PSYS 053 quiz unit 3

quasi-stationary equilibrium

We are in what Lewin called a quasi-stationary equilibrium that is the result of forces for change (driving forces) and forces against change (restraining forces) being about equal.

categorical variable

a variable that is made up of different types or categories of a phenomenon

empathetic understanding

putting yourself into someone else's shoes.

identical

same people participate in both quantitative and qualitative phases of investigation

parallel

samples for quantitative and qualitative components are different but drawn from same population

Descriptive research questions

seek to answer questions such as "How much?" "How often?" or "What changes over time or over different situations?" can also seek to identify the degree of relationship that exists between two or more variables

tests

common data collection method used in quantitative research. They can be used to gather data on attitudes, personality, self-perceptions, aptitude, and other characteristics of research participants. Perhaps the most common type of test is the standardized test, which is developed by psychometricians and usually includes information on reliability, validity, and reference group norms. These tests are ideal tools for quantitative researchers. Although many tests are available, quantitative researchers sometimes need to generate their own tests to measure very specific constructs that are operationalized in unique ways.

variable

efined as a condition or characteristic that can take on different values or categories such as age, grade point average, test scores, and gender.

unique case orientation

The researcher assumes that each case is special and unique. The first level of analysis is being true to, respecting, and capturing the details of the individual cases being studied; cross-case analysis follows from—and depends on—the quality of individual case studies.

investigator triangulation

involves the use of multiple observers to record and describe the research participants' behavior and context.

linguistic-relativity hypothesis

it has been suggested that the Inuit "see" many types of snow, whereas the average U.S. American probably only sees a few types of snow. Inuits' local languages might allow them to see distinctions that you do not notice

meta-inferences

it is important that ideas from the qualitative and quantitative data, findings, and perspectives are integrated into warranted meta-inferences (i.e., integrative inferences or conclusions based on qualitative and quantitative data and findings)

negative correlation

present when the scores on two variables tend to move in opposite directions—as one variable goes up, the other tends to go down, and vice versa.

independent variable

presume to cause changes to occur in another variable

estimation

researchers want to estimate the characteristics of populations based on their sample data they use random samples

change theory

systematic change follows three phases 1. unfreezing- identifying and removing resisting forces (hardest to accomplish) 2. changing - creating an imbalance of forces such that driving forces are greater relative to resisting forces 3. refreezing - reaching a new equilibrium state

data collection

tests, questionnaires, interviews, focus groups, observation, constructed and secondary or existing data

commensurability approximation validity

the degree to which meta-inferences made in a mixed research study reflect a mixed worldview

paradigmatic/philosophical validity

the degree to which the mixed researcher clearly explains his or her philosophical beliefs about research

inside-outside validity

the degree to which the researcher accurately understands, uses, and presents the participants' subjective insider (emic) views and researcher's objective outsider (etic) view

action plan

this detailed plan of who does what when, and how they are to do it is called an action plan.

confounding variables

used to refer to extraneous variables that were not controlled for by the researcher and are the reason a particular result occurred.

ontology and epistemology

These two concepts work in conjunction with an overall understanding of the nature of thought and behavior, to create an interlocking web of research groundwork for a given research focus. All four approaches to research have ontologies and epistemologies that define how they construe the contributions they are making to our knowledge of education. The ontology and epistemology of quantitative researchers as well as the implications of these assumptions for their views of thought and behavior

epistemology

acts as the overall understanding of how knowledge is created or shared theory of knowledge the epistemology of quantitative researchers focuses on knowledge being constructed through the empirical confirmation of scientific methods. Such methods require openness to scrutiny by a scientific community that strives to gather clearer and more convincing evidence to support or refute the assertions of researchers.

causal comparative research

examines the relationship between one or more categorical independent variables and one or more quantitative dependent variables.

action research

focused on addressing and solving specific problems that educational professionals face in their local schools and communities.

single-loop learning

focuses on finding an efficient solution to a small problem.

moderator variable

how relationship changes under different conditions

8 mixed methods sampling designs

identical concurrent identical sequential parallel concurrent parallel sequential nested concurrent nested sequential multilevel concurrent multilevel sequential

monoanalysis

if you only use one type of data analysis (i.e., quantitative analysis only or qualitative analysis only), then it is called monoanalysis

view of thought and behavior

in quantitative research, it is assumed that cognition and behavior are highly predictable and explainable

participatory action research

interests multiple parties/stakeholders with an interest in research topic

mixed research data analysis matrix

Crossing the two types of data (monodata and multidata) with the two types of analysis (monoanalysis and multianalysis) produces a 2 × 2 matrix with four cells

mixed methods: triangulation

Seeks convergence, correspondence, and corroboration of results from different methods.

