems to have a strong impact on memory; this can be happy or sad

Partial Reinforcement

occurs on a varied schedule

High-order Conditioning

occurs when a second neutral stimulus is added and also becomes a conditioned stimulus with repeated pairings

Extinction

occurs when an organism 'unlearns' a behavior

Classically Conditioning

occurs when an organism demonstrates a response based on another similar stimulus

Generalization

occurs when an organism demonstrates a response based on another similar stimulus

Latent Learning

occurs when an organism learns a behavior but the learned behavior is not really evident

Discrimination

occurs when an organism only demonstrates a response to one specific stimulus

Spontaneous Recovery

occurs when an organism suddenly demonstrates an unlearned behavior

The 'Tip of the Tongue' Phenomenon

occurs when information is in long-term memory but simply is not 'available' at the moment

Retroactive Interference

occurs when new information makes it difficult to recall older information

Proactive Interference

occurs when older information makes it difficult to recall newer information

Operant Conditioning

occurs when organisms learn to associate their actions with the consequences of those actions

Observational Learning/Modeling

organisms (animals and humans alike) learn by simply watching and imitating the behaviors of others

Chunking

organizing items into familiar, managable units; often occurs automatically

Serial-Position Effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list; can be divided into the primacy effect and recency effect

Classical Conditioning

part of associative learning; occurs when an organism associates two separate stimuli; also called Pavlion conditioning

Token Economy

participants are rewarded (or reinforced) with tokens when they demonstrate desired behaviors

Eidetic Memory

photographic memory; very rare;

Reinforcements

pleasant consequences that will cause a behavior to become more likely to be repeated

Flashbulb Memory

powerful, vivid, detailed memories that are usually associated with an emotional event (wedding day or 9/11); though highly detailed, they can be somewhat inaccurate due to emotional nature

Simultaneous Conditioning

presenting both the neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus at exactly the same time

Backward Conditioning

presenting the unconditioned stimulus first and then the neutral stimulus after a brief delay

Shaping

process of using reinforcers or rewards and/or punishers to gradually shape behaviors

Acquisition

refers to the actual period in which the learning of a new behavior takes place

Secondary Reinforcers

reinforcers that only have value because they represent something else or can be used for some function

Constructed Memory

suddenly recovered, perhaps after being repressed

Levels of Processing Model

takes into account how 'much' or how 'deeply' we process information

Law of Effect

the assertion that an organism is more likely to repeat behaviors that are followed by pleasant consequences and less likely to repeat behaviors that are followed unpleasant consequences

Long-term Memory

the collection of stored memories; include episodic, procedural, and semantic memories

Rehearsal

the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage

Short-term Memory

the information that can be processed at one time (like the 7 digits of a phone number)

Amnesia

the loss of memory; can be classified into retrograde amnesia and anterograde amnesia

Learning

the process of changing one's behaviors over a period of time

Memory

the process of recalling information or procedures

Sensory Memory

the split-second memory that occurs when stimulus information is first received; includes iconic and echoic memories

Semanitc Memories

these involve remembering facts, concepts, and meanings. If you can define a word, you are recalling your semantic memory of that word

Primary Reinforcers

they have value "by themselves." (candy)

Punishments

unpleasant consequences that will cause a behavior to become less likely to be repeated

Premack Principle

using a preferred activity in order to reinforce completion of an activity that is not preferred

Anterograde Amnesia

when newly-formed memories cannot be transferred to long-term memory

Episodic Memories

when people recall 'episodes' or events from their lives; for example, recalling your 10th birthday

Procedural Memories

when people recall 'how to do' something; for example knowing how to ride a bike or play a musical instrument