Reading Comprehension (The Essentials)

All questions are designed to test your understanding of three primary issues:

(1) the reasoning structure of the passage, (2) the opinions presented in the passage, or (3) the info presented in the passage

Remember for your answers, you should prefer

*Weaker answers* *Safely phrased and don't stray too far from passage* *Stay close to exactly what's said in the passage* *If you're not able to find support for your answer, you may need to keep looking or need to find some proof*

Highlights

*Why?* -To focus on logical clues to major claims -To identify the most important chunks of info -To maximize efficiency by making the location of evidence -To create a map for answering questions with maximum speed and accuracy *How?* -Highlight main ideas, questions, topics, emphasis words, and transitions (tone/opinion; fortunately, sadly, etc, pivots; but, yet, however) -Also highlight examples (b/c, since, for instance), comparison (similarly, like, etc), contrasts (unlike, before/after, earlier/later), conclusions (although, despite, while)

Ask yourself:

-Do I get bogged down in certain question types? -Do I fall for similar trap answers? -How can I refine/change my approach?

Reading Comprehension

-Take control of the passage. Focus on what is important in the passage text without getting bogged down in the details -Extract the Bottom Line of the passage, which includes the author's purpose and tone, and use it actively as you attack the questions -Efficiently locate the necessary information -Avoid tricky wrong answers -Stay awake and interested, even in boring passages

Common Structural Characteristics in RC

-The first paragraph introduces the main point -The last paragraph sums up the main point -The first sentence of each paragraph makes a claim -The rest of the paragraph supports the claim made in the first sentence

At the end of the passage, you should be able to answer

-What is the Main Point of the passage? What is the author driving at? Why was this written? -Which groups are speaking or are talked about in the passage? In other words, who said it? -What's the tone or attitude of each group? Angry? Disappointed? Neutral? -What is the basic portion or argument of each group? Nothing complex -What's the structure of the passage? Can you make a mental map of where the ideas appear in the passage and how they fit together?

Keep the following questions in mind while you read:

-Who or what is the passage about? -What does the author claim is significant about the topic? -Does the passage have a clear thesis? If so, where is it located? -What is the author's attitude towards the topic? -What examples or information does the author provide to support his or her claims? -What role does each part of the passage play in communicating the author's core argument? -Are the views of any other scholars discussed? If so, does the author agree or disagree with them? -What is the author's point and purpose in writing the passage?

How to actively read:

-annotate the text -define the main point of each paragraph -note the bottom line of each passage -read the question word for word and define the question task -go back to passage to PROVE your answer -answer in your own words, write it down -use POE

In order to answer a typical question correctly, we need to have...

-correctly understood the main points and the reasoning structure of the passage -understood the question stem and used it properly to guide our process -anticipate the characteristics of the right answer -need to be able to confidently and accurately eliminate wrong answers -need to be able to confirm the right choice

Big Picture Questions

-includes Main Point & Primary Purpose -these questions ask about the passage as a whole -think about the bottom line -make sure the answer choice relates to all parts of the passage Plan of attack: -Does this answer choice have the right scope? -Does it have the right tone? -Is it supported by the ENTIRE passage?

Extract-inference questions

-question stem often includes infer/imply/suggest -question can ask what the author would or would not agree with -PROVE these by going back to the passage Plan of attack: -Is this answer choice supported by the passage? -Does it answer the right question? -Does it have the right tone? *New info is bad* *Strong language is usually bad*

Highlight or underline indicator words

-question topics (based on preview) -conclusions (ex. therefore, thus, and so) -transitions (help tell you what direction the author is going) -pivotal words (ex. however, but, and yet) -continuations (ex. furthermore and additionally) -tone/author's opinion (ex. finally, fortunately, thankfully, and sadly) -emphasis (ex. primarily, chiefly, most important, crucial, etc); helps to signal what is most important -comparisons/contrasts (ex. similarly, like, analogy, unlike, in contrast, later, before, etc) -examples (ex. example, because, since, or in this case) -lists

Structure-function questions

-questions ask about the purpose of a word, phrase, or paragraph -put how the word, phrase, or paragraph relates to the other parts of the passage into your own words

Structure-organization questions

-questions ask how the passage or paragraph is organized -note organization in your own words then use POE -make sure that all parts of the answer match the parts of the passage or paragraph and in the same order

Reasoning questions

-require you to work with new info -analogy, weaken, strengthen, or other argument style questions -these questions go beyond the info in the passage -may be difficult; perhaps save for last or mark with later -questions look like arguments -answers will go beyond what is stated in the passage ---> new info is good Plan of attack: -Does this answer choice match my understanding of the question task? -Does it answer the right question? -Is it completely right?

