Quizzes 5& 6
What people want government to do on specific issues usually changes from election to election. True False
False
According to The Daily (2021) podcast, "The 2.7 Billion Case Against Fox News," Smartmatic's software was used in Pennsylvania, but not in Georgia and Arizona. True False
False
According to lecture, compared to other democracies, the U.S. government has implemented a high number of regulations regarding broadcasting True False
False
According a Pew Public Opinion survey (2019) presented in lecture, the percent of respondents who stated, in 2019, that they "trust the federal government always or most of the time has decreased over time" was 8% 17% 23% 54%.
17%
According to The Daily podcast "The Legacy of Rush Limbaugh," approximately how many listeners tuned into Rush Limbaugh's radio program during the time of Rutenburg's interview of Limbaugh in the early 2000s? 2 million listeners per week 20 million listeners per week 100 million listeners per week 200 million listeners per week
20 million listeners per week
According to data presented in lecture, the election turnout in midterm elections has generally been around 40% 47% 51% 58%
40%
According to survey results from 2016, presented in lecture, what percentage of Republicans wanted to their child to marry someone who favor the same party? 20% 25% 59% 63% 73%
63%
According to Hetherington and Ladd (2020), as discussed in the article, "Destroying trust ....,". who has been focusing on criticism of the media? -President Nixon -Fox News -Conservative talk radio -All of the above
All of the above
According to Hetherington and Ladd (2020), as discussed in the article, "Destroying trust ....,". who has been focusing on criticism of the media? President Nixon Fox News Conservative talk radio All of the above
All of the above
According to The Daily podcast "The Legacy of Rush Limbaugh," what group(s) did Limbaugh consistently attack in the 1990s? Women People of color AIDS victims All of the above
All of the above
According to lecture, the foundations are an individual's public opinion include: -self interest -values shaped by the family, educational institutions and social groups -the media -political ideology and identity -All of the above
All of the above
Which of the following is an example of someone who is descriptively represented? -A Mexican American who lives in a city with an African American mayor -A Native American who has a white congressional representative who claims distant Navajo heritage -A Korean American male who is represented by an all-white city council -An Asian American whose state legislative district is represented by an Asian American
An Asian American whose state legislative district is represented by an Asian American
According to The Daily (2020) podcast "A Peculiar Way to Pick a President," what action did Senator Birch Bayh (Democrat, Indiana) take? -Birch put his effort behind legislation to change the winner-take-all electoral system for the electoral college -Birch seeks to create a constitutional amendment -Birch pushed for a change in legislation that would make it more acceptable for electors to use their own judgement when casting a vote for a president.
Birch seeks to create a constitutional amendment
According to lecture, interest groups represent the public interest True False
False
What does Adam Winkler of the UCLA School of Law, interviewed by the PBS Newshour, say about the chances of gun control laws passing Congress? -It is difficult to image that significant gun-control legislation will have the necessary 60 votes in the Senate. -there is a good possibility that gun-reform laws will be passed during the Biden administration. -The mass shootings of 2020 and 2021 have been a game changer and gun-control proponents are now in the majority in Congress -both the second and third answer choice.
It is difficult to image that significant gun-control legislation will have the necessary 60 votes in the Senate.
