Public Speaking Final Study Guide
What organizational patterns could be used to organize a value claim? (2)
• Criteria-application pattern • Categorical pattern
What are the differences between denotative and connotative meaning? Can you give examples?
• DENOTATIVE MEANING - a word is its exact, literal dictionary definition - Run = "to go faster than a walk" - but has many other meanings • CONNOTATIVE MEANING - an association that comes to mind when people hear or read the word - Dog = we picture the canine, but it can also mean a poor investment opportunity
What are the aspects of audience analysis that merit special consideration when choosing audiovisual aids? (2)
• Demographics • Prior exposure
Metaphor
"Her advisor WAS A fount of knowledge" (comparison of unlike objects)
Simile
"My grandma's lap WAS AS SOFT AS a pillow" (comparison using 'like' or 'as')
Verbal tic
"um" or "ah" (used when searching for a correct word or when a speaker has lost their train of thought)
Verbal filler
"you know" or "like" (used to fill uncomfortable silences)
What are the elements of credibility (ethos)? (3)
- COMPETENCE - practical wisdom; knowledgeable and experienced - TRUSTWORTHINESS - virtue; honest and fair - GOODWILL - wanting what is best for their listeners rather than what would most benefit themselves
How do speakers accomplish the five purposes of a good introduction?
1. ATTENTION GETTER = tell a story, make a striking statement, build suspense, use humor, ask a rhetorical question, use a quote 2. THESIS SIGNAL = clarify the subject of the speech 3. WHAT'S IN IT FOR THE AUDIENCE = provide one sentence or a short paragraph as to why the audience should take interest in the topic 4. ESTABLISH CREDIBILITY = Show that you have relevant experience and education and that you've thoroughly researched your topic - let audience know you are trustworthy and that you have their best interests at heart 5. PREVIEW MAIN POINTS = no more than one sentence per main point - sequence the ideas that you will present
What are the five general guidelines for special-occasion speaking?
1. Appeal to audience's emotions 2. Match your delivery to the mood of the occasion 3. Adapt to your audience's expectations 4. Evoke shared values 5. Respect time constraints
What are the steps in selecting your main points? (3)
1. Consider your purpose 2. Take your audience into account 3. Select an appropriate number of main points
What are the three types of leaders?
1. DESIGNATED LEADER - external authority selects this person to help the group move quickly forward 2. IMPLIED LEADER - someone with preexisting authority or skills particularly well suited to the task at hand though not formally assigned the role 3. EMERGENT LEADER - one who comes to be recognized as a leader by the group's members over time
What is the reflective thinking process and what are the steps for using the reflective thinking process? (5)
1. Define the problem 2. Analyze the problem 3. Establish the criteria for solving the problem 4. Generate possible solutions 5. Select the best solution
What are the five organizational patterns listed in the chapter? When is it most appropriate to use each specific pattern?
1. SPATIAL PATTERN - main points represent important aspects of your topic that can be though of as adjacent to one another in location or geography 2. CHRONOLOGICAL (TEMPORAL) PATTERN - presenting the information in a time-based sequence - from beginning to end 3. CAUSAL PATTERN - helps audience understand link between particular evens and their outcomes 4. COMPARISON PATTERN - organizes speech around major similarities and differences between two events, objects, or situations 5. CATEGORICAL (TOPICAL) PATTERN - effective when you have a diverse set of main points to support the thesis of your speech
What are the three steps to becoming a better listener?
1. Filter out distractions 2. Focus on the Speaker 3. Show that you are listening
What are the five purposes of a good introduction?
1. Gains audience attention 2. Signals thesis 3. Relevance of the topic for your audience 4. Establishes credibility 5. Previews main points
What are the six most common types of special-occasion speeches?
1. Introduction 2. Presentation 3. Acceptance 4. Memorialize or Eulogize 5. Celebrate 6. After-dinner speech
What are the four guidelines for using audiovisual aids during your speech?
1. Make sure everyone can see and hear your aids 2. Control audience interaction with your aids 3. Maintain eye contact 4. Remember the purpose of your aids
Can you name and explain the two steps of effective listening?
1. PROCESSING - you actively think about a message you're receiving from someone else; not only the words but also the nonverbal cues 2. RETENTION - your ability to remember what you've heard
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs (5)
1. Physiological 2. Safety 3. Social 4. Self-esteem 5. Self-actualization
What are the benefits and drawbacks of the four modes of delivery?
