Research Methods #4
An example of an unclear agent and how to fix it.
"Studies on the rat show that the activity levels vary predictably during the day (Hatter 1976)" (this is bad because this sentence emphasizes that studies show this, when they likely meant to emphasize that rat activity levels vary. Also, it is unclear in this sentence who's activity levels are varied. So get rid of excess verbs) Better: - Rat activity levels vary predictably during the day (Hatter 1976): this is best if the most important point is that the activity levels vary. - Rats vary their activity levels predictably during the day (Hatter 1976): this I best if the most important point is that rats themselves vary their own activity - Hatter (1976) showed that rats vary their activity predictably during the day.: this is best if the most important part of the sentence is that a discovery was made by Hatter.
Example of a good introduction
(1) People automatically and reliably regulate the distance maintained between themselves and others during social interaction. (2) Personal space, defined as the area individuals maintain around themselves into which intrusion by others causes discomfort, is one mechanism by which this automatic regulation of interpersonal distance is achieved. (3) However, little is known regarding the neural substrates of personal space. (2) One candidate brain region is the amygdala, since studies and nonhuman primates have found that this structure is involved in social approach and avoidance. (4) Here we show that one's sense of personal space is dependent on the amygdala.
1. Content & structure
- Accurate and logical information - Correct format; everything in the right place • Background in the Introduction • Data in the Results • Subjective interpretation in the Discussion - Internal consistency • Consistency between section (format, voice, style etc.) • Consistency between written results and figures/tables
Active vs Passive examples
- Active Voice: Lisa hugged Bart - Passive Voice: Bart was hugged by Lisa - Active Voice: I heard it through the grapevine - Passive Voice: It was heard by me through the grapevine
Where should you put your data?
- Always in order of appearance (first table/figure is Table 1/Figure 1, second is Table 2/Figure 2, etc) - For a published paper they are fit into the text, as soon after they are referred to as possible. When you submit the paper, usually separate or at the end and on individual pages. - Typically for a university report/paper (sometimes thesis), these are at the end, following all text (including references. In the order they were referred to in your text.
Excluding data in your report
- Careful! - Removing data that you obtained because it is inconsistent with overall trends, or goes against expectations is data falsification. - However, if you have a valid, objective reason for excluding data, this can be acceptable (not falsification), but exclusions and reason must be clearly stated (ex. Not reporting every single run of an experiment that you do because maybe you messed up i.e. the experiment is flawed. A subjective reason would be if you as an individual didn't like the data).
The methods section of a paper/report
- Difficulty typically lies in achieving a good level of detail - Balance between brevity/conciseness and completeness - Enough for the reader to fully understand (and repeat if necessary) the study, but without any non-essential information - Most journals now allow authors to supply a detailed Methods section as an online supplement without space restrictions
Revising for Conciseness: Eliminate weak verbs
- Eliminate the weak or redundant verbs • Look for forms of "to be" (is, was, being...), and modify • Often found along with unnecessary prepositions • Look for strings of verbs and remove excess
Titles for lab reports and papers
- For lab reports and papers, make sure your title describes what you actually did - This will be a first demonstration that you understood the point of the exercise Example: BIO-3310 Lab Report #2 versus The relationships between obesity and colon cancer versus Results from literature search on the relationship between obesity and colon cancer
Style of the results section
- In previous generations, many scientists felt that Results should exclusively present data (Pechenik favors this approach) - Contemporary scientists focus on narrative approach, and incorporate additional text as needed to guide the audience • E.g., start with a reminder of the objectives or approach
What is the purpose of the discussion
- Interpret the findings presented in the Results • Discuss you subjective thoughts and ideas - Explain the major findings by placing them in a broader context (refer to previous publications) - Implications of your findings Finish your story: the Results told us what you found; the Discussion should tell us what it mean
Purpose of the results section
- Present your findings (the "news"), without editorializing • Should be objective - Save for the Discussion: explanations and implications of Results
What to include in the results section
- Results from all methods described - There should not be results for which the methods used to obtain them are not described - They are constructed around a series of Figures & Tables that present the data (papers are self-sufficient delivery vehicles for new findings)
How to talk about the data in the text
- Text should summarize trend (broad patterns in your data), shown in Figures and Tables. • Refer readers to relevant Tables/Figures when describing specific trends • Tell the reader what you conclude (objectively) from the data - Results should describe & complement -- not repeat -- data in Tables/Figures
What is the goal of organizing your work?
