Research Methods Chapter #1

After an initial study, what are some of the further questions scientists might ask in their research?

"Why does this occur?" "When does this happen the most?" "For whom does this apply?" "What are the limits?"

Falsifiability

A feature of a scientific theory, in which it is possible to collect data that will prove the theory wrong.

Journal

A monthly or quarterly periodical containing peer-reviewed articles on a specific academic discipline or subdiscipline, written for a scholarly audience.

Evidence-based treatment

A psychotherapy technique whose effectiveness has been supported by empirical research.

Data

A set of observations representing the values of some variable, collected from one or more research studies.

Hypothesis

A statement of the specific relationship between a study's variables that the researcher expects to observe if a theory is accurate. Also called prediction.

Theory

A statement or set of statements that describes general principles about how variables relate to one another.

Explain the difference between basic research and applied research, and describe how the two interact?

Applied research is done with a practical problem in mind; the researchers hope their findings will be directly applied to the solution of that problem in particular real-world context. Basic research is not intended to address a specific, practical problem; the goal is to enhance the general body of knowledge. In most cases, solid basic research is an important basis for later, applied studies.

What happens to a theory when the data DO NOT support the theory's hypotheses? What happens to a theory when the data DO support the theory's hypotheses?

Data that match the theory's hypotheses strengthen the researcher's confidence in the theory When the data do NOT match the theory's hypotheses, however, the results indicate that the theory needs to be revised.

What are two ways that journalists might distort the science they attempt to publicize?

Journalists can create dramatic stories Stories might be dumbed down, to be more accessible to audience

Journalism

News and commentary published or broadcast in the popular media and produced for a general audience.

Translational Research

Research that uses knowledge derived from basic research to develop and test solutions to real-world problems. See also applied research, basic research.

Basic Research

Research whose goal is to enhance the general body of knowledge, without regard for direct application to practical problems. See also applied research, translational research.

Applied Research

Research whose goal is to find a solution to a particular real-world problem. See also basic research, translational research.

Parsimony

The degree to which a theory provides the simplest explanation of some phenomenon. In the context of investigating a claim, the simplest explanation of a pattern of data; the best explanation that requires making the fewest exceptions or qualifications.

What are the benefits when scientists public their data?

The general public can learn what psychologists really do

Empiricism

The use of verifiable evidence as the basis for conclusions; collecting data systematically and using it to develop, support, or challenge a theory. Also called empirical method or empirical research.

Weight of the Evidence

a conclusion drawn from reviewing scientific literature and considering the proportion of studies that is consistent with a theory.

When the data from a study do not support the theory behind the study's hypothesis, what does that mean for the theory? a. The theory should be revised. b. The theory should be discarded. c. The theory should be made more parsimonious. d. The theory is disproven.

a. The theory should be revised. FEEDBACK: The Theory Data Cycle — Theories need to be revised when they are not supported by data.

Which of the following is an example of basic research? a. a study investigating whether children of divorced parents are more likely to be divorced themselves b. a study investigating the effectiveness of a new treatment for depression c. a study investigating whether a memory-enhancing strategy found to improve recall in the lab also helps third graders learn multiplication d. a study investigating whether children learn more quickly with a new instructional method

a. a study investigating whether children of divorced parents are more likely to be divorced themselves

Seligman (1975, 1991) proposed that animals who cannot escape an aversive outcome don't even try to avoid the aversive experience later, when they can escape it, because they don't perceive themselves as having control ("learned helplessness"). Latecia thinks this concept may apply to people's working conditions. She conducts a study and has 20 research participants work in an office space with some dilapidated supplies (e.g., pens that barely write, crumpled papers). The participants are split into two rooms. In one work room, Latecia offers to replace any of the run-down supplies with newer items. In another work room, Latecia tells the participants that they have to work with what they have. After a few days of working with this set-up, both groups' work spaces now include both the old supplies as well as new supplies. Latecia predicts that the participants who had to work with the dilapidated supplies for the first few days of the study will continue to use the less functional supplies on the last day, even when there are new supplies available in the room. Seligman's proposal that "animals who cannot escape an aversive outcome don't even try to avoid the aversive experience later, when they can escape it, because they don't perceive themselves as having control" would best be described as which of the following? a. a theory b. data c. a hypothesis d. a law

a. a theory FEEDBACK: The Theory-Data Cycle — Seligman's work is a theory as it is supported by data, is falsifiable, and is parsimonious.