Extract-fact questions

-these questions ask for something explicitly stated -use margin notes and map of passage to locate info -these are often EXCEPT questions PROVE by going back to the passage Plan of attack: -Is this answer choice supported by the passage? -Does it answer the right question? -Does it have the right tone? *New info is bad* *Strong language is usually bad*

Reasons to break down a passage

-to maximize both accuracy and efficiency -to understand the purpose and structure of the passage for easier POE -to get what you need out of the passage without getting bogged down in detail on the first read

Basic Passage Strategy

1) At the start of the section, quickly preview the four passage sets, and choose the one you feel most comfortable with from a topic standpoint. 2) Read the passage for an understanding of structure and detail, viewpoints and themes, and the author's tone. Underline, highlight, or make scratch paper notes as needed to help you understand what is being said. 3) Focus on understanding what is being said in each sentence and paragraph. At the end of each paragraph, pause briefly and consider what you have just read, and mentally distill the key points of that paragraph into a quick summary that translates the text into simpler terms. 4) After reading the passage, stop for a moment and consider the entirety of the author's message and what you've been told, as well as by whom. 5) As you move to the question, complete them in the order given; adjust if necessary. 6) If you encounter a question too difficult or confusing to answer, skip it and return to it after completing the other questions in the passage set.

Maintaining Focus While Reading Tips

1) Channel any nervous energy into intensity 2) Enjoy reading the passage-make them into a game or learning exercise 3) If you lose focus, immediately pause, take a deep breath, refocus, and then return more intently to the task at hand 4) Read aggressively, not passively! Actively engage the material and think about the consequences of what you are reading.

Incorrect Answers in Must be True Questions

1) Could be true or likely to be true answers 2) Exaggerated answers 3) "New" information answer 4) The Shell Game 5) The opposite answer 6) The reverse answer 7) The wrong view (avoid these answers by carefully tracking viewpoints) 8) Hidden references

Difficult Passages (Dealing with them...)

1) Find the primary focus, the controlling idea that forms the cornerstone of the author's passage 2) Once you have primary focus, determine the author's stance ---> decide what the author is defending 3) Assess each new paragraph in relation to focus and purpose (constantly ask questions) 4) Identify the argument's components (details of how each paragraph develops the author's main point) *Complex arguments rely more on abstractions, contain a great wealth of detail, and may introduce several points of view ---> focusing on an anchor and on the argument's overall structure will keep you on track*

Limited Time Strategies

1) Go Global-Skim the passage and answer the Global Questions -To employ this strategy, skim the passage very quickly, attempting to get the gist of what is stated and the author's overall position. Then, find all of the Global questions and attempt to answer each 2) Go Local-Read the Questions first and do only the Specific Reference Questions -To employ this strategy, you read the questions first and then attempt to find the answer to each in the passage. Carefully select the answers to do. Use line references to return to specific areas of the passage and gain the knowledge needed to answer the questions.

Every Reading Comprehension questions tests your ability to (MP)

1) Identify a piece of supporting text 2) Infer from a piece of text 3) Synthesize several parts of text to come to a new understanding

Tips for Inference Questions

1) Identify before you infer. 2) Eliminate attractive wrong answers by comparing them to specific, relevant parts of the text -You do want to confirm or deny the most attractive answers by comparing them against the relevant parts of the text 3) Don't infer too much! -Many of the wrong choices sound attractive because they are 1) reasonable and 2) in some indirect way connected to the text. *Right answers to Inference questions need to be more than that—they should be fairly provable using the text* *Resist answers that require assumptions or illogical leaps from the text.*

Characteristics of Incorrect Answers (Degree)

1) Incorrect degree-opinion: Think of opinions as sitting on a spectrum: disgust, dislike, slight disfavor, objectivity/uncertainty, slight favor, like, and love. An incorrect answer choice of this type will misrepresent the degree of an opinion stated in the passage. 2) Incorrect degree-modifier: Think of a spectrum of modifiers that define number: none, one, a few, some, many, most, all. LSAT answer choices are often incorrect because a modifier misrepresents the degree of a certain number

When previewing an LSAT passage, think about...

