Research (Chapter 4)

Correlation Coefficients

A number that indicates the free and direction of the relationship between two variables. Correlation coefficients are calculated by a formula that produces a number ranging from +1.00 to -1.00. The sign (+ or -) indicates the direction of the correlation, positive (+) or negative (-). The number (0 to +1.00 or 0 to -1.00) indicates the strength of the relationship. Note that both +1.00 and -1.00 are the strongest possible relationship. As the number decreases and gets closer to 0.00, the relationship weakens.

Positive Correlation

A postive correlation is one in which the two variables move (or vary) in the same direction - the two factors increase or decrease together. Ex. There is a positive correlation between hours of study and scores on exams. When studying increases, exam scores increase.

Operational Definition

A precise description of how the variables in a study will be observed and measured (for example, drug abuse might be operationally defined as 'the number of missed work days due to excessive use of an addictive substance'.)

Confidentiality

All information acquired about people during a study must be kept private and not published in such a way that individual rights to privacy are compromised.

Alternative Activities

All participants must be given the choice of an alternative activity of equal value.

Key Features of an Experiment

An experiment has several key components: Independent and dependent variables, and experimental versus control groups.

Step 4:

Analyze the data and accept or reject the hypothesis. After we have designed the study and collected the survey results, the "raw data" must be analyzed to determine whether the findings support or reject our initial hypothesis. To do such an analysis, psychologists use mathematical methods called statistics to organize, summarize, and interpret numerical data.

Respecting the Rights of Nonhuman Animal Participants

Animal care committees are established to ensure proper treatment of research animals, to review projects, and to set guidelines that are in accordance with the APA standards for the care and treatment of nonhuman (and human) research animals.

Ethnocentrism

Believing that one's culture is typical of all cultures; also, viewing one's own ethnic group (or culture) as central and "correct" and judging others according to this standard. One way to avoid this problem is to have two researchers, one from one culture and one from another, conduct the same research study two times, once in their own culture and once in at lest one other culture.

Experiment

Carefully controlled scientific procedure that involves manipulation of variables to determine cause and effect. Only through an experiment can researchers isolate a single factor and examine the effect of that factor alone on a particular behavior.

CT Scan

Computer created cross-sectional x-rays of the brain; least expensive type of imaging and widely used in research.

Strong vs. Weak Correlations

Consider the number (0 to +1.00 or 0 to -1.00). It represents the strength of the relationship. The cover to number is to 1.00, either positive or negative, the stronger the correlation between the variables. Thus, if you had a correlation of +.92 or -.92, you would have a high (or strong) correlation. On the other hand, a correlation of +.15 or -.15 would represent a low or weak correlation.

Control Groups

Croup receiving no treatment in an experiment .he control group members would be treated exactly the same way as whose in the experimental group, except that they would be assigned to a zero, or control, condition. This means they would not be exposed to any amount of the IV. Instead they would watch a nonviolent TV program for the same amount.

Basic Research

Definition: Research conducted to advance scientific knowledge. Typically conducted in universities or research laboratories by researchers interested in exploring new theories and advancing general scientific understanding - knowledge for its own sake without known real-world uses. Basic research meets the first three goals of psychology (description, explanation and prediction).

Applied Research

Definition: Research designed to solve practical problems. Generally conducted outside the laboratory. And it meets the fourth goal of psychology - to change existing real-world problems. Discoveries linking aggression to testosterone, genes, learning, and other factors came primarily from basic research. In contrast, applied research has designed programs for conflict resolution and counseling for perpetrators and victims of violence. It also has generated important safety and design improvements in automobiles, airplanes, and even stovetop burner arrangements.

Debate on Using Animals for Research

Despite the advantages, using nonhuman animals in psychological research continues to be a controversial and ethical problem. Opponents argue that, unlike humans, other animals cannot give informed consent. They also question the so-called benefits of nonhuman animal research, especially considering the animals' suffering and loss of freedom. Proponents counter by saying that most nonhuman animal research involved naturalistic observation or learning experiments using rewards rather than punishments. Furthermore, most research does not involve pain, suffering, or deprivation. While the debate continues, psychologists take great care in the handling of nonhuman research animals. They also actively search for new and better ways to protect them.

