Religion
Mandate of Heaven
Date: 1036 to 236 B.C Definition: Also known as Heaven's Mandate, was the divine source of authority and the right to rule of China's early kings and emperors. The ancient god or divine force known as Heaven or Sky had selected this particular individual to rule on its behalf on earth. An important element of the mandate was that although the ruler had been given great power he also had a moral obligation to use it for the good of his people, if he did not then his state would suffer terrible disasters and he would lose the right to govern. Significance: The Mandate of Heaven originated during the Zhou dynasty in China, which lasted from 1036 to 236 B.C., and was significant because it was the basis for determining whether the emperor was worthy of ruling the country. This mandate granted the emperor the right to rule, which meant that he no longer was emperor if he lost the mandate.
Sikhism (From "Sikh" meaning a "disciple" or a "learner")
Date: 15th century (Founded) Definition: A religion that originated in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent about the end of the 15th century. It is one of the youngest of the major world religions. The fundamental beliefs of Sikhism, articulated in the sacred scripture Guru Granth Sahib, include faith and meditation on the name of the one creator, unity of all humankind, engaging in selfless service, striving for social justice for the benefit and prosperity of all. It is a monotheistic religion. Significance: The most important thing in Sikhism is the internal religious state of the individual. Sikhism is a monotheistic religion Sikhism stresses the importance of doing good actions rather than merely carrying out rituals Sikhs believe that the way to lead a good life is to: keep God in heart and mind at all times live honestly and work hard treat everyone equally be generous to the less fortunate serve others The Sikh place of worship is called a Gurdwara The Sikh scripture is the Guru Granth Sahib, a book that Sikhs consider a living Guru
Gilgamesh
Date: 2000 BC Definition: The main character in the Epic of Gilgamesh, an Akkadian poem that is considered the first great work of literature, and in earlier Sumerian poems. In the epic, Gilgamesh is a demigod of superhuman strength who builds the city walls of Uruk to defend his people and after the death of his friend Enkidu travels to meet the sage Utnapishtim, who survived the Great Flood. Significance: Epic of Gilgamesh is the first literary work in history that has been written down and has been discovered. It reflects the myths and stories that were told in ancient Sumeria, that by itself was a new political structure that would evolve into an empire. The second aspect is the story of the flood and Utnapishtim, that probably was an inspiration for Noah in the bible. There are other ideas in the Epic that could be found in the Bible, e.g. Garden of Eden There also a good advice that Siduri gives Gilgamesh to be content with his life and not seek eternal life.
Analects
Date: 206 BC - 220 AD (Completed during the middle of the Han Dynasty) Definition: a collection of sayings and ideas attributed to the Chinese philosopher Confucius and his contemporaries, traditionally believed to have been compiled and written by Confucius' followers. Significance: A principle work of Confucius, The political importance and popularity of Confucius and Confucianism grew throughout the Han dynasty, the Analects was widely read by schoolchildren and anyone aspiring to literacy
Confucianism
Date: 551-479 BCE (Life-span of confucius) Definition: A worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. Sometimes viewed as a philosophy and sometimes as a religion, Confucianism may be understood as an all-encompassing way of thinking and living that entails ancestor reverence and a profound human-centred religiousness. Significance: An important facet of Confucius' ideas was that teachers, and especially rulers, must lead by example. They must be benevolent in order to win the affections and respect of the populace and not do so by force, which is futile. They should also be models of frugality and high moral upstanding. For this reason, Chinese education has often favoured the cultivation of moral sensibilities rather than specific intellectual skills. Further, under Confucian influence, Chinese politics principally focussed on the intimacy of relationships rather than institution
Jainism
Date: 6th Century BC Definition: A nontheistic religion founded in India in the 6th century BC by the Jina Vardhamana Mahavira as a reaction against the teachings of orthodox Brahmanism, and still practiced there. The Jain religion teaches salvation by perfection through successive lives, and noninjury to living creatures, and is noted for its ascetics. A reaction to priestly control of Hinduism. Members seek to liberate their souls from attachment to matter. Significance: A reaction to the caste system in Hinduism. The 5 vows of a monk are: Ahimsa (kill no living thing), Truth speaking, No greed, No sexual pleasure, Total detachment. Jains believe that all existing things can be divided into souls — "jiva," and matter — "ajiva." They interpret laws of karma strictly. Bad karma attaches ajiva to the jiva. The consequences of one's deeds are deposited in and on the soul.