1) Is the content manageable? 2) Is the passage structure straightforward? 3) What's the payoff?

Bottom line should include...

1) Main point 2) Author's attitude 3) Purpose, -tell a story -correct the record -compare/contrast -criticize -advocate/defend 4) Point of view

Correct Answers in Must be True Questions

1) Paraphrased Answers: These are answers that restate a portion of the passage in different terms 2) Combination Answers: These are answers that are the sum of two or more passage statements Any answer choice that would result from combining two or more statements in the passage will be correct

Process of Elimination with Question Tasks

1) Pay attention to every word of each answer choice: One wrong word invalidates the entire choice 2) Be aware of extreme language 3) Keep track of question scope (whether it asks about the passage as a whole or just one part) 4) Down to two? Compare choices to each other and look for differences

Prephrasing the Answer

1) Read and interpret the question. 2) Read and interpret the relevant supporting text (as needed) 3) Prephrase an answer to the question.

Comparative Passages

1) Short passages A & B 2) Define relationship between them 3) Just like a long passage with multiple POVs Prepare: 1) Preview the questions: look for clues for clues to passage relationship 2) Annotate passages as usual 3) Define main point of each paragraph 4) Define bottom line of each passage 5) Define relationship between the passage -Answer questions solely regarding Passage A first and then repeat the process for Passage B, then finally answer questions mentioning both passages Assess: -The same: questions about a single passage -Different: comparative questions -Big picture: how the bottom lines relate to each other -Extract: info. mentioned in one passage or both -Structure: compare sentences in passages or compare their organizations -Reasoning: help, hurt, or match info in passages

Indicator Words are Important for Several Reasons:

1) They help you identify the main elements of the author's argument 2) They help you identify supplementary argument points made by the author 3) They show you when the author introduces viewpoints other than his or her own 4) They alert you to changes in the direction of the argument 5) They alert you to the strength of the various points made by the author

Active Reading Involves...

1) Understanding how a text is put together 2) Anticipating the points the author will make next 3) Reading for tone and different points of view 4) Following complex lines of reasoning 5) Seeing beyond the details to the bigger picture

Purpose of a passage

1) advocate/defend 2) criticize 3) correct the record (common in science passages) 4) tell a story Are you reading -a description -an analogy -a comparison -a narration -a study -

Approaches on how to answer question

1) return to BL to predict 2) return to passage and read in context to predict 3) head right to ACs and compare to passage

To do questions as fast as you can (Time limiting strategy):

1. Prioritize questions. If the question is asking about something you don't remember, guess, and come back only if you have time. Skip Identification questions if you only skimmed the passage—they're time-consuming. Questions that you can prephrase deserve your attention. 2. Move the process of elimination into warp speed, eliminating answers with "fishy" phrases or extreme language.

To read as fast as you can (time limited strategy)

1. Slow down on the first and last sentences of each paragraph and skim the rest (or, if you are in dire need of time, skip the middle entirely, trying to catch a few nouns on your way through the paragraph). It's likely that you can catch the drift of the paragraph from one of those two sentences. 2. As you skim, look for words that signal structure (but, however, for example, instead, etc.) and briefly slow down to absorb the point of those sentences. You may want to refer to our tip box. 3. Skip any list if you understand why it's there.

Another Reading Comprehension Approach

ASSESS: -Identify what the question asks you to do -Pull out references to passage content -Define the scope of the question ACT: -Go back to the passage, whenever appropriate, before reading the answer choices -Use your annotation and analysis of the logical structure of the passage as maps to locate the necessary information -Read at least 5 lines above and below -Paraphrase the author's argument in the relevant part of the passage ANSWER For every question, define what the correct answer needs to do before evaluating the choices. Look for patterns during your self-evaluation. Ask yourself: -Do I tend to miss or get bogged down in certain question types? -How can I refine of change my approach?

