Public Speaking Final

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

1. Physiological 2. Safety 3. Love 4. Esteem 5. Self- actualization In this theory higher needs in the hierarchy begin to emerge when people feel they have sufficiently satisfied the previous need.

Public speaking anxiety

A natural reaction that can be turned to your advantage. controls: acknowledge, fears, remind yourself of the strengths of your speech, concentrate on topic and audience, carefully practice introduction and conclusion. pg. 35 on how to overcome speech anxiety.

Rhetorical situation (occasion, audience, speech, speaker)

A situation in which people's understanding can be changed through messages. (pg. 7-10 occasion, audience, speech, speaker)

Voice (active, passive)

ACTIVE: A word pattern that focuses on who did what and prominently features the agent. PASSIVE: A word pattern that focuses on what was done and largely ignores the agent.

`Style Terms (alliteration, ambiguity, antithesis, dialogue, irony, jargon, malapropism, maxim, metaphor, onomatopoeia, personification, rhetorical question, rhythm, simile, word economy)

ALLITERATION: Is the repetition of the same first sound or the same first letter in a group of words or line of poetry. Repetitive constant sounds. AMBIGUITY: Capable of being interpreted with more than one meaning. Antithesis: The pairing of opposites within a speech often to suggest a choice between them. DIALOGUE: Reproducing a conversation within a speech. IRONY: Saying or writing the opposite of what is meant. JARGON: Specialized or technical terms within a given field of knowledge. MALAPROPISM: Unintentional but possibly meaningful confusion of words or usages. MAXIM: A concise statement of a principle, often in the form of a proverb; also called an aphorism. METAPHOR: naming one thing in terms of another; discussing one thing as though it were another. ONOMATOPOEIA: Use of sounds that resemble what they describe. PERSONIFICATION: Discussion of abstract or complex ideas in human terms. RHETORICAL QUESTION: a question for which no answer is expected; it is asked to get listeners thinking so that they quickly recognize the obvious answer. RHYTHM: The sense of movement or pacing within a speech. SIMILE: An explicit statement that one thing is like another. WORD ECONOMY: Efficiency in the use of words; avoidance of unnecessary words.

Supporting materials (experiences, narratives, data, opinions)

All forms of evidence that lend weight to the truth of a claim. EXPERIENCES: You c draw on your own with a topic or problem to make it clear that you are familiar with and have been affected by the subject of your speech. NARRATIVES: you can use this or stories, for supporting material; people often explain and understand situations in terms of a story. DATA: "facts" for supporting material. OPINIONS: You can use to support your thesis. Opinions are subjective judgments based on a person's experience; unlike facts, opinions cannot be verified. But if you use the opinions of experts to support your claims, those judgments may be more likely viewed as authoritative, because they are based on expertise in the subject. Opinions are especially useful in situations where you cannot observe things yourself or when you want to support promises or predictions.

Outlining terms (subordination, coordination, discreteness)

Chap 11 pg 234-235 SUBORDINATION: Designating the supporting materials for a main idea with the subordinate symbol and indentation system in an outline for example, supporting materials, indicated by capital letters, indicated by roman numerals. COORDINATION: Designating all ideas that are on the same level of importance with the same symbol series and level of indentation in an outline. DISCRETENESS: Each element of the outline should express only one idea, so that you do not mix together themes that should be developed separately. "Voter apathy is growing and widespread" would not be a good entry in your outline because it combines themes that would be clearer for your audience if they were developed one at a time.

Informing strategies (defining, reporting, describing, explaining, demonstrating)

Chap 13 pg. 278-283 DEFENDING: A strategy to clarify a term or concept that is vague or troublesome, or to introduce a new way of viewing the subject. REPORTING: A strategy to relate what happened with little analysis of interpretation DESCRIBING: A strategy in which a cumulation of details characterizes, or evokes a mental image of the subject. EXPLAINING: Beyond simply defining a term or making an idea precise, speakers sometimes want to share with an audience a deeper understanding of events, people, policies or processes. This is done through explanation, which goes beyond reporting to consider different views of what happened, to ask how or why it happened or to speculate about what it means or implies. DEMONSTRATING: Sometimes it is not enough to explain a process; it is necessary as well for the audience to see it. Or sometimes, the goal is not just for listeners to understand something; the object is to enable them to do it themselves. In such a case, a speaker may offer a demonstration, decreasing a seemingly mysterious or complicated procedure as a series of fairly simple steps preformed in a particular order.