complementarity

Seeks elaboration, enhancement, illustration, and clarification of the results from one method with the results from the other method.

case study

addressing research questions through in-depth analysis multiple methods and data sources are used to answer specific questions about one or more cases

theory in use

refers to what we actually do

reflective practitioners

Action researchers are reflective practitioners, meaning they think about, analyze, and debate what is the most effective for their given situation

scatter plot chart

a diagram of a relationship between 2 variables

hypothesis testing

researchers test specific hypotheses about populations based on their sample data.

force field theory

where we are right now and what we routinely do in our lives tends not to change very much.

causal questions

Causal questions compare different variations of some phenomenon to identify the cause of something. They usually involve the manipulation of an independent variable and the comparison of the outcome of this manipulation to no manipulation

learning organization

If someone is in a leadership role, they should attempt to build an organization whose members continually learn, develop, and grow.

mixed methods design matrix

One practical typology of mixed methods research designs is conceptualized as a function of two dimensions: (1) time orientation of the qualitative and quantitative components and (2) paradigm/research-approach emphasis. In sum, to use the two-dimensional typology of mixed methods designs, you need to answer these two questions: 1. Is the qualitative or quantitative part of the study or paradigm going to be given priority, or will the qualitative and quantitative parts be given equal status in your study? 2. Should the qualitative and quantitative components be carried out concurrently or sequentially?

predictive questions

Predictive questions ask whether one or more variables can be used to predict some future outcome.

inductive analysis and creative synthesis

Researcher seeks immersion in the details and specifics of the data to discover important patterns, themes, and interrelationships. Begins by exploring, then confirming; is guided by analytical principles rather than rules. Study ends with a creative synthesis.

sampling relationship criterion

The sample relationship criterion of the quantitative and qualitative samples results in four major types: identical, parallel, nested, and multilevel.

action phase

This could be a needs assessment or an exploratory and descriptive study of the different people and positions in the researcher's system.

nested

participants selected for one phases represent a subset of participants selected for another phase

positive correlation

present when scores on two variables tend to move in the same direction.

random samples

random samples are almost always more representative than nonrandom samples.

cycle of action research

start: wherever you are in the cycle plan: look forward and prepare to act thoughtfully act: conduct your investigation or intervention observe: what is going on? What do your data day? reflect: What does it mean? What do you want to do next?

naturalistic inquiry

studying real-world situations as they unfold naturally in a non-manipulative and non-controlling way (without predetermined constraints on findings)

conversion validity

the degree to which quantitizing or qualitizing yields high-quality meta-inferences

major purposes of conducting a mixed methods research study

triangulation, complementarity, development, initiation, expansion

correlational research

wherein the researcher studies the relationship between one or more quantitative independent variables and one or more quantitative dependent variables; that is, in correlational research, both the independent and dependent variables are quantitative

holistic perspective

The whole phenomenon under study is understood as a complex system that is more than the sum of its parts. The focus is on complex interdependencies and system dynamics that cannot meaningfully be reduced to a few discrete variables and linear, cause-effect relationships.

determinism

all events are fully determined by one or more causes was made in quantitative research

interviews

interviews are also used in quantitative research. The goal of the quantitative interview is to standardize what is presented to respondents. Standardization is achieved when what is said to all interviewees is the same or as similar as possible. The key idea is that quantitative researchers want to expose each participant to the same stimulus. Thus, when carrying out quantitative interviews, it is important that the researcher carefully read the words as they are provided in the interview protocol, a data-collection instrument that includes items, response categories, instructions, and so forth. In a quantitative interview, the interview protocol is basically a script written by the researcher and read by the interviewer to the study participants, with participants' responses recorded. The interview protocol used in the quantitative interview is very similar to a questionnaire. In fact, many researchers call their interview protocol a questionnaire interviewer reads the questions or statements exactly as written on the interview protocol, and records the interviewee's answers.

theory triangulation

involves the use of a variety of theories and perspectives to explain the phenomena under study

reflection phase

researchers think about their data and results, make sense of them, and reflect on what they mean

extraneous variable

may compete with the independent variable in explaining an outcome variables other than the independent variable of interest (e.g., teaching approach) that may be related to the outcome.

types of action research

participatory action research critical action research action science appreciative inquiry

warranted assertibility

present when you have good evidence about your research claim.

fundamental principle of mixed methods research

thoughtful mixing of methods, procedures, and other paradigm characteristics is an excellent way to conduct high-quality research.

weaknesses/limitations of action research

-Often involves a small-scale study that produces a limited and delimited amount of information and knowledge. -Produces small-scale results that are difficult to generalize to different and larger contexts. -Has less scientific objectivity compared to regular education science. -Is often based on weaker research designs compared to regular education science. -Does not lend itself to making strong statements of cause and effect. -Lacks rigor in terms of traditional measurement and research validity criteria. -Presents difficulties for institutional review boards (IRBs), who evaluate the ethical practice of the research, because multiple people might be involved and the researcher cannot foresee many possible actions due to the study's fluid nature and continual development.

transactional theory

According to his transactional theory, we are not separate from, but rather are part of, our environments.