1. READING FROM A MANUSCRIPT Benefits: For those that need to choose their words very carefully - makes sure listeners hear exactly what you want them to hear Drawbacks: The script becomes a prop - something you hide behind - it can limit your eye contact - dull and impersonal 2. MEMORIZING FROM A MANUSCRIPT Benefits: Can maintain eye contact with audience, be more natural when using gestures and visual aids, can control word choice Drawbacks: Come across as a stale performance - lose interest - memorization can be detrimental if you lose your place 3. SPEAKING FROM AN OUTLINE Benefits: Glance at outline just long enough to jog memory, don't need to worry about forgetting place, it sounds conversational Drawbacks: You may glance at your outline a lot and lose eye contact with audience 4. IMPROMTU SPEAKING Benefits: You can pretty much say anything because there aren't really expectations from the audience Drawbacks: You could end up completely off topic or just not know what to say at all
What are the five suggestions for expressing your ideas effectively?
1. Repetition 2. Hypothetical examples 3. Personal anecdotes 4. Vivid language 5. Figurative language
What are the five guidelines for listening what you are in the audience?
1. Take notes 2. Identify main points 3. Consider the speech's objectives 4. Support your feedback with examples 5. Be ethical
How can a speaker influence the commitment of an audience? (3)
1. Strengthen 2. Weaken 3. Promote
What are the types of member roles in groups? (3)
1. TASK-ORIENTED ROLES - Initiators - Informative providers - Information gatherers - Elaborators - Clarifiers - Evaluators - Synthesizers - Recorders 2. MAINTENANCE-ORIENTED ROLES - Harmonizers - Compromisers - Encourages - Gatekeepers - Norm facilitators 3. SELF-ORIENTED ROLES - Blockers - Withdrawers - Distracters - Dominators
What are the parts included in a good conclusion (in order)? (3)
1. Transition 2. Summary of main points 3. Memorable clincher
What are the six causes of ineffective listening?
1. UNPROCESSED NOTE TAKING - copying the speaker's words verbatim without considering what you're writing down 2. NON-LISTENING - not paying attention to what you're hearing 3. INTERRUPTIVE LISTENING - one person consistently interrupts another 4. AGENDA-DRIVEN LISTENING - speaker giving a presentation who also has to accommodate questions and comments from audience members 5. ARGUMENTATIVE LISTENING - also known as selective listening, it is listening to only has much as they need to in order to fuel their own arguments 6. NERVOUS LISTENING - people that feel compelled to talk through silences because they're uncomfortable with conversational lapses or pauses
What are the four ways you can make your message clear?
1. Understandable language 2. Concrete words 3. Proper use of words 4. Concise language
How many logical fallacies are there?
9
Abstract word
A generic term that can be ambiguous or confusing for an audience ("pet" vs. "gray tabby cat")
Elaboration Likelihood Model
A model showing two ways that audience members may evaluate a persuasive speaker's message: the central and peripheral routes
Anaphora
A repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of a successive phrases, clauses, or sentences. It's used to achieve emphases and clarity, as well as a rhetorical sense of style.
Hasty Generalization
A speaker bases a conclusion on limited or unrepresentative examples
Concrete word
A specific word or phrase that suggests exactly what a speaker means ("dark blue suit" vs. "clothes")
Content-oriented listening
A style of listening in which listeners favor depth and complexity of information and messages
Action-oriented Listening
A style of listening in which the listener focuses on immediately getting to the meaning of a message and determining what response is required
Flowchart
A type of chart that demonstrates the direction of information or ideas, or illustrates steps in a process
Slippery Slope
Arguing against a policy because you assume (without proof) that it will lead to some second policy that is undesirable
Appeal to Tradition
Arguing that an idea or policy is good simply because people have accepted or follow it for a long time
Ad Populum (Bandwagon)
Assuming that a statement is true or false simply because a large number of people say it is
False Dilemma
Claiming that there are only two possible choices to address a problem, that one of those choices is wrong or infeasibly, and that therefore your listeners much embrace the other choice
Antithesis
Clauses set in opposition to one another, usually to distinguish between choices, concepts, and ideas
Supporting Points
Examples, definitions, testimony, statistics, narratives, and analogies that support or illustrate a speaker's main points
Verbal clutter
Extraneous words that make a presentation hard to follow ("In spite of the fact that you" vs. "Although you")
What is the purpose of a good conclusion?
Helps you sum up the message you developed in the body of your speech and leave a memorable impression in your audience members' minds
Sub-points
Ideas gathered from brainstorming and research that explain, prove, and expand on a speech's main points
Why is pathos important to public speaking (especially persuasion)?