Formal methods of audience analysis (interviews, surveys, focus groups)

Chap 5 pg.95-100

Topic considerations (appropriate for audience, appropriate for oral delivery)

Chap 6 pg. 104-111 Topic is the subject of your speech. form audience analysis, this involves strategic decisions; that is decisions about what will best achieve your purpose. APPROPRIATE FOR AUDIENCE: Audiences will be interested in your topic if it provides new info they can use if it offers a solution to a puzzle or problem that affects them, if it connects what is unfamiliar to what they know, or if it reports stories or experiences similar to their own. APPROPRIATE FOR ORAL DELIVERY: Sometimes a topic can be developed better in a essay than in a speech. Because readers proceed at their own pace, they can reread an passage that is difficult to understand. But a speech is delivered in real time and at the same pace to all listeners who miss a particular link in a speaker's chain of ideas cannot replay it; if the link was critical, the rest of the speech might become meaningless.

- Common purposes of speeches (new info., agenda setting, creating positive/negative feelings, strengthening/weakening commitment, outright conversion, inducing a specific action)

Chap 6 pg. 111-115 PURPOSE: the outcome he speaker wishes to achieve; the response desired from the audience. NEW INFO:Sometimes the audience generally knows about a topic but is unfamiliar with its details. Your goal as speaker may be to fill in such gaps by providing new information. AGENDA SETTING: Causing listeners to be aware of and to think about a topic that previously had escaped their attention. CREATING POSITIVE/ NEGATIVE FEELINGS: Sometimes the speakers goal is more general, to leave the audience with a positive or negative feeling about the occasion the speaker or the message. STRENGTHENING COMMITMENT: many speeches are like "preaching to the converted" they are delivered to listeners who already agree with the speaker. In such cases, the goal is to motivate audience members to become even more strongly committed. WEAKENING COMMITMENT: Speakers also sometimes want to reduce the intensity of listeners' commitment to a belief not so much to get them to change their minds as to acknowledge some sense of doubt. OUTRIGHT CONVERSION: although it happens rarely on the basis of a single speech, sometimes listeners actually are persuaded to change their minds to stop believing one thing and to start believing another. In short, listeners are converted. Conversion involves the replacement of one set of beliefs with another set that is inconsistent with the first. INCLUDING SPECIFIC ACTION: Most specific and most pragmatic. Often speakers do not really care about the beliefs and attitudes of individual listeners, as long as they can persuade people to take a specific action to make a contribution, to purchase a product, to vote for a specific candidate and so on.

Forms of inference (examples, analogies, signs, causes, testimony, narratives)

Chap 8 pg. 157-175 INFERENCE: A mental leap from the supporting material to the claim. EXAMPLES: Specific instances used to illustrate a more general claim. ANALOGIES: A comparison of people, places, things, events, or more abstract relationships. SIGNS: Something that stands for something else. TESTIMONY: When you rely on other people for the accuracy of supporting materials, their testimony stands in for your won direct encounter with the materials. You have confined in the judgment and are willing to argue that the claim is true because they say so. NARRATIVES: this comes into play when a speaker tells a story. A story is often more powerful than other ways of developing an idea. It is personalized, presenting a broad, general, or abstract idea as a specific situation involving particular people. Listeners become involved in the action and wonder what will happen; the story thus adds and element of suspense.

Facts v. opinions

FACTS: are statements that at least in theory can be verified by someone else. If a speaker says that the world's population has doubled every 25 years, that statement can be tested by checking population statistics. OPINIONS: are subjective statements that presumably are based on experience or expertise. If a speaker asserts that the world's population is growing too fast, that opinion cannot be verified externally; it stands or falls depending on the insight and judgment of the person who offers it.

Heterogeneous vs. homogeneous audiences

HETEROGENEOUS: Variety or diversity among audience members; dissimilarity among them. Even a small audience may show marked differences in these criteria, but a large audience virtually ensures that members will have different values and assumptions as well as learning styles. pg.81 HOMOGENEOUS: a group of people that share a consistent level of interest and expertise in your topic.

Types of examples (anecdotes, hypotheticals, case studies)

HYPOTHETICAL: when you use this example to support a claim, you ask listeners to imagine themselves in a particular situation. ANECDOTES: an anecdote or a story allows you to develop an example in greater detail. Such an extended, engaging story would illustrate your point and help the audience relate to the issues. CASE STUDY: You often can support a general claim by zeroing in on one particular true case discussing it in detail.