John Dewey

Another major influence on action research, especially in education, was the work of John Dewey (1859-1952). Dewey was an educator, a philosopher, and a psychologist. In the late 19th century, he critiqued stimulus-response (S-R) psychology that viewed human behavior as merely the result of stimuli and responses pairings (and punishment and reinforcement). Instead, Dewey in 1896 was the earliest advocate for S-O-R (Stimulus-Organism-Response) psychology. He inserted the thinking and acting organism (O) into the observed stimulus response relationship. Dewey believed that the thinking human organism is always embedded in and part of a dynamic, local, and complex ecology. transactional theory Dewey also was one of the original American philosophical pragmatists who said that humans: -observe the consequences of their actions -determine what works in what situations -act in ways to produce what we value and improve our world

dynamic systems

Attention is paid to process. Researcher assumes change is ongoing whether the focus is on an individual, an organization, a community, or an entire culture; therefore, the researcher is mindful of—and attentive to—system and situation dynamics.

planning phase

In this phase, researchers try to articulate what it is about their situation that needs improvement.

lifelong learning

Many action research projects require multiple cycles in which a researcher plans and tries something small, observes and reflects (e.g., makes a formative evaluation and adjusts their theory), and then plans a new cycle of improvement. In education, this process is often called lifelong learning; in the business world, it is often called continuous quality improvement.

mixed methods research

Mixed methods research involves using and combining ideas and methods from both quantitative and qualitative research Mixed methods research offers a unique opportunity for researchers to explore their given questions without the strict confines of a monomethod research study Mixed methods research provides a way to investigate the quantitative and the qualitative aspects of human thought and behavior in its various contexts. Mixed methods research is often an excellent approach for you to use to answer your research questions. In mixed methods research, the researcher uses a mixture or combination of quantitative and qualitative methods, approaches, or concepts in a single research study or in a set of related studies.

nonrandom samples

Nonrandom samples are said to be biased samples because they are almost always systematically different from the population on certain characteristics.

qualitizing data

One way of qualitizing data is by forming narrative profiles (e.g., modal profiles, average profiles, holistic profiles, comparative profiles, normative profiles), in which narrative descriptions are constructed from statistical data.

questionnaires

Questionnaires are often used in survey and other quantitative research to gather information on the thoughts, feelings, attitudes, beliefs, values, perceptions, personality, behavioral intentions and demographics of the research participants. They may contain tests or scales (especially ones addressing beliefs, values, personality, and so on). When using a questionnaire, the research participant reads and records his or her own answers in the spaces provided on the questionnaire.

empathic neutrality and mindfulness

Researcher adopts an empathic stance in interviewing seeks vicarious understanding without judgment (neutrality) by showing openness, sensitivity, respect, awareness, and responsiveness. In observation this means being fully present (mindful).

Deweyan inquiry

Something's wrong (an indeterminate situation in which difficulty is felt)-->the problem seems to be... (the location and definition of the problem)-->maybe what i should do is...(hypothesis of a possible solution)-->doing that would mean...(reasonings out of the bearings of the suggestion)-->lets try this and see what happens...(active experimental or observational testing of the hypothesis)

feminist action research

The focus is on viewing the world through a feminist lens, eliminating binary (either/or) thinking, raising consciousness about women's issues, and adding women's voices to conversations that are typically controlled by white men. Ultimately, the goal is to improve the lives of women in society, including their psychological health, cultural power, prestige of their contributions to society, and their material wealth.

voice perspective, and reflexivity

The qualitative analyst owns and is reflective about her or his own voice and perspective; a credible voice conveys authenticity and trustworthiness. Complete objectivity being impossible and pure subjectivity undermining credibility, the researcher's focus is on balance—understanding and depicting the world authentically in all its complexity while being self-analytical, politically aware, and reflexive in consciousness.