Step 2:

Develop a testable hypothesis. Once the review of literature is completed, our next step would be to develop a testable hypothesis. A hypothesis may or may not be correct. It only provides a possible explanation for a behavior or mental process that can be scientifically investigated. To be fully testable, a hypothesis must be formulated precisely (as opposed to vaguely or loosely). And the variables under study must be operationally defined, or stated in observable terms.

Therapist and Client relationship and procedure

Ethics are important in therapy as well as in research. Successful psychotherapy requires that clients reveal their innermost thoughts and feelings during the course of treatment. It follows, then, that clients must trust their therapists. This places a burden of responsibility on the therapist to maintain the highest of ethical standards and uphold this trust. Therapists are expected to conduct themselves in a moral and professional manner. They should remain objective, while at the same time becoming sufficiently involved with the clients' problems to know how best to help them. They should also encourage their clients to become involved and committed to a mutually agreeable treatment plan. In addition, therapists are expected to evaluate their clients progress and report that progress to them.

Experimental Safeguards

Every experiment is designed to answer essentially the same question: Does the IV cause the predicted change in the DV? To answer this question, the experimenter must establish several safeguards. In addition to the previously mentioned controls within the experiment itself (e.g. operational definitions having a control group, and holding extraneous variables constant, a good scientific experiment also protects against potential sources of errr from the researcher and the participant.

Independent Variable

Experimental factor manipulated to determine its causal effect on the dependent variable. A factor that is selected and manipulated by the experimenter. Because the IV is free to be selected and varied by the experimenter, it is called independent.

Dependent Variable

Experimental factor that is measured; it is affected by (or dependent on) the independent variable. A measurable behavior (or outcome) exhibited by the participant in the experiment. The DV is called dependent because it is assumed to depend (at least in part) on manipulations of the IV.

Extraneous Variables

For both control and comparison groups, experimenters must ensure that all extraneous variables (those that are not being directly manipulated or measures) are held constant (the same).

Experimental Group

Group receiving treatment in an experiment. In the violence on tv and aggression example, the experimental group would be exposed to the IV in this case violent tv programs.

Step 1:

Identify questions and review the literature. When thinking of the questions 'should parents allow their children to sleep with them?', as psychologists we would use the first method of the scientific method and review the literature. This means we would carefully review that other professionals have to say about sleeping arrangements by searching and readying what has been published in major professional scientific journals.

Participant Problems and Solutions

In addition to potential problems from the researcher, several possibilities for error are associated with participants. These errors can be grouped under the larger categories of sample bias and participant bias.

What is some replications find contradictory results?

In this case, both the original and follow-up studies are publicly questioned and criticized in academic journal articles. When different studies report contradictory findings, researchers can also average or combine the results of all such studies and reach conclusions about the overall weight of the evidence. This method of averaging is called meta-analysis.

Case Study

In-depth study of a single research participant. In the case of such rare disorders, researchers try to find someone who has the problem and study him or her intensively.

Placebo

Inactive substance or fake treatment used as a control technique, usually in drug research given by a medical practitioner to a patient.

Debriefing

Informing participants after the research about the purpose of the study, the nature of the anticipated results, and any deceptions used.

Theory

Interrelated set of concepts that explain a body of data. Contrary to common usage, where the term theory refers to personal opinion and unproven assumptions, psychological theories are developed from careful research, empirical observation, and extensive reviews of existing literature.

Example of Applied Research

Led some sports stadium owners to limit the sale of alcohol during the final quarter of football games and the last two innings of baseball games.

Rights and Confidentiality of Therapists and Clients

Like guidelines for confidentiality in research, all personal information and therapy records must be kept confidential. Records are only available to authorized persons and with client permission. Such confidentiality can become an ethical issue when a client reveals something that might affect or possible injure another person. In cases of serious threat to others, the public's right to safety ethically outweighs the clients right to privacy. In fact, a therapist is legally required to break confidentiality if a client threatens violence to self or others, in cases involving suspected or actually child or elder abuse, and in some other limited situations.

Experimental Research

Manipulation and control of variables. The purpose is to identify cause and effect (meets the explanation goal of psychology). The advantages is that is allows researchers precise control over variables and to identify cause and effect. The disadvantages are the ethical concerns, practical limitations, artificially of lab conditions, uncontrolled variables may cofound results, and researcher and patient biases.

