Public Speaking Final

Pauses and vocalized pauses

An appropriate pause can often do more to accent your message than any other vocal characteristic. can add zest to your speech and help maintain audience attention.

Action

An audience is more likely to listen to an action-packed message than to one that listlessly lingers on an idea too long. The key to maintaining interest is a plot that moves along to hold attention. Good stories have a beginning that sets the stage, a heart that moves to a conclusion, and an ending that ties up all the loose ends.

Hypothetical Illustrations

An example that might happen but that has not actually occurred

Persuasion

The process of changing or reinforcing a listener's attitudes, beliefs, values, or behavior

Articulation

The production of clear and distinct speech sounds. Without distinct enunciation or articulation of the sounds that make up words, your listeners may not understand you or may fault you for simply not knowing how to speak clearly and fluently.

Pronunciation

The proper use of sounds to form words clearly and accurately Mispronouncing words can detract from a speaker's credibility.

Cognitive Dissonance Describe the concept of cognitive dissonance. In what ways can a listener cope with cognitive dissonance?

The sense of mental discomfort that prompts a person to change when new information conflicts with previously organized thought patterns Listeners may discredit the source, may reinterpret the message, may seek new information, may stop listening, may change their attitudes, beliefs, values, or behavior—as the speaker wishes them to do.

Volume

The softness or loudness of a speaker's voice. The fundamental goal in vocal delivery is to speak loudly enough so that your audience can hear you.

Ethos

The term Aristotle used to refer to a speaker's credibility An effective communicator must be credible. Not only must the information be credible, Aristotle believed the speaker also should be ethical, possess good character, have common sense, and be concerned for the well-being of the audience. The more credible and ethical a speaker is perceived to be, the greater the chances are that a listener will believe in, trust, and respond positively to the speaker's persuasive message.

Elaboration Likelihood Model

The theory that people can be persuaded by logic, evidence, and reasoning, or through a more peripheral route that may depend on the credibility of the speaker, the sheer number of arguments presented, or emotional appeals

Logos

The word logos literally means "the word." Aristotle used this term to refer to the rational, logical arguments a speaker uses to persuade someone. A skilled persuader not only reaches a logical conclusion, but also supports the message with evidence and reasoning.

How can descriptions and explanations help your audience? How are describing/description different from explaining/explanations? How can you use them effectively?

They clarify things, and help the audience develop mental pictures of what they're hearing about. Descriptions are more vivid, whereas explanations explain WHY. To use them effectively, Avoid overuse. Alternate descriptions and explanations with other types of support., Keep them brief. Supply only the necessary details., Be specific. Use vivid, concrete language that appeals to the senses.

How can you use analogies effectively?

To help the audience understand, make sure the two things you compare in a literal analogy are very similar. Be sure that the essential similarity between the two objects in a figurative analogy is readily apparent.

Clarity

To speak with clarity is to express ideas so that the listener understands the intended message accurately. Speaking clearly is an obvious goal of an informative speaker.

Facial Expression

Use facial expressions to enhance verbal messages. As you rehearse, be mindful of the emotion that you wish your audience members to feel. Monitor your expression so that it communicates the emotion you intend. Unless you are presenting sad or bad news, have a naturally pleasant, positive facial expression to signal your interest in communicating with your listeners. When presenting a speech that will be seen only on video, take care not to overly exaggerate your facial expression. Close-ups can amplify the intensity of your emotional expressions. Remember that listeners from high-context cultures, such as people from Asia, often prefer less dramatic and subtler facial expressions.

Humor

Using a bit of humor makes the point while holding the listener's attention. Not all stories have to be funny. Stories may be sad or dramatic without humor. But adding humor when appropriate usually helps maintain interest and attention.

People

Using people to illustrate your message can be tricky. Before your presentation, choose someone you trust so that you can fully inform him or her about what needs to be done. Rehearse your speech using your live presentation aid.

Pitch

how high or low your voice sounds. can add zest to your speech and help maintain audience attention. inflection: The variation in the pitch of the voice The best public speakers appropriately vary their inflection.

What does nonverbal expectancy theory propose?

suggest that if listeners expectations about how communication should be expressed are violated, listeners will feel less favorable towards the communicator or message.

What is emotional contagion theory and why is it important?

suggests that people tent to "catch" the emotions of others

Andragogy

the art and science of teaching adults.

Stacks

the collection of books in a library

What are the benefits of the Internet as a source of supporting material? Drawbacks?

the sites can be full of information that is useful, as long as it is reliable

Personal Appearance

way speakers dress, groom, and present themselves physically Appropriate wardrobe varies depending on climate, custom, culture, and audience expectations. Most people have certain expectations about the way a speaker should look. Use your audience analysis to identify and avoid violating your audience's expectations.