- To covey ideas.
Paragraph
- a collection of sentences that make one main point - Flow of ideas in the paragraph should be clear and logical - When you transition to a new subject, start a new paragraph
What not to include in an abstract
-Any figures or tables -Lengthy background info -References to other literature -Undefined abbreviations or acronyms (again, needs to be self-sufficient)
2. The writing
-Information must be easy to follow - Topic sentences relates to every sentence in the paragraph - Sentences have clear subject-verb order (subject before verb or subject close to verb and no long interruptions between subject and verb) - Ideas flow well in the paragraph - No inappropriate compound sentences with too many ideas in a single sentence
What is important to include in the methods section?
-To ensure reproducibility of the study -To demonstrate the validity of the study; the methods chosen, as well as the results and conclusions that follow. - Methods section must convince readers that the study has Internal & External reliability -Validity: the credibility of experimental results and the degree to which the results can be applied to the general population of interest
Why is the methods section often the first section written?
-Typically relatively straightforward; no interpretation, just reporting what you did -Good to "get this out" while still fresh in your mind -Helps review what you have done and why in an orderly way; sets a good tone for writing the remaining sections -Can even be helpful to draft your methods section before carrying out your study, to make sure you are clear on all that needs to be done and why. This helps identify anything missed or needing clarification before starting
Examples of good topic sentences and narrative
1. "To directly test the functional consequences of PTCHD1-AS deletions we generated iPSCs from two male probands with ASD"... 2. "iPSCs were differentiated into neural precursor cells and cortical neurons"... 3. "Having determined that neurons express PTCHD1 and PTCHD1-AS, we next verified that these neurons were functional"... 4. "To examine functional synapses we measured miniature excitatory post- synaptic currents"...
Deciding on your title
1. Answer the following questions: What is my paper about? What techniques/designs were used? Who/what is studied? What were the results? 2. Use your answers to list key words 3. Build a sentence with these key words 4. Delete all unnecessary words (e.g. study of, investigates) and repetitive words; link the remaining 5. Delete non-essential information and reword
Revising for completeness
1. Bring in any missing info 2. Add any additional references 3. Be specific (e.g. "many" is not specific) 4. Replace "etc." With words of substance
Specific issues addressed in the Discussion
1. Compare results with expectations - What did you expect and why? - Reference previous studies for context 2. Explanations for unanticipated results - Confounding (unexpected) variables? - How could you test possible explanations? 3. Compare your results with those of related studies - Support, conflict, build-upon, complement? - If different, why? (compare methodology etc...) 4. Limitations/weaknesses - No study is perfect: acknowledge limitations - What impact do they have on your interpretations? 5. Future directions - What's next? What further research should be done? 6. Importance and application - How do they influence knowledge/understanding of the problem? - Are there any potential applications for your findings?
Hallmarks of a well-written paper
1. Content & structure 2. The writing
What to do and what not to do in a methods section (#1)
1. Do not list all the materials that you used in a separate statement. Rather, mention the materials in substantive statements where you describe what you did with them - Incorrect: I obtained 4 paper cups, a plastic spoon, 400 g of potting soil, and 12 radish seeds. I labelled the cups and planted 3 seeds per cup, using the plastic spoon to cover the seeds with about 1 cm of soil. - Correct: I planted 3 radish seeds each in four individually marked paper cups, covering the seeds with about 1cm of potting so
First draft vs revisions
1. First draft is mostly for the writer - Getting information on the page is the priority 2. Revisions must prioritize the reader - Will members of your intended audience understand and follow what you are saying? - Information in the correct section? - Flow of ideas: Logical order? Smooth transitions?