Types of presentations (impromptu, memorized, manuscript, extemporaneous)

IMPROMPTU: A mode of presentation in which the speaker has done little or no specific preparation for the speech. MEMORIZED: The opposite of speaking impromptu; the speaker pays close attention to prepared text and commits it to memory. MANUSCRIPT: A mode of presentation in which the speaker reads aloud the prepared text of the speech. EXTEMPORANEOUS: A speech that is prepared and rehearsed but is neither written out nor memorized. This mode is recommended for for most speakers and speeches, because it encourages a conversational quality and is flexible enough to permit adaption to feedback. extemporaneous speaking is not impromptu; the speaker has outlined and planned the speech carefully, has a specific structure in mind, and probably uses prepared notes during presentation.

Parts of a speech (Introduction, body, conclusion)

INTRODUCTION: The beginning of the speech; designed to get the audience's attention, to state the thesis, and to preview the development of the speech. BODY: The largest portion of the speech; includes the development of supporting materials to prove the thesis and any subsidiary claims. CONCLUSION: The ending of the speech; draws together the main ideas and provides a note of finally.

Captive vs. voluntary audiences

In general people who have chosen to hear a speech are more likely to be interested and receptive than people who have been coerced into attending. CAPTIVE: may resent having to hear the speech, and their resentment may undercut the speaker's ethos and message. Some of your classmates may also be captive especially if the course is required or if individuals do not recognize the value of effective listening. With luck you can turn them into voluntary listeners as they become interested in what you have to say and as they begin to see that they can improve their own speeches by listening carefully to yours. VOLUNTARY: If you assume your audience is voluntary you make no effort to motivate them, you could e setting yourself up for disaster. If you are wrong in your assessment and your listeners see themselves as captive, their feelings of boredom or hostility are likely to overwhelm and message you present. It is best to always assume your audience is captive and work towards motivating them.

Compartmentalization

Keeping two conflicting beliefs separated so that one need not be conscious of the conflict between them. Also known as the defense against persuasion.

Listening challenges (limited attention spans, jumping to conclusions, situational distractions)

LIMITED ATTENTION SPAN: The length of time a person will attend to a message without feeling distracted. Keep your messages "short and simple" JUMPING TO CONCLUSIONS: People sometimes assume that they "know" what the speaker is going to say, but jumping to conclusions is no basis for effective listening. SITUATIONAL DISTRACTIONS: Distractions in specific speaking situation can also make listening difficult. ex. a phone rings while someone is giving a speech. This is something that can be controlled and the speaker should handle the situation by repeating or rephrasing the part of the speech when the distraction occurred.

Listening v. hearing

LISTENING: A mental operation involving processing sound waves, interpreting their meaning, and storing their meaning in memory. HEARING: A sensory process in which sound waves are transmitted to the brain and someone becomes conscious of sound.

Monroe's Motivated Sequence (Attention, Need, Satisfaction, Visualization, Action)

MOTIVATED SEQUENCE: a PERSUASIVE MESSAGE THAT IS ORGANIZED IN TERMS OF STEPS IN THE AUDIENCE'S MOTIVATION RATHER THAN IN TERMS OF THE SPECIFIC SUBJECT. ATTENTION: this step is intended to engage the listeners' attention. It serves as the introduction to the speech and includes such appropriate devices as visual narratives, engaging anecdotes, and startling statistics. NEED: This step is intended to convince the audience that something is amiss. The goal is to arouse listeners to believe that an important value is being lost, an opportunity is being wasted, or an objective is not being met. This will motivate them to take corrective action if they know what to do. SATISFACTION: This step provides listeners with the means to fulfill the motivation that the need step aroused. People seldom respond to broad and abstract generalization, however, and so slogans such as "stimulate the economy" ACTION: The speaker asks the audience to do specific things to bring about the solution that they have visualized.

- Fallacies (Hasty Generalization, Missing the Point, False Cause, Slippery Slope, Weak Analogy, Appeal to False Authority, Appeal to Pity, Appeal to Ignorance, Straw Man, Red Herring, False Dichotomy, Equivocation)

On printed out power point

Different ways people perceive messages

PERCEPTION: The articular interpretation or understanding that a listener gets from a speech. The listeners are in control of how they perceive what a speech means and the speaker has no control over that. pg. 94 6 ways ppl perceive messages.