According to Adam Winkler of the UCLA School of Law, interviewed by the PBS Newshour, how many guns recovered at crime scenes in California are ghost-guns ("do it yourself guns"), without serial numbers? One is three guns One in five guns One in ten guns None of the above
One is three guns
According to lecture, what is the relationship between interest groups and political action committees (PAC)? -the PACs seek to draft legislation, which is also what interest groups can do -the PACs are connected to interest group via congressional staffers -PACs are the financial arm of interest groups -PACs and interest groups compete for influence when lobbying
PACs are the financial arm of interest groups
According to lecture, interest groups seek office benefits none of the above
benefits
According to lecture, current challenges to the U.S. democratic system include a decline in trust influence of money in politics polarization of public opinion, Congress, the media all of the above
all of the above
According to lecture, what is a criticism of pluralism as an approach to democratic representation? some people are better able to organize than others minorities may not work in the best interest of society as a whole it is difficult to determine which minority interests deserve to be represented all of the above
all of the above
According to lecture, what is a criticism of the majoritarianism as an approach to democratic representation? most people do not care about most issues, but some care a lot about specific issues some people are constantly in the minority there may not be a majority all of the above
all of the above
According to lecture, when categorizing the public, a low level of interest and information, combined with a high level of participation characterizes individuals who are seen as apathetic could be manipulated may be alienated none of the above
could be manipulated
According to lecture, Boing is an example of what type of interest group? economic group labor group professional association single issue public sector
economic group
According to Adam Winkler of the UCLA School of Law, interviewed by the PBS Newshour, the NRA has been able to influence _______ voters. single-issue Mid-western older Democratic
single-issue
How does Adam Winkler of the UCLA School of Law, interviewed by the PBS Newshour from April 8, 2021, assess the potential impact of Biden's proposed gun-law policies? -the proposals are a game changer -the proposals are modest but not insignificant -the proposals are unrealistic -the proposals are not sufficiently ambitious
the proposals are modest but not insignificant
According to lecture, civic mindedness involves -acting strictly in one's self-interest -voting early -support of the delegate model of representation -the willingness to make a sacrifice for the greater good of society
the willingness to make a sacrifice for the greater good of society
According to data presented in lecture, what was the voter turnout in the U.S. in the 2016 election? 52.4% 55.7% 63.4% 72.1%
55.7%
According a Pew Public Opinion survey (2019) presented in lecture, the percent of respondents who stated, in 1964, that they "trust the federal government always or most of the time has decreased over time" was 17% 23% 54% 77%
77%
According to the Vox video "How the Republican Party Went from Lincoln to Trump" (2016), by the 1920, the Republican party became the party of _____________? White Southerners Big business Plantation farmers Immigrants
Big business
What appears to be behind differences in the way women and men vote in the United States? -Concern about abortion rights -Concern about children's issues -Differences in wages, life experience, and Democratic outreach to women -Concern about abortion rights, birth control, and differences in wages
Differences in wages, life experience, and Democratic outreach to women
As discussed in lecture, the elections that involved Al Gore and Hillary Clinton serve as examples of -Elections in which the electoral college did not fulfill its original purpose. -Elections in which the presidential candidate with the highest number of the popular vote did not win office -Elections that showed that candidates who win the popular vote will be supported by the electoral college as the winner -Elections that demonstrated that California has a disproportionately high influence in U.S. elections, which is problematic
Elections in which the presidential candidate with the highest number of the popular vote did not win office
While the results of the 2016 presidential and congressional elections signaled a shift to the right in U.S. politics, as compared to the Obama era, the shift had strongly populist overtones that seemed to parallel elections in: -American state-level legislative races, mainly. -local races in suburban and rural areas. -Europe, including the United Kingdom's June 2016 Brexit referendum vote, in which a majority voted in favor of leaving the European Union. -nearly all advanced industrial democracies.
Europe, including the United Kingdom's June 2016 Brexit referendum vote, in which a majority voted in favor of leaving the European Union.
A few American states, the largest among them California, now automatically register voters. True False
False
According to Herington and Ladd (2020), as discussed in the article, "Destroying trust ...., " conservative policies are incompatible with trust in the media, science, and government agencies. True False
False
According to lecture, the introduction of primary elections has given voters more power of the selection of primary candidates, and has reduced the influence of the media. True False