Outline of the Introduction of a paper:
1. General background: Introduce the subject, and say why it is important 2. Specific background: Narrow down to the specific subject your paper will address - Give your readers the details they need to understand the system, and nothing more; your job is to equip your readers, not to showcase your knowledge 3. Knowledge gap: After discussing what we know, articulate what we don't know, focusing on the question that motivated the work 4. "Here we show..." In the last paragraph, very briefly summarize your methods and your findings
For effective science writing follow these 4 steps
1. Get it down, even rough, ugly, too long and incomplete 2. Get it right (factually correct, balanced) 3. Get it pretty. Now is the time to do some sentence caressing (mostly in the lead sentences). 4. Getitout!
Evolution of titles
1. Historically, titles accurately described what was done: "A direct measurement of the radiation sensitivity of normal mouse bone marrow cells" 2. Modern titles focus on the key findings and conclusions: "Identification of human brain tumour initiating cells"
Internal and external validity
1. Internal: the degree to which conclusions drawn from an experiment correctly describe what actually transpired during the study. -Can experimental outcomes be attributed to the manipulation of independent variables, and not to the facts of confounding variables? 2. External: Whether (and to what degree) the results of a study can be generalized to a larger population - How are subjects selected to participate in a study and the use of design approaches, such as randomization, to limit the potential bias in how subjects are assigned to treatment groups
Example of relative vs relatively
1. Many of the animals living near deep-sea hydrothermal vents are relatively large (bad- relative to what?) VS 2. Many of the animals living near deep-sea hydrothermal vents are large relative to their shallow water counterparts (good)
Paragraph structure in effective writing
1. Paragraphs should begin with a great lead sentence, which is interesting, and says what the paragraph is about 2. Remainder of the paragraph should elaborate on the lead sentence 3. Recommended: end paragraphs with a concluding statement (tell the reader what to take away from the paragraph)
Grey areas in the writing of Discussions
1. Should you discuss all of your results? - For university classes? YES - Rare in modern science writing • It risks redundancy; not concise; often boring • Should mostly focused on results that need or merit discussion 2. Should you refer to specific Figures/Tables? - For university classes? YES - Modern authors are divided (some do it, some don't) • Disadvantage: impairs "flow/rhythm" of Discussion
What are the goals of the introduction?
1. State the problem and "set the stage" - Provide enough background to let the readers know the relevance of the issue and to justify your objectives 2. State the objectives AND the hypotheses (if you are doing experiments) - The source of the information must be clear
Subject-verb order
1. Subject should come before the verb Example: - "Powerful Jedi was he" - "He (subject) was (verb) a powerful Jedi" 2. The subject should be close to the verb - Example of bad writing: My grandfather (subject), who until recently suffered from a range of health ailments, including but not limited to chronic fatigue and muscle aches, in addition to sporadic coughing fits, missed (verb) his doctor's appointment.
Sequence of information in an abstract
1. The problem your study has addressed 2. The specific objectives 3. Basic design; key techniques 4. Major findings that answer the questions posed by your study (be specific; refer to data; avoid vague statements) 5. Very brief summary of interpretations/conclusions
Example of a good reference to a figure
1. The results are shown in Figure 2 (bad) 2. Extracts of fungal strains F2 and F14 inhibited the growth of at least 12 bacterial strains (Fig. 2)
What are the correct situations to use passive voice?
1. When the doer of the action is unknown - E.g, The lease was sent back without a signature 2. When the receiver merits more prominence than the doer - E.g., Ebola was detected 3. When the doer is known but tact (or cowardice) imposes reticence - E.g., The last of the chocolate ice cream was missing - E.g., Mistakes were made
What to do and what not to do in a methods section (#2)
2. Describe methods chronologically, in the order they were carried out (BUT summarize steps that are similar or repeated at different times) i.e. don't repeat information -Example: Neuronal differentiation iPSCs were differentiated into NPCs and neurons using the Brennand protocol and two variations... The Brennand protocol was performed as previously described with slight modifications (Brennand et al., 2011)... 349 word description... The Brennand + DAPT protocol [was identical to the Brennand protocol], except that the neuronal differentiation medium is supplemented with 2.5 μM DAPT (Sigma).
