Religion Final

What does it mean that religion is both universal and particular?

Believers constitute a collective and lack of belief marks others. But then some nationalities see religion as an essential.

What are archetypes from Jung and Eliade's perspectives?

Carl Jung saw archetypes as forms or images of a collective nature which occur all over the earth as constituents of myths. - Point to a transcendental reality - Accessed through symbols - Appear and are sought when insight/advice/understanding is needed - Collective Unconscious Eliade saw archetypes as mythic models - models for meaningful human action in the world. He saw architypes of existence and following them will give our lives meaning.

What is "thick description," and why is it important for the study of religion?

Clifford Geertz created this term to differentiate from a very simple, on the surface description to something much more detailed and complex. A thick description is a detailed description that describes actions, people, clothing, etc. with a goal to understand what is going on within that context.

What modern ritual did he see connected to the practice?

Communion - God represented by symbolic meal - Reenacts and reverses original crime of humanity

What is the insider/outsider problem?

The insider / outsider problem in the study of religion is about the overall understanding of religion. The problem lies in how invested you have to be in something to completely understand it. As an outsider of the religion, you are not as connected to things and therefore can reflect on different aspects than if you were an insider. The caveat to that is if we are not insiders then are we accurately describing and reflecting on things while being an outsider.

How does Emile Durkheim distinguish between the sacred and the profane?

The sacred was something that was special and set apart by the community (being that he believed religion was social). The profane was anything that went against the community and leaned more so to individual appeals.

What does he think would happen if we did away with religion?

Workers would realize their plight and would lead a global rebellion that would necessarily succeed. It would result in a worldwide system without class or property.

Paganism - label

a (contested) term traditionally referring to practices outside of accepted traditions (today used for earth-base forms of worship)

Gender

a cultural construct built upon perceived sexual norms.

Pantheism - label

reality is divinity, in all its multiform aspects - no personal gods

Demythologizing

seeking to uncover the symbolic meaning behind stories apart from the culture

What kinds of definitions have been offered for religion?

E.B. Tyler - Religion is a belief in spiritual beings that are to be obeyed and worshipped (19th century and one of the first definitions of the word) Paul Tillich - Religion is the dynamics of ultimate concern Jonathan Z. Smith - Religion as anthropological category - describes human thoughts, actions, and norms

How does Mircea Eliade distinguish the sacred from the profane?

Eliade felt the sacred was set apart from everyday experiences and was the "really real" world, and profane to him was anything that was mundane and routine.

Who are the hijra?

India's third gender. They are intersex transgender individuals assigned male at birth. They have a long history of being treated sacred in Hinduism.

How does myth serve to create / reinforce / change social formations (related: what does it mean that invoking ancestors also serves to evoke social groups?)?

Invocation - reference to by name - mentions, references, narratives Evocation - summoning sentiments, feelings - affection, loyalty, solidarity, mutual attachment Strategic act of interpretation

Where does the idea of veiling in Islam come from?

It comes from being modest in the Qur'an (24:30, 24:31). The idea that men need protection from female sexuality b/c the male sexuality is active and hard to control.

How can the choice to wear a headscarf be considered a feminist statement?

It gives some women more voice in society and is a demonstration of being in control and having individual power.

What does it mean that race is a "social construct"?

It means we create racial categories and it is based in the physical. They are mostly biological ideas but there are no genetic markers common to all members of one "race".

What kinds of male head coverings were discussed?

Jewish Kippah / Yarmulke Afghani Head Scarf Sikh Dastaar

What does illo tempore mean?

"That time," "in that time," i.e., time at the beginning of the world); the "eternal present" of sacred time.

What were big moments in the relationship between religion and politics in the U.S.?

- 1776 Jefferson bases Declaration of Independence on Deist principles - 1954 - Under God was added to the pledge of allegiance - 1956 In God we Trust becomes national motto in reaction to Cold War - 1957 In god we trust appears on paper money - 1960 JFK a catholic is elected

What were some main events that led to their formation?

- 1980s Afghanistan v. Soviet Union o Bring Muslims together to fight o Following victory fighters return home - 2000s Al-Qaeda in Iraq formed o 2008 U.S. surge in Iraq o 2013 ISIS founded by Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi

What was the Peace of Westphalia?

- End to the Thirty Years War - No sovereign state can intervene in another sovereign state's affairs

How did he understand the connection between god and a parent figure?

- Gods = collective representations of individual experience - Cosmic anxieties need grander protectors o Project a God who protects like a father o Call out to Him for help in the face of death and chaos o BUT fear accompanies his power

How does he see religion as wish fulfillment?