It helps you put a human face on a problem you're addressing. When you stir your listeners' feelings and emotions, you enhance your persuasive power
Main Points
Key ideas that support a thesis and help an audience understand and remember what is most important about a speaker's topic; main points are supported by sub-points
Post Hoc Fallacy
Lies in the assumption that just because one event followed another, the first event caused the second
How can you relate your message to your listeners' needs?
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Central route
One of two ways audience members may evaluate a speaker's message: This route denotes a high level of elaboration - a mental process that involves actively processing a speaker's arguments
Peripheral route
One of two ways audience members may evaluate a speaker's message: This route uses a low level of elaboration - such as attractiveness of the speaker, flashy presentation aids, or certain aspects of the speaker's delivery
Straw Person
Replacing your opponent's real claim with a weaker claim you can more easily rebut. The weaker claim may sound relevant to the issue, but it is not - you're just presenting it because it's easy to knock down
Word choice (diction)
Taking into consideration the audience, occasion, and nature of one's message when choosing language for a speech
Why is working effectively in a group important?
Small groups offer important advantages over individual efforts. People can achieve a better outcome by collaborating on a task rather than working alone. By sharing ideas, each member has the chance to spot potential problems or improvements that an individual might miss. Each person has different strengths so the project can be divided up according to what he/she is best suited for.
Ad Hominem (Personal Attack)
Speakers try to compensate for weak arguments by making personal attacks against an opponent rather than addressing the issue in question
Epideictic
Speaking that praises or blames
Jargon
Specialized or technical words or phrases familiar only to people in a specific field or large group
Boomerang effect
The act of pushing an audience more firmly toward its previously held beliefs as a result of the speaker choosing a position that falls on the extreme end of the audience's latitude of rejection
What are group dynamics and how do they impact small groups?
The ways in which members relate to one another and view their functions - it can determine whether a group achieves its mission
Strategic discourse
The process of selecting arguments that will best achieve a speaker's rhetorical purpose in an ethical manner
Latitude of acceptance
The range of positions on a given issue that are acceptable to an audience
Latitude of rejection
The range of positions on given issue that are unacceptable to an audience
Forum (location)
The setting where a speaker delivers and an audience listens to a speech
Reversed Causality
The speaker misses the fact that the effect is actually the cause
How can your listeners' disposition(s) affect your approach to persuading them?
They may be hostile, sympathetic, or neutral toward your topic so you made need to adjust your thesis depending on which audience type you are addressing
Why is it important to demonstrate how your audience benefits in a persuasive appeal?
They will most likely support your proposal when you show them how they will benefit. Help listeners visualize themselves experiencing the benefit they'll gain. Show them that the costs of these actions are low.
How can you adequately acknowledge your listeners' reservations?
Use a two-sided argument. You briefly note an argument against your thesis and then use evidence and reasoning to refute that argument. It can help you change audience member's attitudes in favor of your thesis and strengthen your credibility
How can you connect your message to your listeners' values?
Values play a central role in guiding our lives in how we want to live and what we really believe in. If an argument plays positively into supporting a listener's values, they may be more likely to agree with you
Where should the focus be in a special-occasion speech (hint: not on you)?
Whoever you are speaking about or who the event is for
Why is language and word choice important?
Word choice (diction) requires consideration of audience, occasion, and nature of one's message when choosing language for a speech. Different audience members respond to different types of language. Choosing the right type of language can help you connect with your audience and get your message across better. Shows respect for certain audience members. Words can inspire, inform, and uplift - but they can also confuse.
Figurative language
Words and phrases that employ certain techniques to describe claims or ideas, in order to make them more clear, memorable, or rhetorically stylistic (anaphora, antithesis, simile, metaphor)
Verbal chart
Words arranged in a certain format, such as bullet points, to explain ideas, concepts, or general information
Why is it important to choose respectful and unbiased language?
You deliver far more effective presentations because your audience members remain open to your ideas and view you as trustworthy and fair. You gain immense personal credibility.