Gobekli Tepe
Date: Founded in the 10th millennium B.C.E Definition: Göbekli Tepe, Turkish for "Potbelly Hill", is an archaeological site in the Southeastern Anatolia Region of Turkey. Currently the oldest known archaeological site with evidence of significant and prolonged construction activity by humans. Evidence suggests that it was some sort of religious/gathering place for people. Significance: Göbekli Tepe is regarded by some as an archaeological discovery of the greatest importance since it could profoundly change the understanding of a crucial stage in the development of human society. If indeed the site was built by hunter-gatherers as some researchers believe then it would mean that the ability to build monumental complexes was within the capacities of these sorts of groups which would overturn previous assumptions.
Buddhism
Date: Late 6th century B.C.E Definition: A religion, originated in India by Buddha (Gautama) and later spreading to China, Burma, Japan, Tibet, and parts of southeast Asia, holding that life is full of suffering caused by desire and that the way to end this suffering is through enlightenment that enables one to halt the endless sequence of births and deaths to which one is otherwise subject. Significance: Buddhism is one of the most important Asian spiritual traditions. During its roughly 2.5 millennia of history, Buddhism has shown a flexible approach, adapting itself to different conditions and local ideas while maintaining its core teachings. As a result of its wide geographical expansion, coupled with its tolerant spirit, Buddhism today encompasses a number of different traditions, beliefs, and practices.
Caste System
Date: Origins dating back to around 2,000 B.C.E Definition: The caste system divides Hindus into four main categories - Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and the Shudras (based on their karma and dharma). Many believe that the groups originated from Brahma, the Hindu God of creation. Significance: Fairly obvious form of class division. Basically, a system of this sort features a lack of social mobility and oppression of the lower class while the upper class thrives.
Taoism (Daoism)
Date: Sometime around the 3rd or 4th century B.C.E Definition: A Chinese philosophy based on the writings of Lao-tzu that stresses living simply and honestly and in harmony with nature Significance: Taoism regards life as the most valuable thing and pursues immortality. Life can be prolonged through meditation and exercise. People should train their will, discard selfishness, and seek to be a model of virtue. With high moral sense and good exercise, one can maintain energy throughout one's life. To achieve this, Taoism stresses the need for a peaceful and harmonious environment as a very important external condition.
Yin/Yang
Definition: (in Chinese philosophy and religion) two principles, one negative, dark, and feminine (yin) and one positive, bright, and masculine (yang) whose interaction influences the destinies of creatures and things. Significance: In a nutshell, Chinese yin yang symbols represent perfect balance. A great deal of Chinese philosophy stems from the concept of yin and yang - opposites interacting and supposedly the seed of all things. For example, some views hold that evil results from an imbalance in Yin and Yang, and good comes from the two being in harmonic balance.
Filial Piety
Definition: (in Confucianism) the important virtue and primary duty of respect, obedience, and care for one's parents and elderly family members. Significance: Filial Piety represents the virtue that parent and children should have. It is extended to cover kings and their subjects, bosses and employees etc. It is the behavioral standard between elders and youth. Essentially it is the Elders should love the youth and the youngers should respect their elders. Most people, including many Chinese, Koreans and Japanese, have distorted it and emphasize only on the youngers must always respect and obey their elders. This is not so. The elders (such as parents and bosses and even kings) have the responsibility of caring for their youngers. Children must obey parents.