- Helps us deal with things we do not want to deal with o Provides a way to tame instincts o Gives us a father figure when we feel like children - Helped us exist in the world - BUT its an illusion o Irrational o Never grow up socially

How does Marx understand the term "ideology"?

- Ideology distorts perception. - Masks but expresses suffering. - Keeps people from seeing what is really going on. - Dependence; acceptance of place in life - Ultimately serves to keep people in bondage

How does religion naturalize inequality?

- Makes people complacent with where they are b/c promised better in the next life

How did religion play a role in the early days of the country?

- Our DOI was based upon Deist principles.

What brand of religion is practiced by ISIS?

- Salafi-Jihadi which is a brand of Sunni Islam o Based in piety of earliest Muslims o Seeking to reestablish a Caliphate

What does "secular" mean, and why is it the preferred government today?

- Secular = religion is separated from politics - It is to accommodate multiple faiths, so none seems to be favored

How do rituals transform space / time / status?

- Sets apart space and time b/c becomes sacred - Changes relative status in society - "Performative speech" o Words affect a change o Something is different after

What does he mean by saying "religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature...it is the opium of the people?

- We are alienated from our labor and therefore ourselves - Religion normalizes and justifies such relations - Religion is an illusion which keeps us in a system of exploitation - We have to break free to be happy

Piacular Rites (Durkheim)

Are organized sets of practices (rituals) that pertain to mourning and how mourning shows that the entire community is weakened. Piacular rites also demonstrate how the sacred has the power to bring communities together during the good and the bad times.

What are archetypes for Carl Jung?

As described by Carl Jung, archetypes are symbols, images, forms, or anything (typically mythical figures) that occurs frequently throughout humanity. In his specific case, he was looking at archetypes throughout religious myths and how because these same figures and motifs kept appearing it was because they all came from this collective unconscious we have as humans.

What are 4 qualities William James sees as part of religious experiences?

1. Ineffable sense: The experience is impossible to express through words. 2. Noetic: Knowledge about the hidden secrets of life and the way to connect with these secrets is given. 3. Transient: These experiences pass, they are not concrete, and we cannot stay in the experience. 4. Passive: It is an experience that happens to us not as a result of some action that was done prior to the experience.

What does it mean that ritual is "the performance of more or less invariant sequences of formal acts and utterances not entirely encoded by the performers" (be sure to understand each part)?

1. Performance of a. Spectacle - draws attention b. Tells a symbolic story and needs an audience c. Reenact events - sacred scripts d. Needs performers - show your affiliation 2. More or less invariant sequences of a. Repetition - same thing each time b. Plus meaning c. Connects to a lineage d. Embeds that lineage in the body - kneeling / physical environment 3. Formal acts and utterances a. Designed activity - based in sacred sources b. Little variation / improvisation allowed c. A reason for these actions / sayings 4. Not entirely encoded by the performers a. Encoded = given symbolic meaning b. Meaning comes from outside - not up to us c. That means a whole system instilled in the body - hierarchy, power, gender relations

What are the 4 "orders of meaning" at work in the study of religion?

1st Order - Immediate - This is the experience of those who actively participate in the culture or religion. 2nd Order - Reflective - This is people within the religion or culture that reflect and examine parts of the religion to explain it or make sense of it to teach people that are active participants. 3rd Order - Academic - This is where people that do not actively participate in the religion are attempting to interpret and explain a religious practice. 4th Order - Synthetic - This is when our lives and knowledge from the academic begin to integrate with each other.

What is the "burkini" and why has it been a controversial issue?

Banned by France Said to: Represent the "enslavement of women" Not be "appropriate" Anti-Muslim rhetoric and activity

What are the "ABCS" of prayer?

A - Affirmation: demonstrating that you are committed to the religious path. For example, in the Catholic church there is the Nicene creed where those who are praying are proclaiming a statement of belief with amen at the end to affirm the truth of their prayer. B - Benediction: Asking for those around you and yourself to be blessed because of the good things you do. For example, in Jewish prayer, Birkar Hamazon, also known as benching, has lines where food is being asked for and thanked for. C - Commendation: Recognizing how amazing and great God is and how the divine is recognized as truth. For example, in the Hindu prayer of Puja, the deities are hung up around a space and adorned as they are offered special trinkets. S - Supplication: Asking for help along the path of life. An example of supplication can be in Catholic prayer when the Our Father prayer happens during mass, this prayer is where people are asking to be delivered from evil and be given guidance.

What is a symbol?

A representation of something meaningful. This representation is only known within a cultural context.

What features does nationalism share with religion?