Deciding on your title process example
2. Use your answers to list key words - My paper studies whether X therapy improves the cognitive function of patients suffering from dementia (Key word: X therapy) - It was a randomized trial (Key word: randomized trial) - I studied 40 cases from six cities in Japan (Key word: 6 Japanese cities; 40 cases) - There was an improvement in the cognitive function of patients (Key word: improved cognitive function) 3. Build a sentence - This study is a randomized trial that investigates whether X therapy improved cognitive function in 40 dementia patients from 6 cities in Japan; it reports improved cognitive function. 4. Delete all unnecessary/repetitive words; link the remaining - Randomized trial X therapy improves cognitive function in 40 dementia patients from 6 cities in Japan (all unnecessary words removed but not linked) -Randomized trial of X therapy for improving cognitive function in 40 dementia patients from 6 cities in Japan (linked) 5. Deleted non-essential information and rewords - Randomized trial of X therapy for improving cognitive function in dementia patients OR - X therapy improves cognitive function in dementia patients: a randomized trial
What to do and what not to do in a methods section (#3)
3. Don't list steps; your text should read as a narrative of what you have done - E.g. Instead of the following example of listing steps: First pour agar into six petri plates. Then inoculate the plates with the bacteria. Then put the plates into the incubator - Describe how the experiment was done: Six petri plates were prepared with agar and inoculated with the bacteria. The plates were then incubated for ten hours.
What to do and what not to do in a methods section (#4)
4. Explain why something was used or done if it doesn't necessarily seem clear- especially non-standard methods or deviations from parametrization of standard methods (this includes your statistical analysis). Do not provide a rationale for the study in general (this is in the intro), but for the specific methods that you will use to do it.
What to do and what not to do in a methods section (#5)
5. Typically use the past tense -An exception is in writing a methods section for a proposal, describing what you will do.
What to do and what not to do in a methods section (#6)
6. Include, as relevant to your study: -Name and model of equipment or supplies used (including supplier and catalog number) -Concentrations and quantities of solutions used -Correct scientific terminology -A description of your study site, study organism, or model, demographics of your sample - Descriptive names of groups, variables, or treatments (ie. "10% NaCl solution" instead of "Treatment 1") -References to previous studies (e.g. on which the description of your study site is based), or tables or figures relevant to your methods (e.g. a table detailing treatments in your experiment, a map of your study site) - Data (statistical) analyses (e.g. t-tests, 1-way ANOVA, values used in the analyses, visual charts and plots, etc.) - Sub-sections, if there is enough information/detail to warrant them
What to do and what not to do in a methods section (#7)
7. Get feedback on a draft of your methods from a peer or colleague if possible- would they be able to reproduce your study with the information provided?
Specific format of journal articles
Abstract -Introduction -Materials & methods - Results - Discussion -Conclusion Acknowledgements Literature cited Research articles should have all these components. These can be combines or moved, depending on policies of the journal. What is important is that material corresponds to heading.
Examples of weak verb revisions
Activation of immune responses may be a trigger for disease progression - Revised: Immune responses may trigger disease progression (strong verb) The results were interpreted as indicating that immune rates increased over time - Revised: The results indicated that immune rates increased over time
Various forms of in text citations
At the beginning of the sentence or at the end of a sentence. - If you have two sentences in a row that use the same citation, instead of putting an in-text citation after both sentences, only put it after the first one. You can have two in-text citations in one sentence as well.
Clunky example
Bad: For many people the reality of an entry into a new area of employment is cause for a host of anxieties (21 words) Fixed: Changing careers makes many people anxious (6 words)
Where are sub-headings normally used?
Commonly used in some sections of articles, but not others: - Introduction - Rarely include subheadings (extremely rare) - Methods - almost always include subheadings - Results - almost always include subheadings - Discussion - rarely include subheadings; depends on the journal
Results section
Communicates objective findings - Objective refers to objects and events that, in principle, anyone can observe
Discussion section
Communicates subjective interpretation of results - Subjective refers to feelings and experiences that depend on the individual's own viewpoints and traits
Types of sub-sections/sub-headings
Examples: -study site -study organism -data collection -data analysis -In biomedical studies, sub-headings are usually divided by technique -Use informative (descriptive) sub-headings -Good idea to look at sub-sections of similar studies -Sub-headings are useful... for the writer and the reader -Good for organization, and makes section easily searchable
Figures and tables in the results section
For every trend you report, the data must be displayed or summarized in a Figure or Table
Organizing your work
For papers and exams in courses, you are expected to synthesize an idea, not just provide a list of facts. This means you must demonstrate understanding and you must organize information for effective communication.