Scientific Methods 6 Steps

Most investigations involve six carefully planned steps, beginning with an identification of the questions of interest and review of the existing literature. The "end" with a return to theory building. Note that the steps are arranged in a circle, which symbolizes the circular, cumulative nature of science. One scientific study generally leads to additional and refined hypotheses, further studies clarification of the results, and improvement in the overall scientific knowledge base, known as theories.

Descriptive Research

Naturalistic observation, surveys, and case studies. The purpose is to observe, collect, and record data (meets the descriptive goal of psychology). The advantages are minimizing artificiality, easier to collect data, allows description of behavior and mental processes as they occur. The disadvantages is little or no control over variables, the researcher and participant biases, and you cannot explain the cause and effect.

Naturalistic Observation

Observation and recording of behavior in the participant's natural state of habitat. Occurs in the real world, without interfering in any way. Like a "fly on the wall", researchers stand in the back and observe what is happening naturally.

Clinical Observations/ Case Studies

Observing and recoding changes in personality, behavior, or sensory capacity associated with brain disease or injuries.

Clinical Observations/Case Studies

Observing and recording changes in personality, behavior, or sensory capacity associated with brain disease or injuries.

Participant Bias

Occurs when experimental conditions influence the participant's behavior or mental processes. For example, participants may try to present themselves in a good light (the social desirability response) or may deliberately attempt to mislead the researcher. They also may be less than truthful when asked embarrassing questions or placed in awkward experimental conditions. Finally, one of the most effective, but controversial, ways to prevent participant biases is deception. Just like unsuspecting subjects on popular TV programs, like a candid camera, research participants will behave naturally when they do not know they are part of a research project.

Sample Bias

Occurs when research participants are not representative of the larger population. using such a small group requires that the sample be reasonably similar to the composition of the population at large. If there is sample bias, experimental results may not truly reflect the influence of the independent variable.

Experimenter Bias

Occurs when researcher influences research results in the expected direction. The solution to this is to have blind observers, single and double blind studies, and placebos. An experimenter might breathe a sigh of relief when a participant gives a response that supports the researchers hypothesis.

Random/Representative Sampling

One way to ensure less bias and more relevance is to select participants who constitute a representative sample of the entire population of interest. Proper random sampling will likely produce a representative, unbiased sample.

Informed Consent

Participates agreement to take in a study after being told what to expect. Participants should be aware of the nature of the study and significant factors that might influence their willingness to participate. This includes all physical risks, discomfort, or unpleasant emotional experiences.

Misattribution of Arousal

Physiologically aroused individuals make mistaken inferences about what is causing the arousal.

Double-Blind Study

Procedure in which both the researcher and the participants are unaware (blind) of who is in the experimental or control group.

Step 5:

Publish, replicate and seek scientific review. To advance in any scientific discipline, researchers must share their work with one another and with the public. Thus, the fifth step in the scientific method begins when a researcher writes up the study and submits it to peer-reviewed scientific journals for publication (peer-reveled journals require other psychologists to evaluate all material submitted for publication.) Based on these peer reviews, the editors may accept or reject the study. Once a study is accepted and published, other scientists attempt to replicate, or repeat, the study. Replication increases scientific confidence if the findings are the same. If not, researchers look for explanations and conduct further studies. As responsible scientists, psychologists never accept a theory based on a single study. They wait for replication.

PET Scan

Radioactive form of glucose is injected into the bloodstream; scanner records amount of glucose used in particularly active areas of the brain and produces computer constructed picture of the brain.

Descriptive Research

Research methods that observe and record behavior without producing casual explanations.

Survey

Research technique that questions a large sample of people to access their behaviors and attitudes. One key advantage to surveys is that they can gather data from a much larger sample of people than is possible with other research methods. Unfortunately, most surveys help on self-reported data, and not all participant are completely honest. In addition, survey techniques cannot, of course, be used to explain causes of behavior. The major advantage of surveys is their role in predicting behavior.

Researcher Problems and Solutions

Researchers must guard against two particular problems - experimenter bias and ethnocentrism.

Biological Research

Scientific studies of the and other parts of the nervous system.