Founding myths - throwing off yoke of oppressors, brave rebels Scriptures - Declaration of Independence Symbolic representations - flag Systems of morality / justice - law Inspired/Ideal People - Founding fathers Rituals - pledge Holy days - 4th of July

Why does W.C. Smith think religion might not be a useful term?

Has issues. It causes us to think old religion = true religion.

What did Emile Durkheim mean when he said "if [the totem] is at once the symbol of the god and of the society, is that not because the god and the society are one?"

He thought that ultimately, they are the same thing; the totem represents the clan and the god because a god is only a symbol for the community

What are the different kinds of Islamic headscarves/veils?

Hijab - A headscarf (not a veil) that hides the hair, ears and neck Chador - Full cloak that covers the body and hair - Popular in Iran and Afghanistan Niqab - A veil that fully covers the woman, including nose and mouth, leaving a small opening for the eyes Burka - Veil that fully covers the woman's face and body, with a grille that hides the eyes

What does Freud see as the 3 parts of the human psyche?

Id- unconscious, impulsive desires (eat, kill, sex) Superego- morality springing from group Ego- the part that decides which to follow

What does Bruce Lincoln mean when he says, "myth is ideology in narrative form?"

Ideology - frame through which to understand the world System of knowledges Narrative form - communicated through stories and tales - Makes it easier to remember - Does not appear of dogma

Heirophany (Mircea Eliade)

Means that sacred things showing themselves to us. The sacred appears apart from the reality of ordinary life, showing a power that is not usually there

What does it mean that "myth is symbol?"

Means: Should not be read literally Means by which truths of existence can be disclosed

What is an axis mundi?

Mircea Eliade used to describe the center of the world. The axis mundi is the bridge that connects the profane and the sacred worlds.

What functions do myth serve?

Myths are: Scripts for ritual actions To explain things we don't (can't) know, but have meaning for us Depict how the cosmic order works Tells us what our obligations and responsibilities are Create and explain social and formations

What kind of rites did Durkheim identify?

Negative (protect sacred from profane), positive (access the realm of the sacred), and piacular rites (mourning).

Negative Rites (Durkheim)

Protecting the sacred from the profane by prohibitions, taboos, setting aside holidays, festivals, separating from profane time ex. (sabbath, dietary restrictions like kosher)

What is Clifford Geertz's definition of religion (understand each part)?

Religion is a system of symbols which acts to - Model reality - how the world should look - Forms basis for and guides community Establish powerful, pervasive and long-lasting moods and motivations in people - Motivation = an inclination to perform certain sorts of acts and experience certain sorts of feeling in certain sorts of situations - Moods = "reverential" ; "solemn"; "worshipful"; vary radically btwn cultures - Motivations aim toward things; moods come from things Formulation conceptions of a general order of existence and - Religious symbols are those which reference a cosmic framework Clothing these conceptions with such an aura of factuality - Religion relies upon certain accepted authorities about the world - Rituals reinforce the position of those authorities - Belief before authority - These ideas become really real The moods and motivations seem uniquely realistic - Religion's moods and motivations appear not as merely an interesting idea but bare fact - Religion changes "common sense" - How religion explains the world becomes common sense - Thereby shapes life

What did Marx place at the center of his theory on religion?

Religion is an illusion which controls us. He focuses on religion and its existence within the world of capitalism.

What does religion support in terms of power in society?

Religion supports capitalism and aristocrats.

Positive Rites (Durkheim)

Rituals allowing us to access the realm of the sacred. Communal meals, sacrifices, group prayer, results in collective effervescence

What are the 4 parts of ritual as discussed in class, and what does each part mean?

Roy Rappaport - "the performance of more or less invariant sequences of formal acts and utterances not entirely encoded by performers." 1. Performance of a. Spectacle - draws attention b. Tells a symbolic story and needs an audience c. Reenact events - sacred scripts d. Needs performers - show your affiliation 2. More or less invariant sequences of a. Repetition - same thing each time b. Plus meaning c. Connects to a lineage d. Embeds that lineage in the body - kneeling / physical environment 3. Formal acts and utterances a. Designed activity - based in sacred sources b. Little variation / improvisation allowed c. A reason for these actions / sayings 4. Not entirely encoded by the performers a. Encoded = given symbolic meaning b. Meaning comes from outside - not up to us c. That means a whole system instilled in the body - hierarchy, power, gender relations

What are the 4 important methods Herling notes in the study of religion?