3 key problems with two-variable cases

There is no manipulation of the independent variable by the researcher. It can be difficult to determine the temporal order of the variables (i.e., which of the variables occurs first). There are usually too many extraneous variables that are left unexplained and act as rival or alternative explanations for why something occurs in the world.

quantitizing data

When researchers quantitize data, qualitative 'themes' are numerically represented, in scores, scales, or clusters in order to provide a comprehensive description of the studied phenomena. This technique allows for researchers to understand how often various categories or statements occurred in qualitative data.

summary of origin of action research

While the works of Lewin and Dewey were developed independently, they both provide useful guidance for action researchers. Lewin's change theory involves isolating and unfreezing forces that impede change and activating forces that facilitate change in order to develop improvement. Similarly, Dewey's approach to inquiry details the natural process of recognizing problems, thinking about solutions, and acting or experimenting to produce change in personal and professional settings. Importantly, action research is a never ending process because we want continuous improvement, and because new problems will always arise and we will naturally want to solve them. Action research provides an outstanding approach to solve real world problems.

quantitative research question

a question about the relationship that exists between two or more variables.

quantitative variable

a variable that varies in degree or amount of a phenomenon usually provided in numerical form

intramethod mxing

both quantitative and qualitative data are obtained through the creative use of a single method of data collection

strengths of mixed methods research

can answer a broader and more complete range of research questions words, pictures and narrative can add meanings to numbers numbers can add precision to words, pictures, and narrative can provide fuller, deeper, more meaningful answers to a single research question can add insights and understanding that might be missed when only a single method is used quantitative sampling approaches can be used to increase the generalizability of quantitative results qualitative data can help a researcher identify and rectify quantitative measurement problems can strategically employ the principle of complementary strengths a researcher can use the strengths of an additional method to overcome the weaknesses in another method can concurrently study nomothetic and idiographic causation and produce practical theory can provide stronger evidence for a conclusion through convergence and corroboration of findings quantitative data can add understanding of amount and frequency to otherwise qualitative studies combining qualitative and quantitative research produces integrated knowledge that best informs theory and practice

strengths of action research

can be conducted by local practitioners produces lifelong learners integrates theory and practice is committed to democratic social change empowers practitioners to contribute to knowledge describes the complexities of local situations improves practice at the local level

mediating (intervening) variable

comes in between other variables occurs between two other variables in a chain of cause-and-effect.

double-loop learning

critically examines and challenges deeply-rooted assumptions, values, realities, and reasons for actions and learns how the problem relates to the larger system

strengths of qualitative research

data collected in naturalistic settings based on the participants' own categories of meaning useful for studying a limited number of cases in depth and describing complex phenomena one can conduct cross-case comparisons and analysis can describe in rich detail phenomena as they are situated and embedded in local contexts the researcher can study dynamic processes the researcher can inductively generate a tentative but explanatory theory about a phenomenon can determine how participants interpret constructs responsive to local situations, conditions, stakeholders' needs and changes that occur during conduct of study qualitative data in the words and categories of participants lend themselves to exploring how and why phenomena occur useful for determining idiographic causation

ethnography

describing cultural characteristics of a group of people extended fieldwork on participant or non-participant observations, interviews; documents analyzed during/after study to gain insider's perspective on people and interactions

phenomenology

describing individual(s) experience pf phenomena interview data

narrative inquiry

describing people's lives/stories to add to our understanding multiple conversations

qualitative research question

focused on exploring a process, issue, or phenomenon. the qualitative researcher selects a topic and generates preliminary questions at the start of a research study. However, questions might be modified or adjusted during the design step depending on how a study progresses. This is one reason why qualitative research is often said to be an emergent or fluid type of research.

appreciative inquiry

focuses on finding the best in people and working together to achieve a jointly constructed and shared purposed, vision, and goal 4 phases: discover, dream, design, destiny

action science

focuses on research in learning organizations espoused theories/theory in use single-loop and double-loop learning

Kurt Lewin

founder of action research force field theory change theory

Postmodernism

historical intellectual movement that constructs its self-image in opposition to modernism emphasizes the primacy of individuality, difference, fragmentation, flux, constant change, lack of foundations for thoughts, and interpretation

multianalysis

if you use both types of data analysis, then it is called multianalysis.

two ways of mixing the 6 major methods of data collection

intermethod and intramethod

weakness minimization validity

the degree researcher combines qualitative and quantitative approaches with nonoverlapping weaknesses

sequential validity

the degree to which a mixed researcher appropriately addresses and/or builds on findings from earlier qualitative and quantitative phases

sample integration validity

the degree to which a mixed researcher makes appropriate conclusions, generalizations, and meta-inferences from mixed samples.