What type of research is done with a practical problem in mind? a. applied research b. exploratory research c. translational research d. basic research

a. applied research FEEDBACK: The Basic-Applied Research Cycle — Basic research is intended to enhance the general body of knowledge and translational research bridges between basic research and applications, while applied research starts out with a particular problem in mind.

To be an empiricist, one should: a. base one's conclusions on direct observations b. strive for parsimony c. be sure that one's research can be applied in a real-world setting d. discuss one's ideas in a public setting, such as an online chat room

a. base one's conclusions on direct observations

Psychological scientists base their conclusions on the evidence. They collect data and use it to develop, support, or challenge a theory. This approach is known as ____________. a. empiricism b. parsimony c. falsifiability d. the peer-review process

a. empiricism

A statement, or set of statements, that describes general principles about how variables relate to one another is a ________________. a. theory b. hypothesis c. prediction d. set of observations

a. theory FEEDBACK: Theory, Prediction, and Data — This is the definition of theory.

What is one way to avoid being misled by journalism reports on scientific research? a. Accept that everything you read in a popular press article is true. b. Consult the source of the article — the original scientific findings. c. Use your own gut feeling to decide whether what you read in a popular press article is true. d. Don't believe anything you read in journalism reports — assume the journalist's report is completely wrong.

b. Consult the source of the article — the original scientific findings. FEEDBACK: The Peer-Review Cycle — Consulting the original scientific findings is a good way to avoid being misled by journalism reports.

Daniel's teacher tells him that his theory about dating is not strong because it is not falsifiable. What does she mean? a. Daniel's theory has already been tested, and the evidence did not support the theory. b. Daniel's theory cannot be disproven. c. Daniel's theory is too complicated. d. Daniel's theory has already been put forth by another psychologist.

b. Daniel's theory cannot be disproven. FEEDBACK: What Makes a Good Theory — Good theories are falsifiable, meaning that they can be disproven.

Which of the following characteristics sets scientific journals apart from magazines? a. They have editors. b. They are peer-reviewed. c. They have multiple contributors. d. They come out periodically, usually once a month.

b. They are peer-reviewed. FEEDBACK: The Peer Review Cycle — While a magazine has an editor, articles and information aren't subject to scrutiny by experts in the field before publication.

Which of the following jobs most likely involves producer-of-research skills rather than consumer-of-research skills? a. police officer b. university professor c. physician d. journalist

b. University professor

Why is publication an important part of the empirical process? a. because publication enables practitioners to read the research and use it in applied settings b. because publication contributes to making empirical observations independently verifiable c. because journalists can make the knowledge available to the general public d. because publication is the first step of the theory-data cycle

b. because publication contributes to making empirical observations independently verifiable

Dimitri is interested in understanding the effects of sleep deprivation on short-term memory. Which of the following is an empirical approach Dimitri could take to answer this question? a. ask his psychology teacher for his opinion on the effects of sleep deprivation on short-term memory b. design and execute a study which measures short-term memory function following different amounts of sleep c. watch several movies about sleep deprivation and make a strong, logical argument about the effects of sleep deprivation on short-term memory, based on the films d. consider his own experiences with sleep and memory

b. design and execute a study which measures short-term memory function following different amounts of sleep FEEDBACK: Theory, Prediction, and Data — Empiricism involves collecting data to develop, support, or challenge a theory.

Which of the following is a common way that journalists misrepresent science when they write about it for a popular audience? a. recalculating and correcting the published statistics b. exaggerating the strength of the findings c. interviewing the researcher who conducted the research d. clearly reporting the findings of the study

b. exaggerating the strength of the findings

Which of the following is primarily a consumer of research information? a. economist b. marriage and family counselor c. biochemist d. systems analyst

b. marriage and family counselor FEEDBACK: Information Producers, Information Consumers — While it is possible for a marriage and family counselor to be a producer of research, it isn't common.

"All other things being equal, the simplest solution is the best." Which principle does this describe? a. evidence-based treatment b. parsimony c. translational research d. weight of the evidence

b. parsimony FEEDBACK: What Makes a Good Theory — This is the definition of parsimony.

Franchesca read about Elliot et al.'s (2007) study in which students scored lower on a cognitive test when the test had a red booklet cover. Franchesca is interested in the idea that the color red influences the perception of caution. Franchesca decides to conduct a similar study in which she has students rate themselves on several achievement-related characteristics, including critical reasoning skills, vocabulary, and math ability. Like the original study, the students write their self-ratings in booklets of either red, green, or white color. Franchesca predicts that, in line with the original study, students with red booklets would rate themselves lower than students with white or green booklets. Franchesca runs the study and finds that the results match her prediction. Franchesca writes up her experiment and submits it to a journal to be published. What is this process called? a. journal-to-journalism b. the peer-review process c. applied research d. the theory-data cycle

b. the peer-review process FEEDBACK: The Peer-Review Cycle — She is starting the process of telling the scientific world about her findings.