Self-consciousness: Being aware that you come with baggage and preconceived notions on what religion is and what it should look like. If these biases are acknowledged you can attempt to begin understanding other beliefs and religions. Comparison: This is where two phenomena are compared and contrasted so that the similarities and differences can be analyzed to draw conclusions about each religion and their specific practices. It allows for patterns to be seen and contrasts to be made to better understand religions overall and help connect it to our self-consciousness. Defamiliarization: By making the familiar seem foreign, a new perspective is given and through this shift new insight can be gained without the perceptions that come from our self-consciousness. Empathy: Empathy is the opposite of defamiliarization where you try to make things that seem strange familiar. When focus is shifted from ourselves to another's experience, we can build understanding through imagining their feels and experience.

Sex

Sex is a physiological distinction, like genitals and such

What did Jonathan Z. Smith mean by saying religion is a category "imposed from the outside"?

Smith meant that religion is just a label or category to those who do not practice it, because for insiders, religion is just their everyday life and practices. Religion is all they know, and they see it as truth and a lifestyle, not explicitly as "religion". They are just living their lives as they always have without a label given by someone who does not live the same way.

How are societies constructed and reconstructed through myth?

Society is constructed from sentiments - we are related b/c we feel related As sentiments change, society changes Such changes are accomplished though the recollection of mythic moments of the past - What values we interpret as "sacred" are set apart and held as special.

How did he imagine the relationship between society and the person?

Society is like people writ large - Basic instincts need to be checked - We want compensation o Mental assets - like pride o Not enough - So existential anxiety needs soothing presence of gods and afterlife

How is theology distinct from the academic study of religion?

The academic study of religion is different from theology because within the academic sphere religion is not explicitly about a specific religion and how to practice it, it is more about the theory of religion and the concepts that have to do with religion. Theology reflects about religion from within the religion whereas academic study is exclusive from a religion.

What does Victor Turner mean by pre-liminal, liminal, and post-liminal states?

The first is the pre liminal which is when an individual is somehow set apart from normal life and activities, then the liminal stage which is considered an in-between stage during the ritual, and the last stage is the post liminal which is when the individual renters society with a new identity (or overall change).

What are Ninian Smart's "dimensions of religion"?

They are Smart's way of defining and understanding religion. They are seven features that assist us in identifying and analyzing religion. 1. The ritual or practical dimension a. Activities as worship, meditation, pilgrimage, sacrifice, sacramental rites and healing activities. 2. The doctrinal or philosophical dimension a. Emphasize standard sets of belief and forms of analysis meant to interpret, apply, and elaborate on them. Look for creed or declaration of faith. 3. The mythic or narrative dimension a. Provide the basis for both ritual and sacred space, articulate both origins and the end of the cosmos, and offer demonstrations of core beliefs. 4. The experiential and emotional dimension a. Experiences of emotion in personal and communal settings; mystical experiences of both and ecstasy 5. The ethical or legal dimension a. Provide authoritative rules and guidelines for living properly while giving consequences. Look for moral or legal precepts contained in scripture. 6. The organizational or social dimension a. Sustaining the tradition. Worldly structures that intersect with and overlap with broader political and social realms. 7. The material or artistic dimension a. Traditions manifest themselves in the realms of material culture and artistic production.

How can myths be true but not factual?

They are true b/c they are sacred. Fact & accuracy is linked to history and profane time. Truth transcends, gives meaning to the profane. Myth draws our attention to what is really important and asking "when did this happen?" is beside the point.

What does Marx think would happen if people got away from religion?

They would see their plight and suffering and would understand how wrong it is. Then they would start to seek change.

What did Freud think the two main taboos in Totemism were, and how did they come about?

Thou shalt not kill or eat the totem animal Thou shalt not commit incest Came about with Freud's myth.

What did he believe the ritual killing of the totem served to do?

To reenact the crimes originally committed to create the original sentiments of shared guilt and shame.

What does Freud think religion functions to do?

To soothe our existential anxieties and protect us. To have something take care of us.

William James "Healthy Minded"

are those who are positive and have a welcoming view of life. Accept life as it is and God's graces/ Good is achieved in life by focusing on good and shunting evil to the periphery.

Monotheism - label

belief in and worship of a single god

Polytheism - label

belief in and worship of multiple gods

William James "Sick souls"

category are people who believe that life is about suffering and death, they typically believe in religions that deliver them from all this suffering and evil, so they turn to religions that believe in salvation like Christianity.

Animism - theory

theory that all religions begin with a concept of an invisible spirit world layering behind the observable one

"Primordial Monotheism" - theory

theory that all religions have source in a universal belief in a single god

Naturism - theory

theory that states all religion stemmed from fear of and dependence on natural forces

Demythicizing

treating as historical and not myth