False
According to lecture, when it comes to democratic procedures, the introduction of primary elections to select presidential has clearly been an improvement of the older procedure, when candidates were selected by party-internal elites. True False
False
According to the American Enterprise Institute (2021), as discussed in the video "Belief systems: Evangelicals ...," conspiracy theories are relatively new in the U.S. True False
False
In his 1796 "farewell address," President George Washington suggested the country needed a strong political party system. True False
False
Interest groups have little influence on public opinion. -True -False
False
It is remarkably easy for Americans to keep up with everything that elected officials do on the job, given the high level of media scrutiny in the United States. -True -False
False
The American public's assessment of the job the president is doing rarely corresponds to economic performance. -True -False
False
Which term best describes the apportionment of voters in districts in such a way as to give unfair advantage to one political party? Reapportionment Gerrymandering Logrolling Pork barrel
Gerrymandering
As discussed in lecture, who said that he wanted to drown the federal government in a bathtub? George H. Bush Ronald Reagan Grover Norquist Donald Trump
Grover Norquist
According to The Daily podcast "The Legacy of Rush Limbaugh," what advice did Limbaugh give to freshman Republican Congressmen in the aftermath of the 1994 election? -He advised newly elected members of Congress to stand on principle and to not moderate -He advised members to compromise on minor issues to gain leverage on big issues -He advised members to appeal to social media to broaden the Republican brand -He advised members to take their messages to the airwaves to increase voter awareness
He advised newly elected members of Congress to stand on principle and to not moderate
According to The Daily podcast "The Legacy of Rush Limbaugh," what happened with Limbaugh's first radio job in Pittsburgh? -He turned one of the lowest rated shows in Pittsburgh to a top-rated show within a year -He had to quit for health-related reasons -His style turned some people off, so he was fired -He formed a management team which would work for him for the next 30 years
His style turned some people off, so he was fired
As discussed in lecture, the members of the Republican Party who have aimed to shift the party to the right, focused on reversing the New Deal legislation, lowing taxes, and cutting regulations since the 1960s are known as the New Neal conservatives Movement Conservatives Modern Conservatives Gingrich Conservatives
Movement Conservatives
According to The Daily podcast "The Legacy of Rush Limbaugh," which Republican politician was one of the first to fully embrace Limbaugh and fully connect him to Republican politics? Ronald Reagan Newt Gingrich George H.W. Bush George W. Bush
Newt Gingrich
Where does the Political Science literature stand on the topic of public opinion, according to lecture? -Political Scientists have only recently began studying public opinion, but the topic has received arguably more attention that it deserves, considering how ambiguous public opinion tends to be -On the topic of whether public opinion makes sense in the aggregate, Political Scientists are divided -the Political Science literature on public opinion is not well developed -Political Scientist have been too focused on polls that were not conducted well and need to improve their methodology
On the topic of whether public opinion makes sense in the aggregate, Political Scientists are divided
Which of the following organizations must a private group—say, a business firm or labor union—establish in order to raise funds and distribute them to candidates' election campaigns or political parties? A 527 group Political party Fundraising commission Political action committee (PAC)
Political action committee (PAC)
According to The Daily podcast "The Legacy of Rush Limbaugh," what honor did President Trump bestow upon Limbaugh in 2019? -Presidential Medal of Honor -Presidential Medal of Heroes -Presidential Medal of Courage -Presidential Medal of Freedom
Presidential Medal of Freedom
Which term do political scientists use to describe vote choices that focus on expectations of future behavior—ones tied, for example, to promises of economic and policy change? -Predictive voting -Advanced selection -Retrospective voting -Prospective voting
Prospective voting
If the federal government allowed issues, including controversial ones such as gun control measures, to be decided by the public in national referendums, inconsistencies between public opinion and public policy could well be reduced. What does the congressional lawmaking process allow, however, that legislating through direct democracy would not? -Media coverage -More consistent popularity of state and federal budgeting decisions -Encouragement of citizen participation -Reflection and compromise
Reflection and compromise
According to The Daily (2021) podcast, "The 2.7 Billion Case Against Fox News" how did Fox News' claims affect Smartmatic? -It created much publicity for the company, which ultimately benefited the company -Due to Fox News' election coverage, the voting machines were trashed, and Smartmatic was not able to operate for several month -Smartmatic's reputation was severely damaged, as customers around the world did not want to work with them any longer -None of the above
Smartmatic's reputation was severely damaged, as customers around the world did not want to work with them any longer