Vertical Search Engine

A Web site that indexes World Wide Web information in a specific field

Figurative Analogy

A comparison between two essentially dissimilar things that share some common feature on which the comparison depends

Literal Analogy

A comparison between two similar things, To help the audience understand, make sure the two things you compare in a literal analogy are very similar.

Analogy

A comparison. Like a definition, an analogy increases understanding; unlike a definition, it deals with relationships and comparisons—between the new and the old, the unknown and the known, or any other pair of ideas or things. Analogies can help your listeners understand unfamiliar ideas, things, and situations by showing how these are similar to something they already know.

Dialect

A consistent style of pronouncing words that is common to an ethnic group or geographic region You can adapt your dialect by changing your intonation pattern, vowel production, consonant production, or speaking rate. Use proper intonation, Pronounce vowels clearly, Pronounce consonants appropriately, and Use an appropriate speaking rate.

Extended Illustrations

A detailed example that resembles a story

Attitudes

A learned predisposition to respond favorably or unfavorably toward something. Attitudes are easier to change than either beliefs or values.

Informative Speech

A speech that teaches others new information, ideas, concepts, principles, or processes to enhance their knowledge or understanding about something

Definition

A statement about what a term means or how it is applied in a specific instance

Explanation

A statement that clarifies how something is done or why it exists in its present form or existed in its past form

Description

A word picture of something

Use the Unexpected

Advertisers know that listeners will focus on the unexpected. If you add a surprise twist to a quotation or story, audience members will increase their attention.

Values

An enduring conception of right or wrong, good or bad. If you value something, you classify it as good or desirable, and you tend to think of its opposite or its lack as bad or wrong. If you do not value something, you are indifferent to it.

Expert Testimony

An opinion offered by someone who is an authority on a subject

Lay Testimony

An opinion or description offered by a non-expert who has firsthand experience

Brief Illustrations

An unelaborated example, often only a sentence or two long

What benefit do they (analogies) offer the listener?

Analogies can help your listeners understand unfamiliar ideas, things, and situations by showing how these are similar to something they already know.

Analogies

Analogies, or comparisons, can help listeners understand unfamiliar ideas or processes by comparing them to something they already know.

Pathos

Appeals to emotion in persuasion. Emotion-arousing stories and examples, as well as pictures and music, all appeal to listeners' emotions.

What different types of illustrations can you use? How can you use illustrations most effectively?

Brief, Extended, Personal, Hypothetical To use illustrations effectively, be certain that your stories are directly relevant to the idea or point they are supposed to support.

Explain the four strategies to enhance audience recall.

Build in redundancy, make your key ideas short and simple, pace your information flow, reinforce key ideas

Currency, Relevance, Authority, Accuracy, Purpose

CRAAP test Currency: The timeliness of the information. Relevance: The importance of the information for your needs. Authority: The source of the information. Accuracy: The reliability, truthfulness and correctness of the content. Purpose: The reason the information exists.

Charts

Charts, or tables, summarize and present a great deal of information in a small amount of space. They are easy to use, reuse, and enlarge. They can also be displayed in a variety of ways. You can use a flipchart, a poster, or a computer-generated slide, which can project a giant image of your chart on a screen. Charts must be simple and easy to read. Do not try to put too much information on one chart.

What are two types of definitions discussed? How should you use definitions effectively?

Classification (the kind of definition you would find in a dictionary.), Operational definition (a speaker may define a term by showing how it works or how it is applied in a specific instance). To use them effectively, use a definition only when needed, Make definitions immediately and easily understandable to your audience, and Be certain that your definition and your use of a term are consistent throughout a speech.

What guidelines does your text offer for effective impromptu speaking?

Consider your audience, be brief, ORGANIZE!

What is the difference between a database and an internet search?

Database is used to store data-whatever is searched or not searched. Search Engine searches user input within specific columns in the database and return the results accordingly.

Full-Text Database

Database that indexes the complete text of newspapers, periodicals, encyclopedias, research reports, court cases, books, and the like.

Impromptu Speaking

Delivering a speech without advance preparation

Memorized Speaking

Delivering a speech word for word from memory without using notes

Posture

Display an appropriate posture while delivering a speech. In general, avoid slouching your shoulders, shifting from foot to foot, or drooping your head. Your posture should not call attention to itself. Instead, it should reflect your interest in the speaking event and your attention to the task at hand.

Drawings

Drawings are easy and inexpensive to make, and they can be tailored to your specific needs. As a rule, large and simple line drawings are more effective for stage presentations than detailed images such as computer generated presentations

Describe the different types of opinion and explain how to use each effectively.