What are the strategies for effective group leadership? (12)
• Address procedural needs • Model the behavior you expect • Facilitate discussion • Keep members on task • Help members avoid Groupthink • Facilitate decisions • Help organize the group's presentation • Manage conflict • Refer to ideas by topic, not by person • Resolve conflicts quickly • Focus on tasks, not disagreements • Manage disruptive emotions
What are the guidelines for choosing respectful and unbiased language? (5)
• Avoid stereotypes • Use gender-neutral references • Make appropriate references to ethic groups • Steer clear of unnecessary references to ethnicity, religion, gender, or sexuality • Appropriate language and political correctness
What organizational patterns could be used to organize a fact claim? (3)
• Causal pattern • Comparison pattern • Categorical pattern
What are the guidelines for preparing audiovisual aids? (5)
• Consider the forum • Consider your audience - Demographics - Prior exposure • Make sure your aids support your points • Keep your aids simple and clear - Test the size - Create contrast - Test the legibility • Rehearse with your presentation aids
What are the ways you can maximize your audience's listening? (11)
• Do audience surveillance - pay attention to their verbal and nonverbal responses - Anticipate ineffective listening before your speech - Consider your listener's attention and energy levels - Asses your audience's knowledge and abilities - Front and back load your main message - Use presentation aids strategically - Encourage active listening during your speech - Tailor your delivery - Watch out for argumentative listeners - Watch out for defeated listeners - Watch out for superficial listeners - pretending to listen
What are the components of NONVERBAL delivery skills? (5)
• EYE CONTACT = looking directly into the eyes of your audience members and them looking directly into yours • GESTURES = hand, head, or face movement that emphasizes pantomimes, demonstrates, or calls attention to something • PHYSICAL MOVEMENT = how much or how little you move around while delivering a speech • PROXEMICS = the use of space and distance between yourself and your audience • PERSONAL APPEARANCE = the impression you make on your audience through your clothing, jewelry, hairstyle, and grooming, and other elements influencing how you look
What are the differences between fact, value, and policy claims?
• FACT CLAIM - asserts that something is true or false • VALUE CLAIM - attaches a judgment (good, bad, moral, immoral) to a subject • POLICY CLAIM - advocates action by organization, institutions, or members of your audience
How can you lose your credibility? (4)
• Getting your facts wrong • Pronouncing words incorrectly • Failing to acknowledge potential conflicts of interest • Stretching to find a connection with the audience
What are the differences between hearing and listening?
• HEARING means merely receiving messages in a passive way • LISTENING means actively paying attention to what you're hearing - it involves both processing the message to decide on its meaning and retaining what you've heard and understood
How can a persuasive speaker ensure that they are using ethical strategies? (4)
• Help your audience make an informed decision • Research your facts • Note any biases • Attribute your research properly
What are the different kinds of reasoning? (5)
• INDUCTIVE REASONING - generalizing from facts, instances, or examples, and then making a claim based on that generalization - Four examples below • EXAMPLE REASONING - presenting specific instances to support a general claim - supplying sufficient proof of your claim • COMPARISON REASONING - arguing that two instances are similar, so that what you know is true for one instance is likely to be true for the other • SIGN REASONING - claiming that a fact is true because indirect indicators (signs) are consistent with that fact • CAUSAL REASONING - arguing that one event has caused another
What are the specific strategies for each of the five types of special occasion speeches?
• INTRODUCTION - Be patient - Use attention getters - Modulate your volume - Be focused and brief • PRESENTATION - Adopt the persona of a presenter - Explain the significance and background of the award or honor - Connect the recipient's background to the award's criteria - Use appropriate presentation aids • ACCEPTANCE - Use appropriate volume and articulation - Show genuine humility - Remember that less is more • MEMORIALIZE OR EULOGIZE - Focus on celebrating the person's life - Use humor judiciously - Don't be afraid to show your emotions • CELEBRATE - Aim for briefness - Use humor appropriately • AFTER-DINNER - Focus on humorous anecdotes and narrative delivery - not jokes - Practice your storytelling and narrative delivery - Link your speech to the occasion's theme - Adapt your delivery to your audience and the occasion
How can you effectively and properly use evidence in your speeches? (5)
• Identify your sources and their qualification • Give listeners new evidence • Provide precise evidence • Look for compelling evidence • Characterize your evidence accurately
What are the ethical issues in persuasive speaking? (1)
• LOADED LANGUAGE FALLACY - emotionally charged words convey meaning that cannot be supported by facts presented by the speaker
Why is listening important in public speaking for both the speaker and the audience?