According to The Daily podcast "The Legacy of Rush Limbaugh," what does Rutenburg claim was the seminal event that opened to doors for the Limbaugh revolution? The Reagan Administration's dismantling of The Fairness Doctrine The breakup of AT&T The election of Hillary Clinton to the U.S. Senate The stock market crash of 1987
The Reagan Administration's dismantling of The Fairness Doctrine
According to the Vox video "How the Republican Party Went from Lincoln to Trump" (2016): which party collapsed over a debate on slavery? The Republicans The Democrats The Populists The Whigs
The Whigs
According to lecture, the framers created the institution of the electoral college for all the following reasons, EXCEPT -The public had low levels of education -Many people living in the country and knew little about politics -The framers were concerned about ballot manipulation, as ballots needed to be transported far distances -When it came to the election of the president, the framers trusted political elites more than the general public
The framers were concerned about ballot manipulation, as ballots needed to be transported far distances
According to lecture, when it comes to the role of money in U.S. politics, how much more was spend on campaigns in 2018, compared to 1998? Ten times more Three times more Double Twenty times more
Three times more
In the clip from HBO's "John Adams" "Jefferson and Hamilton argue...," Jefferson said he was surprised by what when returning from France to Philadelphia? -To hear about a possible revolution -To a discussion of banks, money and authority -to hear about possible secession of the Southern States -to learn about the position of the executive to be held by a single individual
To a discussion of banks, money and authority
According to the American Enterprise Institute (2021), as discussed in the video "Belief systems: Evangelicals ...," belief in conspiracy theories tends to be more common on the political right -True -False
True
According to the American Enterprise Institute (2021), as discussed in the video "Belief systems: Evangelicals ...," why are white Evangelical Protestants are more likely than other Americans to be deeply distrustful of the mainstream media True False
True
According to the PBS Newshour (2020), "How Changing Demographics Have Reshaped...," the turnout rate of white voters without a college degree was only 58% in 2016, meaning there has been room for this voting group's influence to grow. True False
True
According to the PBS Newshour (2020), "How Changing Demographics Have Reshaped....", Trump's voting base shrunk fro 2016 to 2020? True False
True
As discussed in lecture, during the presidency of Bill Clinton, the free trade agreement NAFTA was signed True False
True
As discussed in lecture, ideologically, when compared to other advanced democracies' political right-wing party, the Republican Party is comparatively far on the right True False
True
As discussed in lecture, in California, the Republican party placed 50 drop boxes labeled "official" in LA, Fresno and Orange County in the 2020 election. True False
True
In European countries, voter registration is automatically handled by national governments. True False
True
Most Americans identify with one or the other of the two major political parties. True False
True
Nebraska and Maine allocate their Electoral College votes proportionally. True False
True
New American election institutions and reforms typically emerge from careful, long-range planning efforts. True False
True
Political parties seek to influence the government. True False
True
Presidential news events typically receive much more news media coverage than similar events by congressional leaders. True False
True
Today most of the South has shifted from the Democratic to the Republican camp. True False
True
One thing all parts of the United States have, despite differences in the party in power, is overlapping political boundaries. People can live in the same congressional districts but vote in vastly differing city council districts, for instance, and also in school districts at variance with either, even while voting in the same polling place. These boundaries create which practical problem, one that voter registration helps solve? -A recurring pattern of surges and declines in voter turnout. -Warying combinations of elected offices, with each combination requiring a different ballot. -Increased congressional district gerrymandering. -Increased voter fraud.
Warying combinations of elected offices, with each combination requiring a different ballot.
According to The Daily podcast "The Legacy of Rush Limbaugh," which 1970s historical event informed Limbaugh's disdain for the political and media establishment? The Iran hostage crisis The OPEC embargo The attempt to assassinate Ronald Reagan Watergate
Watergate
According to lecture, the Movement Conservatives are a wing of the Republican Party that can be said to be ______ ideological non- less more hyper
more
When media reporting affects the way people perceive a certain issue or matter—such as the perception of crime through an intense focus on news about violent crime—it can be said to have had ______________. -an agenda-setting impact -a priming effect -a framing effect -a flagrant bias
a framing effect
A type of electoral process in which a candidate must receive more than 50 percent of all votes cast in a jurisdiction to win a seat in a legislative body is: -a plurality system. -a majority system. -a first-past-the-post system. -proportional representation.
a majority system.