Subject Perspective

Ask you select the answer choice that best reflects the views or attitude of one of the other groups in the passage

Author's Perspective

Ask you to select the answer choice that best reflects the author's views on a subject or the author's attitude toward a subject

Parallel Question

Asks you to parallel the structure of a section or paragraph, and thus you usually need only to understand the basic outline of what occurred in the section. Then, select the answer choice that contains the same structure.

Author opinion (Ex. The author of the passage would be most likely to agree with which of the following statements? The author's feeling toward X (main subject) can be best described as...)

Author's view of subject matter is always intrinsically tied in to the reasoning structure of the passage -RIGHT ANSWERS will be broad and safe, and in general should match fairly closely the thoughts you have in your own head -WRONG ANSWERS often states that the author the exact opposite of the opinion he does

Identify the Detail (Ex. Which of the following statements about X is made in the passage? The passage contains info. to the answer which of the following questions?)

Designed to test your ability to identify info. and your ability to understand it -RIGHT ANSWERS will very closely match the text. Right answers will always require significant assumptions or references -WRONG ANSWERS will often stray from the text. Wrong answers may bring up things mentioned in incorrect parts of the passage

Contextual definition (Ex. The phrase "X" as used in line Y most nearly means... In using the term "X" the author suggest that "Y" is considered to be...)

Develop a clear sense of the definition as you can before going into to the ACs, use understanding or reasoning structure as a guide -RIGHT ANSWERS should make sense in terms of the role that phrase or sentence plays relative to the passage as a whole -WRONG ANSWERS clearly give the sentence a purpose different from the which the author intended

Main Point question approach

Form an effective prephrase that highlights all parts of the passage and prepare to be a bit more open-minded as you consider the choices provided. Two types of incorrect answers to this type: 1) Answers that are true, but do not encapsulate the author's point 2) Answers that repeat portions of the passage but the Main Point

Infer Information

General Inference: These questions require you to infer something from the passage as a whole or from several different points within the passage. Local Inference: These questions require you to infer something from a specific part of the passage Meaning in Context: These questions ask you to use the context of local information to infer the meaning of several words or a key idea.

Determining Difficulty

How? -Skim the 1st two sentences looking for abstract language and ideas vs. concrete descriptive language -Scan the questions looking for long and complicated questions and answers and/or difficult question tasks Attempt: -Short, simple sentences -Familiar, concrete vocabulary -Easy to find thesis -Clear transitions between paragraphs/ideas -Short, clear questions and answer choices Avoid: -Long, complex sentences -Unfamiliar, abstract vocabulary -Puzzle-piece thesis -Complex organization -Long or complicated questions and answer choices

Infer from...? (Ex. The passage suggests that... Which of the following could we infer? The info. in the passage is sufficient to infer which of the following?)

Identify if the question is asking for a specific type of inference or a more general passage as-a-whole-type inference -RIGHT ANSWERS will require very little inference and fall in line with the thought process most relevant to the text -WRONG ANSWERS will require too much inference or misrepresent the text

Visualization

If you're having trouble understanding a passage, create an image of what's going on in different parts of the text -This can help you understand the author's argument and will also help you locate information while you're answering questions because you'll have a mental picture of the passage's logical construction

Strengthen/Weaken (Ex. Which of the following, if true, would weaken the author's argument against X? Each of the following could be used as support for X's view EXCEPT)

In order to see if an answer strengthens or weakens an argument or opinion, you need to evaluate that argument or opinion critically -RIGHT ANSWERS will clearly support or weaken an opinion presented in the text -WRONG ANSWERS will either play an incorrect role (commonly the opposite) or an unclear role relative to the opinion

Why are wrong answers wrong?