• Listening as a SPEAKER can have a powerful impact on the quality of your presentation and your ability to connect with your audience - listening to their facial cues and body language and adapting your speech to keep them more engaged • Listening as an AUDIENCE can affect your ability to absorb the information the speaker is imparting to you • Listening as BOTH will help you interpret and use more of what you hear from others in a wide variety of situations
What organizational patterns could be used to organize a policy claim? (2)
• MOTIVATED SEQUENCE - Attention - create a willingness to listen to your message - Need - identifying a need relevant to your audience - Satisfaction - showing how your proposal will fulfill the need identified - Visualization - helping listeners form a mental picture of the benefits - Action - clarifying what you want your listeners to do • PROBLEM-CAUSE-SOLUTION PATTERN
What are the differences between oral and written language?
• ORAL LANGUAGE - more adaptive, less formal, and incorporates repetition • WRITTEN LANGUAGE - writers do not know who will read their words, can go back and make changes, avoid repetition
What are the strategies for effective participation in a small group? (6)
• Prepare for group meetings • Treat other members courteously • Listen interactively • Participate, don't dominate • Participate authentically • Fulfill your commitments
What are the principles for organizing your supporting materials? (2)
• SUBORDINATION - creating a hierarchy of points and their supporting materials • COORDINATION - each main point is coordinate with other main points - same level of significance
What are the types of audiences a speaker may encounter and how does a speaker modify their topic for each type? (3)
• SYMPATHETIC - don't bother convincing your audience that you are credible - push for more commitment rather than asking your audience to agree with you • HOSTILE - Define realistic goals for your speech. Might not be able to persuade them to follow a course of action, might be able to get them to reevaluate their opposition to your message or to you personally • NEUTRAL - Overcome the forces of neutrality (apathy, disinterest, lack of conviction) and get your listeners to support you - not oppose you
What are the different venues for delivering group presentations? What are some considerations that one must keep in mind for each type of venue? (3)
• SYMPOSIUM - make sure everyone in the group agrees on the topic each speaker will address and the time he/she will take, make sure all members know the content so nothing is repeated, treat other speaker's ideas with respect, briefly introduce the next speaker • PANEL DISCUSSION - members should not monopolize the discussion, if one has particular expertise in one area, that member should speak on the point being made, be tactful and professional when disagreeing with another member's point • SINGLE GROUP REPRESENTATIVE - which person is most qualified to present the group's opinions? Who would have the most effective delivery? Is this a topic that requires the ethos or author of a group leader or a group member with particular expertise?
How can you build your credibility? (6)
• Share your qualifications to speech on the topic • Present strong evidence from reputable sources • Highlight common ground with the audience • Choose your words carefully • Show respect for conflicting opinions • Practice your speech until your delivery is fluent
What are the types of audiovisual aids? (5) What are the reasons for using each type of visual aid?
• THE SPEAKER - you can be an effective visual aid if your topic calls for an explanation of action (rock climbing) • ASSISTANTS - instead of distracting from your speech by you doing the actions, an assistant can do it • OBJECTS - audience is able to focus on it and grasp a clearer picture of your topic • VISUAL IMAGES - it can save time and improve clarity to present a simple visual representation rather than try to describe something - Maps - Photographs - Diagrams - Graphs • Line graph • Bar graph • Pie charts • Text-base visuals • AUDIO AND VIDEO
What are the types of organizing words and sentences? When is is appropriate to use each? (4)
• TRANSITIONS - sentence that indicates you are moving from one part of your speech to the next - indicates that one thought is finished and a new idea is coming • SIGNPOSTS - word or phrase within a sentence that helps your audience understand your speech's structure - inform audiences about the direction and organization of a presentation • INTERNAL PREVIEWS - short list of the ideas that will follow - help the audience follow your explanation of a complex point • INTERNAL SUMMARY - a quick review of what you just said in your point
Why should speakers use audiovisual aids? (3)
• They can make your speech more interesting • They can simplify a complex topic • They can help your audience remember your speech
How can you effectively evoke emotion through your speaking? (3)
• Use emotional appeals - Fear appeal - Word choice - Relate to values, needs, and aspirations
What are the components of VOCAL delivery skills? (7)
• VOLUME = refers to how loud or soft your voice is as your deliver a speech • TONE = derives from pitch - the highs and lows in your voice. By changing high and low tones and incorporate tonal variety, it can add warmth and color to your delivery • RATE OF DELIVERY = refers to how quickly or slowly you speak during a presentation • PROJECTION = booming of a person's voice across a forum to reach all audience members • ARTICULATION = refers to the crispness or clarity of your spoken words • PRONUNCIATION = refers to correctness in the way you say your words • PAUSING = leaving gaps between words or sentences in a speech