According to The Daily (2021) podcast, "The 2.7 Billion Case Against Fox News," what did Fox News anchors' (and guests) say about Smartmatic? -they were part of a criminal conspiracy involving Venezuela -The voting machines, made by Dominion, where using Smartmatic software, which was reversing votes cast for Donald Trump to count for Joe Biden -Smartmatic was used to influence votes in Biden's favor in Arizona and Georgia -all of the above
all of the above
According to lecture, the COVID-19 crisis has had the following effect on U.S. politics: -it has highlighted societal divisions -it has forced us talk about acceptable compromises -it will continue to post a challenge economically -all of the above
all of the above
According to lecture, the following can be said about the National Rifle Association: -it has lobbied against all forms of gun control at the local, state and federal level -it has relied upon a disputed interpretation of the 2nd amendment to argue against gun control -it influence derives not only from lobbying, but from targeted campaign support of pro-gun candidates -it has effectively mobilized grassroots support -all of the above
all of the above
According to lecture, the introduction of primary elections increased -the influence of money in elections -voter fatigue -the role of the media -the influence of certain states -all of the above
all of the above
According to lecture, what roles does the mass media play in a democracy? -they serves as citizens' instrument to control government -they can serve to promote government power and control -they are a private business -all of the above
all of the above
What is an example of the activity of an interest group? gaining access to Congress lobbying in an effort to influence legislation help draft legislation donating funds all of the above
all of the above
According to Herington and Ladd (2020), as discussed in the article, "Destroying trust..." distrust toward government, science and the media are not just part of Trump unorthodox political style, but -are part of a conspiracy -are the theme of a larger conservative movement -are propagated by the liberal media -have long been suppressed
are the theme of a larger conservative movement
According to Professor Jhacova Williams' research, as presented in The Economist (2019) video "How Lynching Still Affects American Politics" what is the connection between the legacy of lynching and voting? -Lynching was a message of voter suppression -in areas where lynching took place, there has been lower voter participation -lynching commonly took place after elections -lynching was part of an effort to stop gerrymandering -both the first and second answer choice
both the first and second answer choice
According to lecture, during the 1830s - Progressive Era, how were Presidential candidates nominated? -by a National Convention method -by primary elections -through a "caucus method," where elites met and decided -none of the above
by a National Convention method
According to lecture, after 1968, how have Presidential candidates been nominated? -by a National Convention method -by primary elections -through a "caucus method," where elites met and decided -none of the above
by primary elections
According to Herington and Ladd (2020), as discussed in the article, "Destroying trust ...., " what event has highlighted the costs associated with undermining trust in media, science, and government? -Russian meddling in U.S. elections -coronavirus pandemic -the protests in Portland -Trump's impeachment
coronavirus pandemic
According to lecture, in the 2016 elections, ________voters provided Trump with the necessary (narrow) margin to win. Latino women suburban older
suburban
A federal requirement that broadcasters provide candidates who are running for the same political office an equal opportunity to communicate their messages to the public is called the: -equal time rule. -matching time requirement. -opposition response. -fairness doctrine.
equal time rule.
According to lecture, the three classes of members of interest groups are -Democrats; Republicans; Independents -individuals; professionals; groups -partisan; non-partisan; reformist -those focused on the House of Representatives; those focused on the Senate; those focused on state-legislatures
individuals; professionals; groups
According to lecture, the AARP -was founded in 1913 -represents the interests of labor -is an example of an influential interest group -all of the above.
is an example of an influential interest group
The Affordable Care Act, popularly known as Obamacare, incorporated some elements that came from conservative-leaning research organizations, most notable among them its individual insurance mandate. Even so, it was in many ways emblematic of post-New Deal _____________ proposals, in that it expanded governmental intervention in the economy, while providing insurance subsidies and expanding Medicaid coverage for lower-income people. -ideological -socialist -liberal -centrist
liberal
More than any other single news source, Americans get their news from: -radio. -television. -the Internet. -newspapers.
television
According to The Daily (2020) podcast "A Peculiar Way to Pick a President," the electoral college awarded the presidency to the loser of the popular vote in ___ of the last 5 elections. 1 3 4 none of the above
none of the above
When the framers of the Constitution established the Electoral College, they required each state's legislature to choose its electors. Since the 1860s, however, all states have chosen electors by: -delegating selection to state party organizations. -popular vote. -a combination of popular vote, and consent of legislators. -indirect popular vote.
popular vote.
A country that allows political parties to receive legislative seats in accordance with the percentage of the vote they respectively win in elections (for a particular jurisdiction; for example, at the national level or local level) is said to have this type of election system: first-past-the-post. plurality. majority. proportional representation.
proportional representation.
The chief vehicle through which liberals have advanced their policy ideas in recent times has been: -social media. -academic research. -policy research institutions, often called "think tanks." -public interest groups.
public interest groups.
In presidential elections, states are allocated Electoral College votes that equal their number of: -representatives in the House. -senators. -representatives in the House and Senate, combined. -registered voters per capita.
representatives in the House and Senate, combined.
If the incumbent president loses an election for a second term in office because voters are unsatisfied with the current state of the economy, the voters employed: -speculative voting. -prospective voting. -retrospective voting. -common sense.
retrospective voting.