Franchesca read about Elliot et al.'s (2007) study in which students scored lower on a cognitive test when the test had a red booklet cover. Franchesca is interested in the idea that the color red influences the perception of caution. Franchesca decides to conduct a similar study in which she has students rate themselves on several achievement-related characteristics, including critical reasoning skills, vocabulary, and math ability. Like the original study, the students write their self-ratings in booklets of either red, green, or white color. Franchesca predicts that, in line with the original study, students with red booklets would rate themselves lower than students with white or green booklets. Franchesca runs the study and finds that the results match her prediction. Franchesca's process of conducting a study to evaluate whether the influence of the color red extends to self-ratings can best be described as which of the following? a. the peer-review process b. the theory-data cycle c. journal-to-journalism d. applied research

b. the theory-data cycle FEEDBACK: The Theory-Data Cycle — Her findings add further support to the theory.

After reading about Harlow's contact comfort theory, Dr. Borden wonders if these findings would apply to touch and cuddling speeding up weight gain in premature babies in the neonatal intensive care unit. He designs a study to test this idea. What type of research is Dr. Borden's study? a. basic research b. translational research c. predictive research d. applied research

b. translational research FEEDBACK: The Basic Applied Research Cycle — Since Dr. Borden's research is connecting Harlow's basic research to an application, it is translational.

Which of the following is true of publishing in the field of psychology? a. Findings must be published in the popular press. b. Publishing in scientific journals is not a rigorous process. c. Publishing in psychology involves a peer-review process. d. Studies with obvious flaws often are included in scientific journals.

c. Publishing in psychology involves a peer-review process.

Which of the following is true of publishing in the field of psychology? a. Studies with obvious flaws often are included in scientific journals. b. Publishing in scientific journals is not a rigorous process. c. Publishing in psychology involves a peer-review process. d. Findings must be published in the popular press.

c. Publishing in psychology involves a peer-review process. FEEDBACK: The Peer-Review Cycle — The peer-review process in the field of psychology is rigorous and keeps obviously flawed studies from being included in scientific journals.

Which of the following is true of the research process? a. A single study can debunk a theory if the data is inconsistent. b. Only one study is needed to be confident about a research finding. c. Researchers rarely stop at one study — they usually follow up on findings with additional studies. d. If a research study's findings are consistent with the theory, that is proof that the theory is valid.

c. Researchers rarely stop at one study — they usually follow up on findings with additional studies. FEEDBACK: The Theory-Data Cycle — A single study is not sufficient to disprove or prove a theory. Generally many studies are done to support or disprove a theory.

Some theories are better than others. Which of the following is NOT considered a feature of a good theory? a. The theory is supported by the data. b. The theory is parsimonious. c. The theory makes sense intuitively. d. The theory is falsifiable.

c. The theory makes sense intuitively. FEEDBACK: What Makes a Good Theory? — Good theories are falsifiable, parsimonious, and supported by the data.

Which of the following could be considered a source of empirical evidence? a. common sense b. an expert opinion c. a thermometer d. a logical argument

c. a thermometer FEEDBACK: The Theory Data Cycle — Only the thermometer could be used to produce empirical data.

Research done specifically to add to our general understanding of psychology is known as ______________. a. applied research b. quantitative research c. basic research d. translational research

c. basic research

Research done specifically to add to our general understanding of psychology is known as ______________. a. quantitative research b. translational research c. basic research d. applied research

c. basic research FEEDBACK: The Basic-Applied Research Cycle — This is the definition of basic research.

Psychological scientists base their conclusions on the evidence. They collect data and use it to develop, support, or challenge a theory. This approach is known as ____________. a. the peer-review process b. falsifiability c. empiricism d. parsimony

c. empiricism FEEDBACK: Psychology Is a Way of Thinking — As empiricists, psychologists know what they know because they have conducted studies on people and animals acting in natural environments or in specially designed situations.

Which of the following is a common way that journalists misrepresent science when they write about it for a popular audience? a. clearly reporting the findings of the study b. interviewing the researcher who conducted the research c. exaggerating the strength of the findings d. recalculating and correcting the published statistics

c. exaggerating the strength of the findings FEEDBACK: The Journal-to-Journalism Cycle — Journalists make scientific research more accessible to the public. They tend to exaggerate the strengths of the finding, not change the statistics. Clearly reporting the study or interviewing the researcher would not be misrepresenting the science.