multiple validities

the extent to which all of the pertinent validities are addressed and resolved successfully

weaknesses of mixed methods research

methodological purists contend that one should always work within either a qualitative or quantitative paradigm it is difficult for a single researcher to carry out both quantitative and qualitative research, especially if two or more approaches are expected to be done concurrently the researcher has to learn about multiple methods and approaches and understand how to mix them appropriately it is more expensive it is more time-consuming some of the details of mixed research remain to be worked out by research methodologists

critical action research

openly transparent form of ideology-driven research. It is designed to emancipate and reduce oppression of disadvantaged groups in society emphasizes the political possibilities and empowerment of those with the little power in their communities and society

five major research methods in qualitative research

phenomenology, ethnography, narrative inquiry, case study, and grounded theory.

qualitative data

qualitative data consists of observations that yield detailed description; in-depth inquiry; interviews that capture direct quotations about people's personal perspectives and experiences; case studies; and careful document review

criterion-based/purposive sampling

qualitative sampling is often referred to as criterion-based or purposive sampling

sampling

the process of drawing a sample from a population. When we sample, we study the characteristics of a subset (called the sample) selected from a larger group (called the population) in order to understand the characteristics of the larger group (the population) Quantitative researchers use random sampling techniques when possible. Random sampling techniques are based on the theory of probability and usually produce "good" samples. Each random sampling method is an equal probability of selection method (EPSEM), Sampling methods that are "EPSEM" produce representative samples.

observe phase

they collect data through one or more of the major methods of data collection (i.e., tests, questionnaires, interviews, focus groups, observation, existing or constructed data

methods triangulation

refers to the use of a mix of methods for organizing the study and collecting data with an objective of combining different methods that have non-overlapping weaknesses and strengths.

espoused theory

refers to what we say we do

time orientation

refers to whether the qualitative and quantitative components or phases of the study occur at approximately the same point in time

paradigm/research-approach emphasis

refers to whether the qualitative and quantitative parts of the study are given approximately equal emphasis (i.e., equal-emphasis or interactive design) or if one part is considered primary and more strongly emphasized (resulting in either a qualitatively driven design or a quantitatively driven design).

mixed analysis

researchers must make two decisions. First, determine the number of data types that they intend to analyze. Second, they should determine how many data analysis types they intend to use. These data analysis types can be either quantitative (i.e., statistical) or qualitative.

sociopolitical validity

the degree a mixed researcher addresses the interests, values, and viewpoints of multiple stakeholders in the research process

quantitative research report

title page, abstract, introduction, method, results. discussion, references The purpose of the Results section is to summarize the data that were collected and their statistical treatment. The purpose of the Discussion section is to interpret and evaluate the study results, giving primary emphasis to relationships between the results and the hypotheses of the study.

strengths of quantitative research

useful for testing and validating already constructed theories useful for testing hypotheses that are constructed before the data is collected can generalize research findings when based on random samples of sufficient size can generalize a finding when replicated on many different populations useful for determining nomothetic causation (ie general scientific causal relationships or scientific laws) data collection using some quantitative methods is relatively quick provides precise, quantitative, numerical data data analysis is relatively less time-consuming (using statistical software) the research results are relatively independent of the researcher study may have more credibility with many people in power useful for studying large numbers of people

multilevel

using quantitative and qualitative samples obtained from different levels of population under study

pragmatism

what is ultimately important and justified or "valid" is what works in particular situations in practice and what promotes social justice. Pragmatism is focused on consequences and the ends that researchers value.

equal probability of selection method (EPSEM),

which means that each individual in the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample.

intermethod mixing

which means two or more of the methods of data collection are used in a research study

non-experimental research

Non-experimental research designs include correlational (studies that look at relationships between variables), predictive (studies that examine prediction of future levels of a variable), and causal-comparative methods (studies that examine how different pre-existing groups vary on a variable or variables). there is no manipulation of an independent variable. There also is no random assignment to groups by the researcher—as random assignment is only possible in the strongest of the experimental designs. As a result of these two deficiencies (no manipulation and no random assignment), evidence gathered in support of cause-and-effect relationships in nonexperimental research is severely limited and much weaker than evidence gathered in experimental research (especially experimental designs that include random assignment). When important causal research questions need to be answered and an experiment cannot be done, research must still be conducted, and, if necessary, researchers must use weaker research methods 2 categories: causal comparative and correlations