Expert testimony: the testimony of a recognized authority, can add a great deal of weight to your arguments. You may quote experts directly or paraphrase their words, as long as you are careful not to alter the intent of their remarks. Lay Testimony: the opinions of nonexperts, can stir an audience's emotions. And, although neither as authoritative nor as unbiased as expert testimony, lay testimony is often more memorable. Be certain that any authority you cite is unbiased and an expert on the subject you are discussing. Cite your source properly, and be sure to quote accurately, Use opinions that are representative of prevailing opinion, Limit quotations to one or two per speech.

Eye Contact

Eye contact with your audience opens communication, keeps your audience interested, and makes you more believable.

How does eye contact affect the audience's interpretation of you & your message?

Eye contact with your audience opens communication, keeps your audience interested, and makes you more believable.

List 5 reasons why presentation aids are valuable to speakers. What is the value of using a presentation aid?

Focus—Presentation aids gain and maintain the attention of your listeners and keep their interest when words alone might not. Understand—Presentation aids can enhance understanding. Remember—It is well known that you remember most what you understand best. Organize—Listing your major ideas on a computer-generated slide, chart, or poster can help your audience grasp your main ideas and follow your transitions. Illustrate—Of your five senses, you learn more from sight than from all the others combined.2 Demonstrating or showing procedures or events step-by-step is an especially effective way to enhance understanding.

Models

If it is not possible to bring the object you would like to show your audience, consider showing them a model. Make sure, however, that any model you use is large enough to be seen by all members of your audience.

Objects

If you use an object to illustrate an idea, make sure you can handle the object with ease. If an object is too large, it can be unwieldy and difficult to show to your audience. Tiny objects can be seen only close up. Avoid objects that are dangerous to handle.

Gestures

Important points are emphasized with gestures. You also gesture to indicate places, enumerate items, and describe objects. Sometimes a gesture takes the place of a word.

Suspense

Keeping people on the edge of their seats because they don't know what will happen next is an element in good storytelling.

How can you identify the best supporting material to use?

Magnitude, Relevance, Concreteness, Variety, Humor, Suitability

What are the guidelines for preparing presentation aids?

Make them easy to see Keep them simple Keep them safe

What are the advantages and disadvantages of each method of delivery?

Manuscript: You can craft the message carefully when dealing with sensitive or critical issues; you can be precise, BUT It takes considerable skill and practice to make the message sound interesting. Memorized: This method enables you to maintain direct eye contact with the audience. You can also move around freely, BUT May sound mechanical and over-rehearsed; you may forget parts of your speech; you cannot make on-the-spot adaptations. Impromptu: You can speak informally and maintain direct eye contact with the audience. You can also easily adapt the speech to your audience, BUT May lack logical organization and thorough research; may be unimpressive. Extemporaneous: Your speech is well organized and researched. It sounds spontaneous, yet appropriately polished, BUT It takes time to prepare and skill to deliver the speech well.

Graphs (Bar, Line, Picture and Pie)

Most listeners find that graphs help make data more concrete. A bar graph consists of flat areas—bars—whose various lengths represent information. A pie graph shows the individual shares of a whole. Pie graphs are especially useful in helping your listeners to see quickly how data are distributed in a given category or area. Line graphs show relationships between two or more variables. Like bar graphs, line graphs organize statistical data to show overall trends. A line graph can cover a greater span of time or numbers than a bar graph without looking cluttered or confusing. A simple line graph communicates better than a cluttered one. Picture graphs look somewhat less formal and less intimidating than other kinds of graphs. One of the advantages of picture graphs is that they need few words or labels, which makes them easier for your audience to read.

Maps

Most maps are designed to be read from a distance of no more than two feet. To make a map large enough for your audience to see, you can enlarge it using a color copier, draw a simplified large-scale version, or embed it in a computer-generated slide.

Describe the three strategies to enhance audience interest.

Motivate your audience to listen to you, tell a story, present information that relates to listeners, use the unexpected

Movement

Move purposefully in ways that enhance your message while speaking. Reduce barriers, Establish Immediacy, Your use of movement during your speech should make sense to your listeners. Avoid random pacing and overly dramatic gestures.

Describe five different types of informative speeches.

Objects, Procedures, People, Ideas, Events

Safety Needs

Once basic physiological needs are met, listeners are concerned about their safety. We all need to feel safe, secure, and protected. Persuasive speakers often appeal to our need to provide for our own and our loved ones' safety.

What are some final tips to consider when rehearsing your speech?