How to approach revision
Hardest (start here) 1. "High level" structural reorganization of ideas 2. Revise for content (are your statements correct?) 3. Revise for clarity (do the ideas make sense?) 4. Revise for completeness (is information missing?) 5. Reviseforconciseness(removeunnecessarywords) 6. Revise for flow (link ideas by connecting sentences) 7. Revise for grammar and word use Easiest
Idea mapping
Helpful for deciding the order in which to present the data in the Figures & Tables - Logical flow and simplicity are ideal - Sometimes chronological order is best (e.g., field studies performed at multiple time points)
Correct trend statements for a figure or table example
Incorrect: At 0.1 and 2C, the increase in size was 0cm, then at 3C, the increase was 1cm, at 4C, the increase was 2.5cm... Correct: There was a positive relationship between temperature and growth above 3C, such that as temperature increased, so did the increase in body size (Figure 1)
Compound sentence examples
Incorrect: It is nearly 5:30pm, we can't reach town before dark Correct: It is nearly 5:30pm, and we can't reach town before dark Correct: It is nearly 5:30pm; we can't reach town before dark
News
Just the facts, written by journalist(s) Ex: Woman who flipped off Trump says she was fired for it.
Revising for clarity: say what you mean
Make sure your sentence says what you think it does e.g., "Ferguson (1963) examined autoradiographs of sea star digestive tissue after being fed radioactive clams"; Who ate the radioactive clams? • Careful when saying "relative" or "relatively" - Relative to what? Be clear and specific
Materials and methods
Materials: What was examined, treatments, instruments Methods: Manipulation carried out to answer experimental questions, how measurements and calculations were made, how data were analyzed • Regarding equipment & materials: what you used, how much, how often, where, when and why • What experiments were done • How resulting data were assessed
Verb tense in the discussion
May use various verb tenses, as appropriate: - Past: References to specific results - Present: References to conclusions drawn - Future: References to future research directions
The abstract needs to be...
Needs to be concise, accurate, and self-contained. If someone were only to read the abstract, they would be able to fully follow and have a good sense of what you did.
Where many scientists disagree with Pechenik:
Pechenik says that Results sections should NOT include: 1. Why the experiment was performed 2. If the results were expected, unexpected, interesting, etc. MOST CONTEMPORARY SCIENTISTS DISAGREE • Why should this information be acceptable in the results? It helps storytelling • Example from Nobel Laureate Thomas Sudhof (Pak et al (2015) Cell Stem Cell 17:316-328) - "Because the phenotype of heterozygous NRXN1 mutations in iN cells was surprisingly severe when compared to the lack of a phenotype in similar mouse mutants (Fig. S1), we asked whether this phenotype may be specific to neurons produced by the iN cell method".
What is the purpose of the abstract? Why is it important?
Purpose: - Summarize the major aspects of the entire paper in one (short) paragraph. Typical length is 150-300 words and ~5-10 sentences. Important: -Allows reader to decide whether or not they are interested in reading the rest of your paper -May be the only part of the paper many readers can access electronically. Therefore important to include enough key information to make sure it is useful in such cases.
External and internal validity examples
Searching for internal validity: gene X causes lethality in mice - Given the following methods information, is that conclusion valid? (NO) • Negative control vector (encoding a non-toxic gene) was not tested • After purification, vectors were not dialyzed to remove toxic CsCl (this is a confounding variable) Searching for external validity: Americans are happier in 2018 - Given the following information, is this study broadly generalizable? (NO) • Based on survey of stock market investors • Average respondent was 58 years old
Example of significant vs significantly
Seedlings grew significantly faster at higher temperatures versus Seedlings grew notably faster at higher temperatures versus Seedlings grew significantly faster at higher temperatures (p < 0.01, t-test)
Editorial
Subjective opinion from journalist(s) or pundit(s) Ex: cyclist who flipped off Trump shouldn't have gotten fired
What is the "agent"?
The individual who is doing the action
What must a scientific paper explain?