qualitative research continued

Qualitative researchers are interested in understanding particular groups and key individuals in order to provide information that might inform local aims rather than, for instance, national policy. When they study the local group or situation, qualitative researchers explore what is occurring in a group or place, and they use a wide-angle and "deep-angle" lens, examining the breadth and depth of phenomena to learn anything and everything that might be important. Objectives in qualitative research include obtaining empathetic understanding of the inner worlds of people and groups, and conducting exploration to learn what is important to people in a particular place or group. Often these studies provide an initial answer to a research question that will be studied with other approaches later on. Another objective of qualitative research is to understand people, groups, and settings in all of their complexity. This includes developing an understanding of multiple dimensions and layers of reality, such as the subgroups in a group, how they think, how they interact, what kinds of agreements or norms are present, and how these dimensions come together holistically as group members interact as a "community." it is important to remember that qualitative research is focused on understanding the insider's perspective of people and their cultures and this requires direct personal and often participatory contact. In this sense, the outcome of this research is the researcher's best approximation of participants' patterns of interaction and understanding

qualitative researchers

Qualitative researchers often contend that "reality is socially constructed" Qualitative researchers argue that it is important to "get close" to their objects of study through participant observation so that they can experience for themselves the subjective dimensions of the phenomena they study. In qualitative research, the researcher is said to be the instrument of data collection. Rather than using a standardized instrument or measuring device, the qualitative researcher asks the questions, collects the data, makes interpretations, and records what is observed. The qualitative researcher constantly tries to understand the people he or she is observing from the participants' or natives' or actors' viewpoints. Sampling Methods: Qualitative researchers must first decide whom or what they want to study. The researcher typically defines a set of criteria or attributes that the people to be studied must possess and uses these criteria to distinguish the people of potential interest from those people who should be excluded from consideration. Once these inclusion boundaries are set, the researcher knows whom he or she wishes to study and can then attempt to locate and obtain the sample. The key point is that a researcher should pick a sample that can be used to meet the purpose of the research study and answer research questions while meeting cost and other constraints. Upon deciding what group or people to study, the qualitative researcher can enter the field and begin to collect the qualitative data. Qualitative researchers primarily rely upon multiple forms of data to address their complex research questions. These include interviews, observation, focus groups, and secondary/existing data, but they often use semi-structured or open-ended questionnaires as well.

personal experience and engagement

Researcher has direct contact with and gets close to the people, situation, and phenomenon under study. The researcher's personal experiences and insights are an important part of the inquiry and critical to understanding the phenomenon.

context sensitivity

Researcher places findings in a social, historical, and temporal context and is careful about, even dubious of, the possibility or meaningfulness of generalizations across time and space. Emphasizes instead careful comparative case analyses and extrapolating patterns for possible transferability to and adaptation in new settings.

initiation

Seeks the discovery of paradox and contradiction, new perspectives and new frameworks, and the recasting of questions or results from one method with questions or results from the other method.

expansion

Seeks to extend the breadth and range of inquiry by using different methods for different inquiry components.

development

Seeks to use the results from one method to develop or inform the other method, where development is broadly construed to include sampling and implementation as well as measurement decisions.

incompatibility thesis

Some research methodologists insist that one must conduct either a qualitative or a quantitative study because the assumptions underlying these two major research approaches cannot be mixed. This either-or position claiming mixing is not possible or allowable is called the incompatibility thesis problem with it: its failure to recognize that creative and thoughtful mixing of assumptions, ideas, and methods can be very helpful and can often best address your research question(s).

summary

The crucial point to remember regarding nonexperimental research is this: Do not jump to a conclusion about cause and effect in a nonexperimental research study in which the researcher has examined only the relationship between two variables, such as examining a correlation coefficient in correlational research or comparing two group means in causal-comparative research. Experimental research with random assignment is the best research method for determining cause-and-effect relationships.

manipulation

intervention studied by an experimenter, is the key defining characteristic of experimental research as it is based on the activity theory of causation. It is important to note that active manipulation only occurs in experimental research. Because of this (and because of experimental control), experimental research provides the strongest evidence of all the research methods about the existence of cause-and-effect relationships.