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Sources of supporting materials

Personal Knowledge and Experience, The Internet, Online Databases, Traditional Library Holdings, Interviews

Indirect Persuasion Route

Persuasion that occurs as a result of factors peripheral to a speaker's logic and argument, such as the speaker's charisma or emotional appeals

Direct Persuasion Route

Persuasion that occurs when audience members critically examine evidence and arguments

Behavior

Persuasive messages often attempt to do more than change or reinforce attitudes, beliefs, or values—they attempt to change behavior. It seems logical that knowing someone's attitudes, beliefs, and values will help us predict precisely how that person will behave. But we are complicated creatures, and human behavior is not always neatly predictable. Sometimes our attitudes, beliefs, and values may not appear to be consistent with how we act.

Photographs

Photographs can show objects or places that cannot be illustrated with drawings or that an audience cannot view directly. Photos can easily be incorporated into computer-generated slides.

Manuscript Speaking

Reading a speech from a written text

Explain how to effectively use a presentation aid throughout a speech.

Rehearse with your presentation aids, make eye contact with your audience, not your aid, explain your presentation aids, do not pass objects out, use animals with caution, use handouts effectively, time the use of your visuals to keep your audiences attention, use technology effectively

Rate

Remember, your listeners can grasp information much faster than you can speak it. can add zest to your speech and help maintain audience attention.

Explain the three strategies to enhance audience understanding.

Speak with Clarity, Use principles and techniques of adult learning, Clarify unfamiliar ideas or complex processes

Extemporaneous Speaking

Speaking from a written or memorized speech outline without having memorized the exact wording of the speech

What is the purpose of using statistics? What are the principles for using statistics effectively?

Statistics can help a speaker express the magnitude or seriousness of a situation. Or statistics can express the relationship of a part to the whole. MAKE THEM MEMORABLE

What are the six functions of gestures that lend strength to verbal messages? What suggestions for using gestures effectively does the text recommend?

Stay natural, be definite, use gestures that are consistent with your message, vary your gestures but don't overdo it, Adapt your gestures to audience cultural expectations The most effective gestures are: natural and relaxed, definite and varied, consistent with your message, unobtrusive, coordinated with what you say, and appropriate to your audience and situation

Conflict

Stories that pit one side against another and describe opposing ideas and forces in government, religion, or personal relationships foster attention.

Physiological Needs

The most basic needs for all humans are physiological: We all need air, water, and food. According to Maslow's theory, unless those needs are met, it will be difficult to motivate a listener to satisfy other needs.

Self-Actualization Needs

The need for self-actualization is the need to fully realize one's highest potential, which Maslow suggested could be addressed only after we met needs at the other four levels. Persuasive calls to be the best at something appeal to this need.

Self-esteem Needs

The need for self-esteem reflects our desire to think well of ourselves. Advertisers often appeal to this need to persuade us to buy products.

Social Needs

We all need to feel loved and valued. We need contact with others and reassurance that they care about us. According to Maslow, these social needs translate into our need for a sense of belonging to a group (a fraternity, a religious organization, a circle of friends). Powerful persuasive appeals are based on our need for social contact.

Beliefs

What you understand to be true or false. If you believe in something, you are convinced that it exists or is true. Beliefs are typically based on past experiences or evidence, but some beliefs are based on faith—we haven't directly experienced something, but we believe anyway. A belief is more susceptible to change than a value is, but it is still difficult to alter. Beliefs are changed by evidence. Usually it takes a great deal of evidence to change a belief and alter the way your audience structures reality.

Vivid Descriptions/ Word Pictures

When you describe, you provide more detail than when you just define something. One way to describe a situation or event is with a word picture. A word picture is a lively description that helps your listeners form a mental image by appealing to their senses of sight, taste, smell, sound, and touch. To create an effective word picture, begin by forming your own clear mental image of the person, place, object, or process before you try to describe it. See it with your "mind's eye."

Identify three goals of informative speaking.

You speak to enhance understanding, You speak to maintain interest, You speak to be remembered.

How can movement and posture be used purposefully in delivery?

Your use of movement during your speech should make sense to your listeners. Avoid random pacing and overly dramatic gestures. It can help your audience understand your meaning behind your words.

What is an analogy?

a comparison between two things

Preliminary Bibliography

a list compiled early in the research process of works that look as if they might contain helpful information about a speech topic

Periodical Index

a listing of bibliographical data for articles published in a group of magazines or journals during a given time period

What is nonverbal communication and what are the six nonverbal factors used in communication?

communication other than through written or spoken language Eye contact, Gestures, Movement, Posture, Facial Expression, Personal Appearance

What types of analogies are there?

literal, figurative

Chalkboard/Whiteboard

not easy to use, not effective