The paper must explain the motivation and the outcome of a research study, and provide enough evidence to establish the validity of this outcome
Active Voice
The subject is doing the action
Passive Voice
The target of the action gets promoted to the subject (indirect, sometimes confusing, usually not concise)
What is the purpose of the introduction?
To provide background and rationale
What happens when ideas and links are not clear?
When ideas and links are not clear, you risk misinterpretations by your reader(s)
When you write, the goal is to... When you read, the goal is to...
When you write, the goal is to convey ideas. When you read, the goal is to follow the information. As a writer, make this as easy as possible. -When links are not made or not clear (among sentences, ideas, sections), the reader tends to invent them, and may misinterpret. When you write, it is your responsibility to communicate clearly.
Should you endlessly rework a sentence?
Word processors encourage endless reworking of a sentence, to get it 'perfect'. Don't do this. It is a time waster that creates the illusion of effective progress.
Examples of verb tense in the results section
[past tense] {present tense} "[Notably, knockdown of MBNL1 in human fibroblasts expressing OKSM also resulted in an approximate twofold increase in the appearance of iPSC colonies] (Fig. 4g, h). {MBNL proteins thus have a conserved, negative regulatory role in somatic cell reprogramming.}" To examine dendrite morphology, we [labeled] individual neurons with green fluorescent protein (Fig. 4C). We [found] no change in total dendrite length in neurons from ASD subjects (Fig. 4D). Therefore, disruption of PTCHD1-AS {has} no effect on the morphology of neuronal dendrite
Result vs Discussion
analogous to News vs Editorial
Narrative style
telling a story as a series of related & connected events. We prioritize narrative style, active voice, and first person perspective to tell a story
When contextualizing your results...
you must appropriately summarize/cite other papers; not as background, but as explanation.
Revising for Clarity: sentence construction
• A sentence should convey a complete thought - Sentences end with a period (.) (or ? or !) • Every sentence contains a clause: - Group of words that contain a subject and a verb • A compound sentence consists of two or more clauses - Joined by a conjunction (e.g.: and, but, so) or by a semicolon (;) - Do not use a comma alone to join two independent clauses
Revising: General points
• Address structural organization first - First drafts are usually poorly organized; hard to read - Idea mapping helps • Revision always requires more than one "pass" - As you fix major problems, minor issues become obvious • Give yourself at least three days to revise - Distance/time allow you to see problems more easily
Revising for Clarity: when to use a comma
• After transitional words or phrases e.g., However, ...; Consequently,... ; As a result, ... e.g., I like cake. However, I do not like ice cream. • Before a conjunction that joins two independent clauses - e.g., I like cake, and I ice cream • Before "which" (e.g., I slept for 8 hours, which is very unusual) • As parentheses (e.g., Janet, who lives next door, likes cake) • To separate list items (e.g., butter, eggs, sugar, and flour) Note: Oxford (or serial) coma optional, but often improves clarity
Revising for Clarity: be specific
• Avoid using pronouns (it, they, their, this, them) - only use pronouns to avoid repetition • Goal is to avoid ambiguity - If the reader must figure out information for themselves, you risk potential misunderstandings • E.g., "Tropical countries are home to both venomous and nonvenomous snakes. They kill their prey by constriction or by biting and swallowing them." (who are they?)
Use of "significant" & "signficantly"
• Be careful when using the terms significant/significantly • Implies that statistical analyses were performed • If you mean "notable" or "important", use such a word • If you say significant/significantly, readers expect to see stats
Purpose of a scientific paper
• Every paper should describe an original research finding • Papers must be both informative and highly-readable (clear, accurate, concise) • Aim of a scientific paper - convince readers that the research is important, valid, and relevant
Good and bad examples of colon use
• Examples: which is incorrect? A. I need the following items: butter, sugar, and flour B. I want: a raise, benefits, and more vacation (bad) C. He blamed his divorce on one thing: beer. D. I need an assistant to perform three specific tasks: input data, write reports, and complete tax returns.
What should you include in an introduction?