quality criteria

When we design a study, the goal is to select methods and collect data that allow the researcher to draw valid conclusions. In quantitative studies, we are typically interested in drawing conclusions about patterns of relationships or cause. In order to draw valid conclusions, we need to look at two things: the design of the study and the degree to which the sampling of people and situations are representative of the "real world." In looking at the design of the study, we need to address three things. First, we need to address whether we manipulated independent variables in a way such that we can draw causal conclusions. In order to draw a conclusion about cause, the independent variable has to occur before the dependent variable, the independent and dependent variable need to be related statistically, and we need to be able to rule out other causes. Ruling out other causes in turn involves ruling out other explanations through either experimental or statistical control. Secondly, we talk about the ability of the design to control for alternative explanations as the study's internal validity. We will later on in the course go over some common "threats" to that validity. Typically, the threats come from variables that are manipulated in addition to the independent variable of interest. So, for example, when comparing students who received a new curriculum in one school to those who did not in another school, the school characteristics represent a selection factor that may explain why the groups might be different that competes with the claim that it was the program that accounts for the differences. A researcher should be aware of such factors and design the study so that they can be ruled out. Appropriate statistical analysis allows us to determine that variables are related. We have to ask whether we have carried out the appropriate statistical techniques in order to state that there are relationships between variables (statistical conclusion validity). Third, we have to ask whether the measures of the dependent variable validly measure what we are interested in measuring. Have we chosen to measure a construct that is a valid one (one that we has evidence to support it-construct validity)? In addition to looking internally at the study, we need to examine whether the study results have external validity. We do this by examining the sampling of people and situations. Do we have a sample of people and situations that can be seen as representative of the populations we are interested in claiming that the study's results describe? We also examine the context of the study to see how well it lines up with real world educational contexts (both in terms of their features and the timelines they follow). We are interested in the generalizability of the study outside of the chosen treatment populations and educational contexts. Therefore, the study must have some relevance to the ways in which the phenomena of interest actually work in the real world. Lastly, a study has more credibility if it replicates some results from other studies. In quantitative research, we want our studies to be both reliable and valid. If a study is reliable, then the results can be replicated. If a study is valid (it has internal, statistical conclusion, construct, and external validity), then the inferences made from the study are correct.

correlation coefficient

a numerical index that provides information about the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables. It provides information about how two variables are associated. More specifically, a correlation coefficient is a number that can range from -1 to 1, with zero standing for no correlation at all. A number greater than zero indicates a positive correlation, while a number less than zero means there is a negative correlation. If the number is equal to zero, then there is no correlation between the two variables. If the number is equal to +1.00 or equal to -1.00, the correlation is called perfect since it is as strong as possible.

triangulation

a validation approach based on the search for convergence of results obtained by using multiple investigators, methods, data sources, and/or theoretical perspectives This approach builds into the study and research process systematic cross-checking of information and conclusions through the use of multiple procedures or sources and therefore addresses the larger goal of study validity. As an outcome, "triangulation" is said to occur when your results converge on the same conclusion. Traditionally, four kinds of triangulation were identified: data, methods, investigator, and theory.

time orientation criterion

asks whether quantitative and qualitative data collection occur concurrently or sequentially. concurrent time orientation, data are collected for the quantitative phase and qualitative phase of the study at the same or during approximately the same time period. Data from both samples (i.e., the quantitative sample and the qualitative sample) are combined and interpreted at the study's data interpretation stage. In a sequential time orientation, data obtained from the sample during the first phase of the study are used to shape or structure the sample selection of the next phase of the study (i.e., quantitative phase followed by qualitative phase, or vice versa).

dependent variable

changes effected by another variable influenced by one or more independent variables

poststructuralism

historical intellectual movement that rejects universal truth and emphasizes differences, deconstruction, interpretation, and the power of ideas over people's behavior

ground theory

inductively generating a theory describing a phenomenon continual activity running concurrent to analysis as interview and observational data are distilled and compared to build a working theory grounded in collected data

experimental research

involves manipulating variables in a controlled environment to isolate the causal effects of a particular variable or set of variables. Experimental and Quasi-experimental fall into this class of research methods. They are used to address causal research questions. the experimental research method enables researchers to identify causal relationships because it allows researchers to observe, under controlled conditions, the effects of systematically changing one or more variables. Specifically in experimental research, the researcher manipulates the independent variable by actively intervening in the world, and then observes what happens.

Quantitative observation

involves the standardization of observational procedures in order to obtain reliable quantitative data, such as counts or frequencies and percentages. It often involves the standardization of different aspects of observation who is observed what is observed when the observations are to take place where the observations are to be carried out how the observations are to be done

limitations of qualitative research

knowledge produced might not generalize to other people or other settinfs it is difficult to make quantitative predictions it is more difficult to test hypotheses and theories with large participant pools the study might have less credibility with some administrators and commissioners of programs collecting data generally takes more time than with quantitative research data analysis is often time consuming the results are more easily influenced by the researcher's personal biases and idiosyncrasies