It can be helpful to keep in mind that all wrong answers either misrepresent the text or do not match the task -Mispresent the text by... ----...incorrectly identifying or translating main points ----...misorganizing opinions or evidence relative to main points ----....swapping out key details with info that doesn't match what the text discusses -Do not match the task in that they... ----...do not align with the genre of the question ---...do not align with the scope of the question

PEAR

Pause- get a grasp of what you just read Evaluate- question everything Anticipate- what might happen next? Reassess- adjust your overall understanding of the passage if you need to

Reading Comprehension Approach

Prepare: -Preview the questions, gives a context for understanding passage text -Read actively and highlight key parts of the passage -Think about how the passage is organized -Write the bottom line on your scratch paper (includes main point and purpose, point of view, or attitude) Assess: -Understand the question task by reading question stem - Attack questions in a particular order: 1) main point and purpose 2) detail-oriented 3) inference/support -Consider where the answer is located Act: -Define what the right answers should do -Go back to the passage or bottom line for proof 1) Return to passage and read in context to predict 2) Head right to ACs and compare to passage -Specific page reference? Go back to passage and find relevant info -No specific page reference? Go directly to ACs, but go back to passage as you evaluate those choices Answer: -Read each answer choice carefully -Look for assistance in finding the answer in the passage in the form of line references or key words or phrase---> clues in 1) question stem & 2) answer choices -Use POE to get rid of wrong answers aggressively -Find credited response by eliminating answer choices that are not supported by the passage or that don't answer the question

Find an Analogy (Ex. The relationship between X & Y described in the passage is most like... As described in the passage X, is most similar, to which one of the following?)

Questions that ask you to find an analogous situation or relationship can either refer back to a secondary detail in the original passage or to have a correct understanding of the original material -RIGHT ANSWERS sometimes you have to pick an analogous situation that doesn't have extreme nuances -WRONG ANSWERS will either not match the situation or just goes too far

Process of Elimination (Common Issues)

Read Actively: -Identify the main point of each paragraph -Define the organization of the passage and how the paragraphs relate to each other -Define bottom line Predict Distractors: -New info/not supported -Wrong tone/scope -Doesn't answer question -Contradicts passage -Partially correct -Wrong direction -Too strong/extreme Down to Two: -Compare to the question task -Compare to the passage -Compare to each other

Weaken

Remember to: 1) Isolate and assess the position you are attacking 2) Know the details of what was said in the passage 3) Accept the answer choices as given, even if they include "new" information. Your task is to determine which answer choice best attacks the position

Characteristics of Incorrect Answers (Scope)

Scope is the range of subject matter that is discussed: 1) Out of scope: The answer choice is outside of the scope of the passage (it involves elements that were not mentioned in the passage). 2) Narrow scope: The scope of the answer doesn't match the scope of the question (e.g., the question asks about the passage as a whole, but the answer relates to only one paragraph). *the answers to Identification questions are incorrect because they are outside of the scope of the passage, and often, the answers to Synthesis questions are incorrect because they are too narrow in scope (or sometimes, too broad).*

General organization (Ex. Which one of the following most accurately describes the organization of the passage?)

The answers to these questions will break up a passage in terms of its paragraphs -RIGHT ANSWERS will represent each part of the passage accurately. Written in a sequence of elements meant to mimic the organization of the passage -WRONG ANSWERS will clearly state the wrong purpose for at least one component of the passage

Strengthen

The correct answer choice simply helps the argument in some way Steps: 1) Identify what to strengthen 2) Personalize the argument 3) Look for weaknesses in the argument 4) It can strengthen an argument just a little or just a lot *New info is acceptable in these answer choices*

Other opinions (Ex. The critic mentioned in the 2nd paragraph would be most likely to agree with which one of the following statements...? X's view differs from Y's in that...)

The other opinions in questions are related to te central issue of the passage -RIGHT ANSWERS should be ones that you have fairly good job of anticipating and will generally be related to the main point of the passage -WRONG ANSWERS will either represent the opposite of the opinion in question or they go beyond the info in the text

Tips for Identification Questions

The right answer should provide a strong match between the text and the question, with little or no need for interpretation 1) Look for language cues 2) Watch out for false matches -Don't pick an answer just because you vaguely remember reading something similar in the text 3) Connect with the text -Go back to the passage to locate relevant text

Characteristics of Incorrect Answers (Interpretation)

These answers generally mistranslate the info in the in the text in one of two ways: 1) Contradicted: The answer choice states the exact opposite of what is written in the text 2) Unsupported: The answer choice presents a logical leap that is unsupported by the text

Main Point/Purpose of Passage

These are general questions that ask you for either the main idea of the passage or the author's primary purpose in writing the passage. The difference between these and Author General Opinion questions is that the author's point or purpose in writing the passage is not always opinion-based.