• Explain why you performed this study; why it was important • Provide background: - State the problem, and what has already been done - State the hypothesis and objectives - Provide the information that your reader will need Although the reading, thinking and information-gathering for the introduction takes place early in study design, this section will often be written after the Methods and Results sections
The title - importance cannot be overstated
• Extremely concise summary of your key findings (lengths vary; commonly 10-15 words) • Allows potential readers to assess relevance • Use descriptive words that highlight the core content of the paper • Exciting keywords and firm conclusions help attract attention from editors and readers • DO NOT oversell your results - false representation in science can lead to swift (and sometimes brutal) backlash
Reasons for learning to write in scientific paper format
• Format (roughly) followed in many course assignments • Develop the following skills: - Organization of ideas - Clear, concise, and accurate communication • Important in helping you read the scientific literature: To critically evaluate results of papers we need to understand the research process, which includes the scientific paper
Passive voice in scientific writing
• Historically, science writing was dominated by passive voice, third person perspective, and "weak" verbs, but it is an "Impassionate" writing style and focuses on the action, not the person doing it. • Modern science writing embraces concise active voice; first- person perspective is increasingly common
What if the results are not as you anticipated?
• If your methods were designed and carried-out correctly, the results are valid and should be reported • Unfortunately, some valid results are less likely to be published or reported (publication bias) - "Uninteresting" results often don't get reported - Studies with negative results (i.e., failed to reject the null hypothesis) are VERY DIFFICULT to get published
What kinds of things can you do to revise content?
• Is your writing factually accurate? • Does every sentence say something meaningful? • Make sure your writing is self-sufficient - Define abbreviations, acronyms, technical terms at first use - Include references to figures, tables, and citations in substantive sentences
Revising for Clarity: when to use colons (:)
• Means "that is to say" or "here is what I mean" • Only used after a complete statement • Often used to introduce one or more items • NOT INTERCHANGEABLE WITH A SEMICOLON
What NOT to include in the Discussion
• No new results or data (keep those in the Results) • No new methods • Do not repeat extensive details of methods or results (already reported in appropriate sections) • No new information unrelated to your findings - This is not an essay; you should be focused on your findings and what they mean
Objectives vs hypotheses
• Not all "studies" are "experiments" • An experiment requires that variables be manipulated • Some studies are descriptive, and not hypothesis-driven - Process: observe, record, describe - Typically frowned-upon modern biologists because usually an experiment is preferred - The term "descriptive" is used to deride or dismiss studies
Example of an experiment
• Objective: Test whether voluntary exercise promotes recovery from clinical depression. • Alternative (null) hypotheses: - Voluntary exercise will increase (not change) rates of remission from clinical depression. This is derived from other sources, not from your results. • What sort of background information do I need to provide? - Why is this study important? - How did I formulate my alternative hypothesis (expectations)? - What information is needed to understand/justify the objectives? Objectives should flow from the background
How to organize your work
• Organize into sections • Organize into paragraphs, by topic • Sentences must link to each other, and must be correctly structured
Verb tense in the results section
• Past tense is used when describing your findings • Present tense implies generalization and is often used when stating conclusions (objective conclusions)
Conciseness: remove unnecessary prepositions
• Prepositions indicate relationships between words - Often used to indicate direction, time, or location - Cat in the laundry hamper; driving to the store; Child of the mayor • Often misused, with clunky results • TIP: Watch for how you use "of", "to", "in", "for" etc.
Storytelling in the Results section
• The results section should be composed like a story - Engaging format - Easier for audience to follow and recall • Events within a story are connected to one another • Events in a story flow logically • For each experiment, explain to the reader: - What you did and why you did it - What you observed and what you objectively conclude
Where will you find the experimental details?
• Usually called Methods or Materials and Methods, typically found after the Introduction or the Discussion - Cell Press: was "Experimental Procedures"; now "STAR Methods" • Name of section and level of detail varies between journals - Journals that are available both in print and online: Methods in printed version may be a brief summary; a more detailed version is often made available as an online supplement. E.g., Supplementary Methods, Online Methods, SI Materials & Methods - Online journals typically include full Methods sections in the paper - Nature journals: PDF includes printed version and full Methods
Results section checklist
❑Do your results address the objectives posed in your Introduction? ❑Are methods provided for all of the data reported in your Results? ❑Are the trends reported in your Results clearly visible to the reader in the Figure(s)/Table(s) ❑Does your paper have internal consistency between all sections? ❑Did you double check all of the above?