jargon

language it uses

qualitative research

major research approach that is focused on studying particular phenomena through the collection of non-numerical data such as words, images, pictures, and interpretive categories. Qualitative research is used to describe and understand what occurs locally (rather than globally), but it is nevertheless used at times to come up with or generate new hypotheses and new theories. Qualitative research can be used when little is known about a topic or phenomenon, but more generally, it is used whenever one wants to discover or learn more about something in our world that is too complex for numerical data to capture. Qualitative research is commonly used to understand people's subjective and shared experiences and to express their "insider" perspectives often through systematic and careful observation and interviewing. The major objectives of qualitative research include exploration, discovery, and understanding. These objectives are often focused on individuals' subjective meanings and the insider perspective in cultural groups; this means that qualitative research is conducted in an open-ended way and does not impose prior theories or ways of thinking on the people or phenomena under study. With openness to adapting the inquiry as understanding deepens and/or situations change, the researcher avoids getting locked into rigid designs that eliminate responsiveness and pursues new paths of discovery as they emerge. In this sense, qualitative studies have an inherent emergent design flexibility. Qualitative researchers rely on the exploratory or inductive mode of the scientific method, focusing on understanding just the particular, or starting with the particular and then cautiously moving toward an understanding of the general. Qualitative researchers study the phenomena as they naturally occur, without manipulating conditions. They enter the world as observers, listeners, and/or participants in their attempt to understand our complex and dynamic human world. While observing, qualitative researchers try not to draw attention to themselves. They try to be unobtrusive so that they will have little influence on the world of localized behavior and social interaction. Qualitative researchers view human thought and behavior as complex, particular, dynamic, and changing, and they advocate studying a phenomenon (e.g., a school, a classroom, a team, or a cultural group) in-depth and over an extended period of time to obtain a deep understanding from the insiders' or members' perspectives. Cases for study (e.g., people, organizations, communities, cultures) are selected because they are "information rich" and illuminative. Sampling is purposive, aimed at insight about the phenomenon, not empirical generalization from a sample to a population. The product of qualitative research is usually a narrative research report with rich description (i.e., vivid and detailed writing) in contrast to a statistical report (with a lot of numbers and statistical test results) that is produced in quantitative research.

quantitative research

quantitative research explores variables that can be expressed through numerical data. Quantitative research is a major approach to research with the specific purpose of answering research questions that lend themselves to study through the collection of numerical data (e.g., rating scales, GPA, frequency of events). It is important to note that quantitative research also has its own set of assumptions and unique methods. Typically this major approach to research follows the confirmatory scientific method as shown in the Research Wheel below, focusing on hypothesis and theory testing. However, quantitative research can be exploratory as well when it has a descriptive focus. The most common objectives of quantitative research are description, prediction, control, and explanationIn short, quantitative researchers try to identify cause-and-effect relationships through replication and testing of studies on multiple people in multiple contexts. Quantitative researchers are also interested in making probabilistic predictions and generalizations. When quantitative researchers conduct experimental research studies, they usually focus on a limited number of variables, and therefore we say they use a "narrow-angle lens" focusing on only one or a few causal factors at the same time. When quantitative researchers decide to study cause and effect, they attempt to hold constant the factors that are not being studied. If researchers used a wide-angle lens to analyze quantitative data, they would have to account for a larger number of variables or factors. This decreases the ability for a researcher to narrow down or isolate factors also decreasing the ability to determine relationships between variables.

ontology

refers to the research's inherent understanding of reality and truth as perceived by the researchers themselves nature of reality/truth As indicated under Ontology, quantitative researchers operate under the assumption of objectivity. It is assumed that there is a reality to be observed and that rational observers who look at the same phenomenon will basically agree on its existence and its characteristics. Researchers try to remain neutral or value-free, attempting to avoid human bias whenever possible. In a sense, quantitative researchers attempt to study the phenomena "from a distance." researchers frequently use random assignment to place participants into different groups to eliminate the possibility of human bias in group construction. In evaluating results, statistical criteria are used so that numbers, not opinions, inform conclusions.

data triangulation

refers to the use of multiple forms of data to capture a single phenomenon

stages of the mixed research process

research questions 1. determine whether a mixed design is appropriate 2. determine the rationale for using a mixed design 3. select a mixed research design and mixed sampling design 4. collect the data 5. analyze the data 6. continually validate the data 7. continually interpret the data and findings 8. write the research report

limitations of quantitative research

researcher's categories might not reflect local constituencies' understandings researcher's theories might not reflect local constituencies' understandings researcher might miss observing phenomena because of focus on theory or hypothesis testing rather than on theory or hypothesis generalization (called the confirmation bias) knowledge produced might be too abstract and general for direct application to specific local situations, contexts, and individuals

representative sample

resembles the population that it came from on all characteristics (the proportions of males and females, teachers and non-teachers, young and old people, and so forth) except total size. In other words, a representative sample is like the population except that it is smaller.

compatibility thesis

says that quantitative and qualitative approaches can be used together in a single research study as long as researchers respect the assumptions associated with quantitative and qualitative research and construct a thoughtful combination that will help to address their research question(s).

constant

something that does not change, but takes on a single value