Non-author Opinion

These are similar to Author Opinion questions, except that you are asked about an opinion that is described in the passage—the author may or may not agree with that opinion. These are generally fairly local opinions, but if the entire passage is devoted to discussing the views of one person or of a group of people, you might see a more general Non-author Opinion question

Identify Information

These questions are pure Identification. You will be asked for a specific piece of information from the passage, and you just have to go and find it.

Organization/Purpose of Information

These questions ask about the overall organization of the passage or about the role that one particular portion of the text, from an individual word to a whole paragraph, serves in the passage.

Author Local Opinion

These questions ask you about the author's opinion concerning one specific element of the passage

Author General Opinion

These questions ask you to use your general understanding of the author's opinion

Specific Author Opinion (Ex. Based on the passage with which one of the following statements regarding X would the author agree...? Which one of the following best describes the author's attitude toward X...?

These questions concern things about which the author definitely has an opinion -RIGHT ANSWERS will typically involve ideas or issues that the author has -WRONG ANSWERS will often clearly misrepresent the author's opinion, misrepresent the degree of the author's opinion, or introduce info that is a bit different from the info presented in the passage

Illustrate (Ex. Which of the following is an ex. of X? Which of the following scenarios best illustrates the dangers mentioned by critics?)

These questions require you to relate your understanding to the answer choices -RIGHT ANSWERS will illustrate the opinion or issue. Safely worded/vague -WRONG ANSWERS will represent a misunderstanding of the original opinion or it will be the exact opposite

Analogy/Application Questions

These questions require you to use your knowledge of the passage to identify a parallel situation, or to apply a criterion in the passage to the answer choices

Strengthen/Weaken

These questions tend to be quite specific/local. The answer should support (or undermine) an argument somewhere in the passage.

Tips for Synthesis Questions

These questions test your understanding of the passage as whole (main point, author's purpose, etc) 1) Be flexible -Keep an open mind, and eliminate only those choices that you are certain are incorrect. 2) See the forest AND the trees -. If two or three different answers seem the same to you, look for small differences in the wording between them and compare these differences against the text. 3) Keep the author's opinion in mind -Incorrect choices often misrepresent the author's opinion, both in terms of what side of the argument it falls on and in terms of how subtle or strong that opinion is. -A correct understanding of the author's opinion will often help you pick the right answer 4) Watch out for "narrow scope" answers. -Many incorrect answers to Synthesis questions are actually true in terms of their content, but too narrow in scope to accurately express the main point of the passage 5) Notice the Scale's balance -The Main Point should directly or indirectly reference both sides of the passage

Infer from a Detail (Ex. The passage suggests which of the following is about the relationship between X & Y? In the 2nd paragraph, the author implies that X is...)

These questions will require that you find the detail and understand it contextually and correctly in order to infer -RIGHT ANSWERS will be ones that are very reasonable to infer based on the given text and commonly one that nearly matches the given text -WRONG ANSWERS will represent in some way the main point of the passage or the author's opinion

Purpose of a word or phrase (Ex. The author most likely describes the theory as "X" in order to... The primary function of the references to "X" is to... Which one of the following most accurately expresses the primary purpose of the sentence in line X-X?"

These word, clause, or sentence purpose questions are direct tests of your ability to see reasoning structure -RIGHT ANSWERS should match the substance of what you anticipated. Most common roles are answers that relate to main point supporting, opposing, showing application etc. -WRONG ANSWERS either: 1) clearly misrepresent the role that the info. plays 2) misrepresents the actual passage in some way

Comparison trap

This trap, which appears in both Reading Comprehension and Logical Reasoning, makes a comparison that we don't have enough information to make

Purpose/Function Questions

To determine the reasons behind the author's use of words or ideas, refer to the context around the reference, using context clues and your knowledge of the viewpoints and structure of the passage (FOR SPECIFIC AND CONCEPT REFERENCE) These questions ask you to describe why the author wrote the passage, and the correct answer is often an abstract version of the main point (FOR GLOBAL PURPOSE)

VIEWSTAMP

View = the different VIEWpoints in the passage S = the Structure of the passage T = the Tone of the passage A = the Arguments in the passage MP = The Main Point

Identifying and Addressing the Question Task

WHY? To understand the scope of the question and figure out what work needs to be done to answer it HOW? -Translate the question stems -Identify key words -Look for passage references -Figure out what you need to do with or to the passage 1) Return to the Bottom Line for a prediction 2) Return to passage for a prediction 3) Go right to the answer choices and compare them to the passage

Main point/main purpose (Ex. Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main idea of the passage? The primary purpose of the passage is...?