Correlational Research

Scientific study in which the researcher observes or measures (without directly manipulating) two or more variables to find the relationships between them. using the correlational method, researchers begin with their topic of interest, such as alcohol consumption during pregnancy. Then they select a group of study - in this case, pregnant women. After selecting the group, the researchers might survey or interview the selected group of women about the amount and timing of any alcohol use during their pregnancies. After the data are collected, the researchers analyze their results using statistical formula that results in a correlation coefficient, a numerical value that indicates the degree and direction of the relationship between the two variables.

Step 3:

Select a research method and collect data. The third step in the scientific method is to choose the best research to test our hypothesis and collect our data. We could choose naturalistic observation, case studies, surveys, experiments, and other methods.

Hypothesis

Specific prediction about how one variable relates to another.

Biological Research

Studies the brain and other parts of the nervous system. The purpose is to identify causation, as well as, description, and prediction (meets on or more of the four goals of psychology). The advantages is that it shares many or all of the advantages of experimental, descriptive, and correlational research. The disadvantages is that it shares many or all of the disadvantages of experimental, descriptive, and correlational research.

Ablation/Lesions

Surgically removing parts of the brain (ablation), or destroying specific areas of the brain (lesioning), is followed by observation for changes in behavior or mental processes.

Ethical Guidelines: Protecting the Rights of others

The preamble to the APA's publication ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct (1992) admonishes psychologists to retain objectivity in applying their skills. It also requires them to maintain their competence and to preserve the dignity and best interest of their clients, colleagues, students, research participants, and society.

Goal of any Experiment

To learn how the dependent variable is affected by (depends on) the independent variable.

Random Assignment

Using chance methods to assign participants to experimental or control conditions, thus minimizing the possibility of biases or preexisting differences in the groups. Random assignment ensures that each participant is equally likely to be assigned to any particular group and that difference among the participants will be spread out across all experimental conditions.

Example of Basic Research

Documented strong relationship between alcohol consumption and increased aggression.

Electrical Stimulation of the Brain

Using an electrode, a weak electric current stimulates specific areas or structures of the brain.

Electrical Recordings

Using electrodes attached to a person's or animal's skin or scalp, brain activity is recorded to produce an electroencephalogram.

MRI

A high frequency magnetic field is passed through the brain by means of electromagnets.

Negative Correlation

A negative correlation is on in which the two factors vary in opposite directions. As one factor increases, the other factor decreases. Ex. The more hours you work or party outside of college, the lower your exam scores.

FMRI

A newer, faster version of the MRI that detects blood flow by picking up magnetic signals from blood that has given up its oxygen to activate brain cells.

Step 6:

Build a theory - and then the cycle continues. Step 1 through 5 involved reviewing the literature, formulating a hypothesis, conducting the research, analyzing the data, and publishing the findings so thy can be replicated and reviewed. After one or more studies on a given topic, researchers may advance a theory to explain their results.

Brain Dissection

Careful cutting and study of a cadaver brain to reveal structural details.

Potential Problems With Correlations

Correlation does not imply causation. However, usually there is a third variable that may cause the two to connect.

Why do researchers try to hide?

If participants know someone is watching, their behavior becomes unnatural. The chief advantage of naturalistic observation is that researchers can obtain data about a truly natural behavior virus possibly artificial behavior created in laboratory. One the downside naturalistic observation can be difficult and time consuming. Furthermore the lack of control by the researcher can be difficult to conduct observations for behaviors that occur infrequently.

Restricted use of deception and debriefing

If participants know the true purpose behind some studies, they will almost certainly not respond naturally. Therefore, the APA acknowledges the need for some deception in certain research areas. But when it is used, important guidelines and restrictions apply, including debriefing participants at the end of the experiment.

Zero Correlation

On some occasions, researchers will discover that there is no relationship between two variables - a zero correlations. Ex. There is no relation (zero correlation) exists between your birthday and exam scores.

Voluntary Participation

Participants should be told they are free to decline to participate or to withdraw from the research at any time.

Why do we have strict standardized scientific procedures?

So others - lay people as well as scientists - can understand, interpret, and repeat or test their findings. Most scientific investigations generally involve six basic steps.

Correlational Research

Statistical analysis of relationships between variables. The purpose is to identify relationships and how well one variable predicts another (meets the predictive goal of psychology). The advantages are that it helps clarify relationships between variables that cannot be examined by other methods and allows prediction. The disadvantages are that researchers cannot identify cause and effect.

Meta-Analysis

Statistical procedure for combining and analyzing data from many studies.