- Supporting material (personal experiences, common knowledge, direct observations, examples, statistics, testimony)

PERSONAL EXPERIENCES: Sometimes you can support your ideas on the basis of your own experiences. COMMON KNOWLEDGE: The beliefs and values that members of society or culture generally share, also known as "common sense". Some writers use the term social knowledge to emphasize that we know these things to be true on the basis of broad social consensus. DIRECT OBSERVATIONS: Sometimes you can support your claim on the basis of simple, direct observation the heart of the scientific method. This form of evidence appeals to the common cultural value that "seeing is believing". EXAMPLES: When you offer an example you offer and example, you make a general statement more meaningful by illustrating a specific instance of it. This form of supporting material helps to make an abstract idea more concentrate. You can provide this kind of support for a claim by using a brief example, hypothetical example an anecdote or a case study. STATISTICS: Numbers recording the extent of something or the frequency with which it occurs. these are especially used when the scope of the topic is vast. TESTIMONY: information or an opinion expressed by someone other than the speaker.

Outlines (preparation, presentation)

PREPARATION: An outline used in developing a speech; main ideas and supporting materials are usually set forth in complete sentences. PRESENTATION: An outline used while presenting a speech; typically consists only of key words written on an index card.

Denotation/connotation

Pg. 257 DENOTATION: The referent for a given word. CONNOTATION: The feelings or emotional response associated with a given word.

Selective attention and selective exposure

SELECTIVE ATTENTION: Conscious or unconscious choice about whether or not to focus intently on a speech, adsorb and process its contents, and take it seriously. SELECTIVE EXPOSURE: A tendency to expose oneself to messages that are important personally and that are consistent with what one already believes.

Vocalized pauses (uh, um, ya know)

Sounds such as uh, umm, which are meaningless sounds that a speaker produces during moments of silence. These almost always arise from nervousness and can be highly distracting to listeners. Sometimes vocalized pauses are words or phrases such as like, you know, now then, right and okay. Such repetition is a nervous response; the speaker is uncomfortable stopping for even a few seconds.

Critical thinking

The ability to form and defend your own judgments rather than blindly accepting or instantly rejecting what you hear or read.

Purposes of speeches (informing, persuading, entertaining)

The goal of the speech;the response sought from listeners. The three most general purposes of speeches are to inform, to persuade, and to entertain. INFORMING: Providing listeners with new information or ideas. PERSUADING: Influencing listener's attitudes and behavior. ENTERTAINING: stimulating a sense of community through the celebration of common bonds among speaker and listeners.

Thesis (main idea of presentation/purpose and goal of presentation)

The main idea of the speech, usually stated in one or two sentences.

Speech Occasions (ceremonial, deliberative)

The occasion is the place and event where the speech is given. It may be community meeting, a classroom speech assignment, a business presentation, a local fundraising reception, an informal group gathering, or any other time and place where people assemble and relate to one another. CEREMONIAL: such as presenting or accepting ans award, introducing someone, delivering a eulogy, or commemorating an event. DELIBERATIVE: making oral report, delivering a sales presentation, advocating a policy, or refuting another person's argument. Ceremonial speaking focuses on the present and is usually concerned with what is praiseworthy in the subject. Deliberative speaking focuses on the future and is usually concerned with what should be done.

Boomerang Effect

The opposite effect from that which a speaker intends. When the message turns back on the speaker. This can happen if an appeal is so powerful that it overwhelms the audience. Concluding that nothing they can do will help matters, listeners may actually do the opposite of what the speaker has urged, thinking, "What I do won't matter anyway"

Ethos

The speaker's character as perceived by the audience

Ethnocentrism

The tendency to imagine that one's own views are typical of everyone else's. It not only demeans listeners who have different cultural backgrounds, it also reduces the likelihood of successful communication.

- Audience analysis, demographics/psychographics

There are three levels to audience analysis 1. Demographics 2. cultures 3. Psychology. All audience analysis requires judgment calls, and the three levels move from judgments about the objective characteristics of the audience as a whole to judgments about the subjective thought processes of individual audience. DEMOGRAPHICS: you will consider how your speech should respond to certain characteristics of the audience as a whole such as its size, age range, and educational level. The major demographic categories are the audience's size, heterogeneity, status as captive or voluntary, consumption, and existence as physically present or mediated. AUDIENCE PSYCHOLOGY: you will realize that listeners are selective about what they attend to and perceive.

Cognitive Dissonance

occurs when you are presented with information that is inconsistent with your attitudes, values or beliefs. Creating dissonance in a speech can be an effective way to persuade your audience to change their attitudes, beliefs and/or behaviors.