The federal broadcast regulation requiring that radio and television stations give individuals the opportunity to respond to the airing of personal attacks against them is the: -equal time rule. -right of rebuttal. -fairness doctrine. -what's fair is fair rule.
right of rebuttal.
Americans who do not take the time to learn about government, or about policy issues, in any depth are more likely to lean on ______________ than anything else to help them make political decisions. -politicians' social media posts and brief news reports -shortcuts, party labels, and stereotypes -Internet searches -similarly inattentive family members
shortcuts, party labels, and stereotypes
While presidential election polling leading up to the 2015 election was not far off the mark in suggesting a popular vote win for Hillary Clinton, polls were off in states with ____________, ones that gave Donald Trump his Electoral College edge. -larger percentages of undocumented immigrants, including California -significant white working-class populations -more religious voters, particularly evangelicals -larger industrial and manufacturing economies, including California
significant white working-class populations
In recent years, much of the content of the news, especially local news, has shifted away from politics and public affairs toward entertainment and lifestyle reports known as: -fake news. -advertorial content. -soft news. -click bait.
soft news.
According to lecture, a 2020 Supreme Court case made the following determination regarding the electoral college -states are allowed to abolish the electoral college -states are permitted to require electoral college members to vote as they had pledged -states do not need to follow the plurality / winner-take-all voting system when it comes to the electoral college votes -the electoral college must include minority representation
states are permitted to require electoral college members to vote as they had pledged
More so than people with other ideologies, liberals have relied on public interest groups to advance their policy ideas, at least in the past few decades. What makes these organizations distinctive is: -that they rely heavily on voluntary contributions of time and effort from their members. -that most are funded by major foundations, or a select number of wealthy individuals. -that they are far better at getting their messages out to the media than other groups. -their unusually strong and lasting ties to the Democratic Party.
that they rely heavily on voluntary contributions of time and effort from their members.
According to the Vox video "How the Republican Party Went from Lincoln to Trump" (2016), what electoral realignment (switches) took place in the 1960s and following decades? -Black voters move to the Democratic Party -White voters in the South switch to the Republican Party -Hispanic voters switch to the Republican Party -all of the above -the first and second answer choice.
the first and second answer choice.
Over the past decade, the newspaper business has been dramatically hurt by the popularity of the Internet because: -the popularity of new online venues for advertising, including help wanted, real estate, and retail ads, cuts into newspapers' revenues. -claims of liberal bias led advertisers to look elsewhere for marketing and promotion of goods and services. -the print media did not in any way respond to the popularity of social media, -newspapers declined to make their online content free, until it was too late.
the popularity of new online venues for advertising, including help wanted, real estate, and retail ads, cuts into newspapers' revenues.
According to the American Enterprise Institute (2021), as discussed in the video "Belief systems: Evangelicals ...," why are white Evangelical Protestants more likely to believe in conspiracy theories -they are more socially integrated than other Americans -they are more likely to be surrounded by individuals who are like-mindede -their religion encourages them to challenge mainstream beliefs -they dislike Donald Trump
they are more likely to be surrounded by individuals who are like-mindede
In The Daily (2021) podcast, "The 2.7 Billion Case Against Fox News," attorney Erik Connolly says, "Fox has the biggest microphone. They have the biggest platform. And because of that, ______." -they are entitled to some of Smartmatic's earnings -they can do the most damage -they should be considered the authority on election coverage -they should be the network that provides local election observers
they can do the most damage
Voter turnout in the United States is typically calculated by looking at the total number of votes in any election, and dividing that number against the total voting age population in a given jurisdiction. Unfortunately, this simple formula: -overstates the true turnout rate by not accounting for double or fraudulent voting. -overstates the true turnout rate by including the votes of resident foreign nationals and undocumented immigrants. -understates the turnout rate due to inaccurate population numbers. -understates the true turnout rate because it includes noncitizens, institutionalized or mentally incapacitated persons, and felons without the right to vote in their states.
understates the true turnout rate because it includes noncitizens, institutionalized or mentally incapacitated persons, and felons without the right to vote in their states.
According to lecture, during the years 1780- 1830, how were Presidential candidates nominated? -by a National Convention method -by a primary elections -using a "caucus method," where elites and professional politicians met and decided -none of the above
using a "caucus method," where elites and professional politicians met and decided