Franchesca read about Elliot et al.'s (2007) study in which students scored lower on a cognitive test when the test had a red booklet cover. Franchesca is interested in the idea that the color red influences the perception of caution. Franchesca decides to conduct a similar study in which she has students rate themselves on several achievement-related characteristics, including critical reasoning skills, vocabulary, and math ability. Like the original study, the students write their self-ratings in booklets of either red, green, or white color. Franchesca predicts that, in line with the original study, students with red booklets would rate themselves lower than students with white or green booklets. Franchesca runs the study and finds that the results match her prediction. The data matched Franchesca's prediction. What conclusion can Franchesca make? a. The theory has been proven. b. The theory is false. c. The theory is true. d. The data support the theory

d. The data support the theory FEEDBACK: The Theory-Data Cycle — Theories cannot be proven. Her data supports the theory.

A statement, or set of statements, that describes general principles about how variables relate to one another is a(n): a. prediction b. hypothesis c. empirical observation d. theory

d. Theory

Seligman (1975, 1991) proposed that animals who cannot escape an aversive outcome don't even try to avoid the aversive experience later, when they can escape it, because they don't perceive themselves as having control ("learned helplessness"). Latecia thinks this concept may apply to people's working conditions. She conducts a study and has 20 research participants work in an office space with some dilapidated supplies (e.g., pens that barely write, crumpled papers). The participants are split into two rooms. In one work room, Latecia offers to replace any of the run-down supplies with newer items. In another work room, Latecia tells the participants that they have to work with what they have. After a few days of working with this set-up, both groups' work spaces now include both the old supplies as well as new supplies. Latecia predicts that the participants who had to work with the dilapidated supplies for the first few days of the study will continue to use the less functional supplies on the last day, even when there are new supplies available in the room. Latecia's prediction that "the participants who had to work with the dilapidated supplies for the first few days of the study will continue to use the less functional supplies on the last day" would best be described as which of the following? a. a law b. data c. a theory d. a hypothesis

d. a hypothesis FEEDBACK: The Theory-Data Cycle — She is hypothesizing when she makes her prediction.

Which of the following is an example of basic research? a. a study investigating the effectiveness of a new treatment for depression b. a study investigating whether children learn more quickly with a new instructional method c. a study investigating whether a memory-enhancing strategy found to improve recall in the lab also helps third graders learn multiplication d. a study investigating whether children of divorced parents are more likely to be divorced themselves

d. a study investigating whether children of divorced parents are more likely to be divorced themselves FEEDBACK: The Basic-Applied Research Cycle — This study doesn't have any direct application to inform real world practice.

Which of the following research questions best illustrates an example of basic research? a. has our company's new marketing campaign led to an increase in sales? b. how satisfied are our patients with their wait-time in the waiting room? how satisfied are our patients with the sensitivity of the nursing staff? c. do neuro-boosing soft drugs really work? d. can 2-month-old human infants discern the different between four objects and six objects?

d. can 2-month-old human infants discern the different between four objects and six objects?

Franchesca read about Elliot et al.'s (2007) study in which students scored lower on a cognitive test when the test had a red booklet cover. Franchesca is interested in the idea that the color red influences the perception of caution. Franchesca decides to conduct a similar study in which she has students rate themselves on several achievement-related characteristics, including critical reasoning skills, vocabulary, and math ability. Like the original study, the students write their self-ratings in booklets of either red, green, or white color. Franchesca predicts that, in line with the original study, students with red booklets would rate themselves lower than students with white or green booklets. Franchesca runs the study and finds that the results match her prediction. Which of the following is the data in this study? a. the prediction that "students with red booklets would rate themselves lower" b. the statement that "the color red influences the perception of caution" c. the number of students in the study d. the self-ratings of the students

d. the self-ratings of the students FEEDBACK: Theory, Prediction, and Data — These are her set of observations to check her predictions.

Which of the following outlines the correct order of steps in the theory-data cycle? a. research design, data, theory, hypothesis b. hypothesis, research design, theory, data c. data, hypothesis, research design, theory d. theory, research design, hypothesis, data

d. theory, research design, hypothesis, data FEEDBACK: The Theory-Data Cycle — The Theory-Data Cycle involves generating a research design from a theory, developing a hypothesis, and collecting data to test that hypothesis.