Myth
Definition: A story or narrative, originally conveyed orally, that sets forth basic truths of a religious tradition; myths often involve events of primordial time that describe the origin of things Significance: Myths are usually used to explain things when there is no other information available or no tangible explanation for an event
Karma
Definition: Action or cause; the law of causation. The moral law of cause and effect of actions; determines the natures of one's reincarnation; for Jainism, all activity, (Karma) is believed to involve various forms of matter that weigh down the soul (jiva) and thus hinder the quest for liberation Significance: Most relevant in regards to reincarnation, depending on karma, rebirth occurs into a higher or lower bodily form, either in heaven or hell or earthly realm
Brahman
Definition: Brahman is the absolute God of Hindus. In Hinduism He occupies the highest place, as the creator and enjoyer of all creation. He is the Light and Delight of the Universe, the Ruler and the Lord, without a beginning and without an end, indestructible, indescribable, blissfully immersed in Himself and all by Himself. (This is an extremely difficult term to describe, I would advise avoiding it on the test if possible). Significance: Brahman is the spiritual essence of the world. Everything in the universe, including the Hindu gods, are a manifestation of Brahman. Brahman is significant because it makes up everything, and is ultimately what Hindus believe in. Brahman is of the nature of truth, knowledge and infinity.
Tao Te Ching
Definition: It is an important text to Chinese culture. It is very important in Chinese philosophy (way of thinking) and religion. It is the main book for Taoism, which is both a philosophy and part of Chinese folk religion. It also influenced other philosophies in and around China. Significance: A fundamental text for both philosophical and religious Taoism, and strongly influenced other schools, such as Legalism, Confucianism, and Chinese Buddhism, which when first introduced into China was largely interpreted through the use of Daoist words and concepts
Lao Tzu
Definition: Literally ("Old Master") was an ancient Chinese philosopher and writer. He is known as the reputed author of the Tao Te Ching, the founder of philosophical Taoism, and a deity in religious Taoism and traditional Chinese religions. Significance: A mystic philosopher of ancient China, and best known as the author of the Tao Te Ching. His association with the Tao Te Ching has led him to be traditionally considered the founder of Taoism (also spelled "Daoism"). He is also revered as a deity in most religious forms of the Taoist religion. A central figure in Chinese culture, both nobility and common people claim Laozi in their lineage. Throughout history, Laozi's work has been embraced by various anti-authoritarian movements.
Mahayana Buddhism
Definition: The Mahayana is more of an umbrella body for a great variety of schools, from the Tantra school (the secret teaching of Yoga) well represented in Tibet and Nepal to the Pure Land sect, whose essential teaching is that salvation can be attained only through absolute trust in the saving power of Amitabha, longing to be reborn in his paradise through his grace, which are found in China, Korea and Japan. Ch'an and Zen Buddhism, of China and Japan, are meditation schools. According to these schools, to look inward and not to look outwards is the only way to achieve enlightenment, which to the human mind is ultimately the same as Buddhahood. Significance: Theravada and Mahayana are both rooted in the basic teachings of the historical Buddha, and both emphasise the individual search for liberation from the cycle of samsara (birth, death, rebirth...). The methods or practices for doing that, however, can be very different. For more on the difference between these two: http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/buddhistworld/schools1.htm
Theravada Buddhism
Definition: The name for the school of Buddhism that draws its scriptural inspiration from the Pali Canon, or Tipitaka, which scholars generally accept as the oldest record of the Buddha's teachings. For many centuries, Theravada has been the predominant religion of Sri Lanka, Burma, and Thailand; today Theravada Buddhists number over 100 million worldwide. In recent decades Theravada has begun to take root in the West — primarily in Europe, Australia and the USA. Significance: This school of Buddhism believes that it has remained closest to the original teachings of the Buddha. However, it does not over-emphasise the status of these teachings in a fundamentalist way - they are seen as tools to help people understand the truth, and not as having merit of their own.
Dharma
Definition: There is not one single definition of Dharma, so, for Hinduism (1) Religion, (2) Religious prescriptions and ordinances, (3) Sacred duty, (4) Law, (5) Moral virtue, and (6) Social or caste obligation. In the Buddhist context it refers to Buddhist teaching or to Buddhism as a religious tradition Significance: Tough to pinpoint one aspect of significance, it applies different to many different situations.