We are looking for the answer that best represents the passage as a whole and indicates why it was written? -RIGHT ANSWERS are those that best represent the entirety of the passage -WRONG ANSWERS will commonly: 1) will take a narrow point of the passage and hold it up as the main point 2) the answer will have an error - a detail that doesn't match or goes beyond the info in the text

Purpose of a paragraph (Ex. What is the main purpose of the fourth paragraph? The main purpose of the third paragraph is to...?)

When asked this, think about how the paragraph relates to the passage as a whole and to the paragraph before and after it -RIGHT ANSWERS will match, in substances, if not in wording, your understanding of how the paragraph fits into the reasoning structure of the passage -WRONG ANSWERS will represent the hole in a clearly incorrect way or discuss something that isn't in the passage

Example indicators

Words such as for example, because, since, or in this case -Tells you what comes next in evidence used to support a larger claim -Used to locate the evidence if needed to answer questions

Continuations

Words such as furthermore and additionally indicate that the author is developing or explaining a point

pivotal words/points

Words such as however, but, and yet indicate a change of direction or contrast. They suggest that the author is about to shift the trajectory of the argument by: -introducing a contrasting idea or claim -placing a condition on the argument -shifting from a simple to a more complex level of argument -making a concession to an opposing view *Don't just mechanically circle them; think about what comes before and after as well as its relevance to the logic of that section and the passage as a whole.*

Comparison/contrast indicators

Words such as similarly, like, analogy, unlike, in contrast, later, and before -These words can alert you to potential trap answer choices: *When the passage describes two things as different, a TRAP answer choice might describe them as similar* *When the author describes a change over time, an incorrect answer might REVERSE the chronology*

Shifts in view (rhetorical marker)

ex. but, yet, however, nevertheless, rather, instead -These markers normally come after a claim has been made and before an important point the author wants to make

Author's view (rhetorical marker)

ex. conveniently, fortunately, regretfully, correctly -These very subtly express the author's opinion or attitude

Concession (rhetorical marker)

ex. despite, although, while, granted, of course, naturally, true, indeed -These generally mean that the author is conceding a point to the opposing side of the argument -Most important: the author will acknowledge the merit of the opposing view before telling us what they really want to say

Support (rhetorical marker)

ex. first, second, moreover, furthermore, also, additionally, finally -A series of points being made to support some larger connection

Supporting examples (rhetorical marker)

ex. for ex, because, since, after all -These will come after a general point and introduce a specific illustration of the point

Define the question task by...

identifying the part of the passage that's relevant to the question and figuring out what you need to do TO or WITH the passage. Do you need to.... -summarize? -extract information? -describe structure? -work with new information?

As you read...

separate the core ideas, or claims, from the details or evidence used to support them

Main Point Answers

should in some way include paraphrases of all parts of the passage -avoid answers the focus solely on one paragraph of the passage -avoid answers that take it too far, and expand outside of what you read -avoid answers that include new info

Main point (of a passage)

the central idea, or ultimate conclusion, that the author is attempting to prove

Structure (of a passage)

to describe in general terms the order in which things are presented in the passage and the organization of ideas Plan of attack to answer this type of question: -Does this answer choice describe the structure of the passage/paragraph? -Does this answer choice explain the function of the phrase/word/paragraph? -Is this answer choice completely right?

Tone/opinion indicators

words such as finally, fortunately, thankfully, and sadly -Used to accurately identify the author's point of view

Transitions: pivotal words/points

words such as however, but, and yet indicate a change of direction or contrast ---> they suggest that the author is about to shift the trajectory of the argument by: -introducing a contrasting claim or idea -placing a condition on the argument -shifting from a simple to a more complex level of argument -making a concession to an opposing view

If you can correctly assess an author's tone...

you'll have a better sense of what the author is trying to accomplish which, in turn, will help you understand his or her purpose and point of view