Four Noble Ashoka
Four Noble Ashoka Definition: The Buddha's first sermon after his enlightenment centered on the Four Noble Truths, which are the foundation of Buddhism. The Truths are something like hypotheses and Buddhism might be defined as a process of verifying and realizing the truth of the Truths. Significance: A common rendering of the Truths tells us that life is suffering; suffering is caused by greed; suffering ends when we stop being greedy; the way to do that is to follow something called the Eightfold Path. 1. Suffering is everywhere and nothing is forever. 2. Suffering is caused by wants. 3. To end suffering you must give up all your cravings. 4. The only way to give up all cravings is to live by the Eightfold Path
Definition: Hinduism is an Indian religion, or a way of life, widely practiced in South Asia. Hinduism has been called the oldest religion in the world, and some practitioners and scholars refer to it as Sanātana Dharma, "the eternal tradition," or the "eternal way," beyond human history. Significance: Serves as a source of unification in the countries where it is practiced. Interestingly enough, Hinduism does not have the history of sectarian violence that seems to plague the Abrahamic religions. Date: No real date founded since there are a variety of factions - time frame?
Hinduism
Moksha
Moksha Definition: Enlightenment; complete liberation from the bonds of karma and samsara Significance: Moksha means liberation from the wheel of Samsara - which is an on-going circle of life and death that is also concomitant with eternal suffering (dukkha). So the significance of Moksha is the liberation from the cycle and the achievement of Nirvana - the eternal state of bliss.
Polytheism
Polytheism Definition: The belief in many gods. Polytheism characterizes virtually all religions other than Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, which share a common tradition of monotheism, the belief in one God. Significance: Basically the opposite of what Abrahamic religions believe. Their monotheistic nature is what sets them apart.
Puja
Puja Definition: The act of showing reverence to a god, a spirit, or another aspect of the divine through invocations, prayers, songs, and rituals. An essential part of puja for the Hindu devotee is making a spiritual connection with the divine. Significance: The mundane purpose of a puja is to please the god and fulfill one's desire or overcome some problem. The highest purpose of it is to serve God and declare one's love and devotion to him without expectations.
Rules of Propriety
Rules of Propriety Definition: The rules of propriety offered a code of accepted behaviour that demonstrated to themselves and others that they were cultured and proper gentlemen. For Confucius, the gentleman knew and behaved according to the rules of propriety. Significance: In the first chapter of Analects, Yu-Tzu gives the value of the rules of propriety. "Among the functions of propriety the most valuable is that it establishes harmony. The Way of the ancient kings from this harmony got its beauty. It is the guiding principle of all things great and small. If things go amiss, and he who knows the harmony tries to achieve it without regulating it by the rules of propriety, they will still go amiss.
Samsara
Samsara Definition: The process of reincarnation is called samsara, a continuous cycle in which the soul is reborn over and over again according to the law of action and reaction. At death many Hindus believe the soul is carried by a subtle body into a new physical body which can be a human or non-human form (an animal or divine being) Significance: The concept of Samsara in Buddhism teaches that human beings have the ultimate control over themselves. If people use the laws of Buddhism in daily living and practice Metta, or loving kindness, they will eventually reach self-acceptance. This helps begin the journey to accepting others and to eventual enlightenment. Only then will the cycle of Samsara be broken
Santa Muerte
Santa Muerte Definition: A female deity (or folk saint depending on school of thought) in Mexican folk religion, particularly Folk Catholicism, venerated primarily in Mexico and the Southwestern United States. A personification of death, she is associated with healing, protection, and safe delivery to the afterlife by her devotees. Significance: The cult of Santa Muerte is present throughout the strata of Mexican society, although the majority of devotees are from the urban working class. Most are young people, aged in their teens, twenties, or thirties, and are also mostly female. A large following developed among Mexicans who are disillusioned with the dominant, institutional Catholic Church and, in particular, with the inability of established Catholic saints to deliver them from poverty
Siddhartha Gautama
Siddhartha Gautama Definition: Gautama is the primary figure in Buddhism. He is recognized by Buddhists as an enlightened teacher who attained full Buddhahood, and shared his insights to help sentient beings end rebirth and suffering. Accounts of his life, discourses, and monastic rules are believed by Buddhists to have been summarized after his death and memorized by his followers. Various collections of teachings attributed to him were passed down by oral tradition and first committed to writing about 400 years later. Significance: He is the highest person and founder of Buddhism. In Abrahamic religions, God is the highest one. In Buddhism, Buddha is the highest being. He was born as a human being, being enlightened and became Buddha, taught the four Noble Truths to others, as a result, other super-natural beings and human beings realize the four Noble Truths and liberated from Samsara and attain Nirvana.
